UNIT -I Introduction

 Mobile computing is a form of human–computer interaction by which a

computer is expected to be transported during normal usage.
 Mobile computing has three aspects:
1. mobile communication
2. mobile hardware
3. mobile software

Introduction of Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing is a technology that provides an environment that enables users to
transmit data from one device to another device without the use of any physical link or
cables.

In other words, you can say that mobile computing allows transmission of data, voice and
video via a computer or any other wireless-enabled device without being connected to a fixed
physical link. In this technology, data transmission is done wirelessly with the help of
wireless devices such as mobiles, laptops etc.

This is only because of Mobile Computing technology that you can access and transmit data
from any remote locations without being present there physically. Mobile computing
technology provides a vast coverage diameter for communication. It is one of the fastest and
most reliable sectors of the computing technology field.

The concept of Mobile Computing can be divided into three parts:

 Mobile Communication
 Mobile Hardware
 Mobile Software

Mobile Communication

Mobile Communication specifies a framework that is responsible for the working of mobile
computing technology. In this case, mobile communication refers to an infrastructure that
ensures seamless and reliable communication among wireless devices. This framework
ensures the consistency and reliability of communication between wireless devices. The
mobile communication framework consists of communication devices such as protocols,
services, bandwidth, and portals necessary to facilitate and support the stated services. These
devices are responsible for delivering a smooth communication process.

Mobile communication can be divided in the following four types:

1. Fixed and Wired

2. Fixed and Wireless
3. Mobile and Wired
4. Mobile and Wireless
Fixed and Wired: In Fixed and Wired configuration, the devices are fixed at a position, and
they are connected through a physical link to communicate with other devices.

For Example, Desktop Computer.

Fixed and Wireless: In Fixed and Wireless configuration, the devices are fixed at a position,
and they are connected through a wireless link to make communication with other devices.

For Example, Communication Towers, WiFi router

Mobile and Wired: In Mobile and Wired configuration, some devices are wired, and some
are mobile. They altogether make communication with other devices.

For Example, Laptops.

Mobile and Wireless: In Mobile and Wireless configuration, the devices can communicate
with each other irrespective of their position. They can also connect to any network without
the use of any wired device.

For Example, WiFi Dongle.

Mobile Hardware

Mobile hardware consists of mobile devices or device components that can be used to receive
or access the service of mobility. Examples of mobile hardware can be smartphones, laptops,
portable PCs, tablet PCs, Personal Digital Assistants, etc.
These devices are inbuilt with a receptor medium that can send and receive signals. These
devices are capable of operating in full-duplex. It means they can send and receive signals at
the same time. They don't have to wait until one device has finished communicating for the
other device to initiate communications.

Mobile Software

Mobile software is a program that runs on mobile hardware. This is designed to deal capably
with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. This is the operating system
for the appliance of mobile devices. In other words, you can say it the heart of the mobile
systems. This is an essential component that operates the mobile device.

This provides portability to mobile devices, which ensures wireless communication.

Applications of Mobile Computing

Following is a list of some significant fields in which mobile computing is generally applied:

 Web or Internet access.

 Global Position System (GPS).
 Emergency services.
 Entertainment services.
 Educational services.

Or

Mobile Computing : Introduction

 A technology that is capable of providing an environment which enables users to
transmit data from one device to other device without the use of any physical
link/cables is known as Mobile Computing.
 It means, data transmission is done wireless-ly with the help of wireless devices
such as mobiles, laptops etc.
  Whenever any device is connected to a network without being connected
physically over a link or cable, data transmission such as messages, voice
recording, videos etc. can be done be done by using the concept of mobile
computing.
 Mobile Computing technology helps users to access and transmit data from any
remote locations without being present there physically.
 Thus, having such a big coverage diameter, it is one of the fastest and most
reliable sectors of computing technology field.

Mobile Communication : Introduction

 Mobile Communication is the framework that is responsible behind the working

of mobile computing technology.
 It ensures the consistency and reliability of communication process through this
framework.
 Mobile communication framework includes communication devise such as
mobiles, laptops, as rules of conduct, fitness etc. They are responsible for
delivering of smooth communication process.
 Mobile communication can be of one of the following form as mentioned below.

Mobile Communication

1. Mobile and Wired : In this configuration, Some of the devices are wired and
some are mobile in nature. For Example : Laptops.
2. Fixed and Wired : In this configuration, The devices are fixed at a position and
are connected through a physical link for communication. For Example :
Office/Desktop Computer.
3. Mobile and Wireless : In this configuration, devices can communicate(data
transmission) with each other irrespective of their position and can connect to
any network without the use of any wired device. For Example : WiFi Dongle.

Applications : Mobile Computing

 Some of the major field in which mobile computing can be applied are:
o Web or Internet access.
 o Global Position System(GPS).
o Emergency services.
o Entertainment services
o Educational services.

Mobile computing characteristics

Following are a few of the fundamental characteristics of mobile computing:

 User mobility (portability) 

The simplicity with which a gadget can be moved between multiple environments or within a
learning environment. The same service should be usable while the user moves from one
physical place to another.

 Network mobility

The same service should be accessible to users as they switch between networks.

 Bearer mobility

The user should be able to switch between bearers while still receiving the same service.

 Device mobility

The user should be able to switch between devices and continue using the same service.

Infrastructure, hardware, and software technologies are all combined in mobile

computing

 Session mobility

It should be possible for a user session to switch between different user-agent environments.

 Service mobility

The user should be able to switch between services.

 Social interactivity

The capacity for user collaboration and data sharing.

Mobile computing types

Infrastructure, hardware, and software technologies are all combined in mobile computing.
The following are the types of mobile computing:
  Mobile infrastructure: The technical components that allow devices to communicate
are called infrastructure. The wireless networks, protocols, and data formats are all
parts of the mobile infrastructure.
 Mobile hardware: The mobile hardware consists of the user-interactive hardware
and the actual mobile device. Cell phones, laptops, tablets, and wearable computers,
together with the corresponding chargers and peripherals, fall under this
category.Mobile computing devices today come in a wide range of capabilities,
and with each new model, their capabilities advance

 Mobile software: Mobile software includes user-facing programs like mobile

browsers and e-commerce programs as well as mobile operating systems (OSes),
which are programs that operate on mobile devices.

Mobile computing examples

Here are some examples of mobile computing in our daily life:

 For instance, if someone decides to move from London to New York, he or she can
use the corporate application online from either location,
 If a GSM network issue prevents a user from accessing the WAP bearer, he or she
should still be able to use the voice or SMS bearers to access the same corporate
application,
 Assume someone uses a computer for work. Thanks to mobile computing, one might
utilize mobile devices to access business applications during the day while on the
move.

Mobile computing applications

How mobile computing is used in daily life? Mobile computing and its applications are a
general term for a group of devices that can access wireless network infrastructure anytime
and from any location to access transmitted data like voice, video, and text. These devices
also support mobile communication and include mobile hardware, software, and hardware.
Our quality of life has increased as a result of these.

Traffic

If we need to be aware of the road situation, the most recent news, or if driving makes us
more anxious, we can play music while receiving other crucial broadcast information via
digital audio broadcasting (DAB). With a global positioning system, we can determine our
precise location even if we forget the route (GPS).

If you have an accident, you can phone the service provider’s emergency line to notify the
police and an ambulance, which can help with organization and help you save both time and
money.

Emergencies situation

An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection can be hired to play a crucial role in
the medical field. With its support, important information about injured people can be
transported. The helpful action is to get ready for a certain accident and visit a doctor for a
diagnostic.

Only wireless networks are functional for communication in natural disasters like
earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, and fires. Only wireless, decentralized ad hoc networks can
endure under the worst circumstances. a way for mobile computing to readily manage
emergency situations.

Use in business

From a business perspective, a CEO can make a presentation in front of their clients with this
computing system while accessing the most recent market news. With the aid of a video
conference, any topic can be discussed without restriction.Perhaps participating in a good
course would be most beneficial for you if these applications seem

On the other hand, if a salesperson on the road has to access the company database, he can
retrieve the information using a wireless device and preserve the consistency of the database.
Because of this, every employee is informed and current.

Credit card verification

The most secure method of credit card verification is through mobile computing. Regarding
Sale terminals (POS), when customers purchase items from malls and other small shops and
pay their bills using a credit card, a network must be established between the POS terminal
and the bank’s central computer.

Over a secure wireless network, the card’s credentials must be quickly verified; if they match,
the transaction can move forward; if not, it is denied. This speeds up transaction times and
reduces the load on the POS network.

Infotainment

Wireless networks can transmit the most up-to-date information to relevant locations and
download concert information in the morning from anywhere a concert takes place.

For instance, enabling ad-hoc gaming networks as soon as players meet to play together is a
rising area of wireless network applications. Consequently, wireless computing makes
infotainment easier.

Best mobile computing courses in 2022

You should take beginning computer science classes and courses on data structures and
algorithms. In these beginning courses, you will learn about object-oriented programming, a
key programming technique utilized in creating web and mobile applications.

Perhaps participating in a good course would be most beneficial for you if the above
applications seemed challenging to implement.

You can check Coursera for related topics like Parallel, Concurrent, and Distributed
Programming in Java Specialization, and more.
Best mobile computing master’s degrees in 2022

Mobile computing degrees could improve your career. These are some of the best mobile
computing master’s degrees in 2022:

 University of Southampton / Electronic Engineering with Mobile & Secure Systems

MEng (Hons)
 University of Greenwich / Digital Media Design and Development BSc (Hons)
 University of the West of Scotland / Web and Mobile Development BSc (Hons)

What language is used in mobile computing?

The mobile industry has expanded significantly during the past ten years, while coding has
developed into a real industry. Most businesses are now transferring their operations to
mobile devices or creating business apps.

Several businesses, like Instagram, WhatsApp, and others, have grown into billion-dollar
firms with enormous internet popularity due to this burgeoning industry.

Are you wonder what programming language for artificial intelligence is the best, too?

We showcase some of the best 5 mobile computing languages:

HTML5

In the world of mobile applications, it is one of the best programming languages. An

individual should be well-versed in HTML coding. Only when a person chooses an
appropriate coder will they receive a successful result if they are looking for rationalized
parameters and immaculate feedback. Due to the industry’s high demand, HTML coders are
paid excellent wages.

Swift

The kit includes the newest programming language. Swift is a type of script with useful code.
This script is used to create the majority of Apple Platform applications. Swift is a popular
option among programmers, which you come across while taking the course on iOS Mobile
Development. It has become one of the essential language abilities if you wish to work in the
iOS development industry.

Java

It’s a hybrid language utilized in both the app and the website. Java’s coding is simpler than
other languages but may also be highly difficult. The mobile market has a huge demand for
Java developers. Most mobile development companies hire applicants who are fluent in this
language.

Python

In the mobile app market, there is complex coding. Python coders are also extremely hard to
come by. Python programming is also quite expensive and secure. It is primarily used by
some of the biggest asset management firms in the world, including Morgan Stanley, UBS,
and others.

Annual compensation of between Rs. 6 Lac and Rs. 10 Lac is reasonable for a developer with
five years of experience. In the business, Python developers are one of the best.

What are the advantages of mobile computing?

Our daily lives have undergone a dramatic transformation thanks to mobile computers. The
following are mobile computing’s main benefits:

 Increasing productivity
 Entertainment
 Portability (Location flexibility)

Our daily lives have undergone a dramatic transformation thanks to mobile computers

 Cloud computing
 Saves time
 Streamlining of business processes

What are the disadvantages of mobile computing?

Like everything else, mobile computing has some issues and difficulties:

 Battery consumption
 Small screen sizes
 Inefficient bandwidth
 Network stability
 Protection
 Data management issues

What is the future of mobile computing?

We have entered the mobile computing era. One of the global trends that is advancing the
quickest is the use of web-connected mobile devices. Most of us are now accustomed to using
mobile web access as consumers who have become accustomed to mobile technologies.

With mobile computing, users may work comfortably wherever they choose, provided that
the connection and security issues are considered. Similarly, the availability of fast
connectivity will encourage the usage of mobile computing.

Nowadays, everyone has a smartphone. Smartphones act anything from email machines to
AR-based Pokemon catchers, thanks to the over 6 billion apps accessible on iPhones and
Androids.

However, given the variety of jobs they now carry out, their small size is not ideal.
Furthermore, merely enlarging the screen doesn’t really alleviate this issue, particularly as
more and more people turn to their devices for immersive media experiences.
Smartphone sales growth is currently practically negative, and most cellphones are purchased
as replacement items

Infrastructure, hardware, and software technologies are all combined in mobile

computing

 Session mobility

It should be possible for a user session to switch between different user-agent environments.

 Service mobility

The user should be able to switch between services.

 Social interactivity

The capacity for user collaboration and data sharing.

Mobile computing types

Infrastructure, hardware, and software technologies are all combined in mobile computing.
The following are the types of mobile computing:

 Mobile infrastructure: The technical components that allow devices to communicate

are called infrastructure. The wireless networks, protocols, and data formats are all
parts of the mobile infrastructure.
 Mobile hardware: The mobile hardware consists of the user-interactive hardware
and the actual mobile device. Cell phones, laptops, tablets, and wearable computers,
together with the corresponding chargers and peripherals, fall under this
category.Mobile computing devices today come in a wide range of capabilities,
and with each new model, their capabilities advance

 Mobile software: Mobile software includes user-facing programs like mobile

browsers and e-commerce programs as well as mobile operating systems (OSes),
which are programs that operate on mobile devices.

Mobile computing examples

Here are some examples of mobile computing in our daily life:

 For instance, if someone decides to move from London to New York, he or she can
use the corporate application online from either location,
 If a GSM network issue prevents a user from accessing the WAP bearer, he or she
should still be able to use the voice or SMS bearers to access the same corporate
application,
  Assume someone uses a computer for work. Thanks to mobile computing, one might
utilize mobile devices to access business applications during the day while on the
move.

Mobile computing applications

How mobile computing is used in daily life? Mobile computing and its applications are a
general term for a group of devices that can access wireless network infrastructure anytime
and from any location to access transmitted data like voice, video, and text. These devices
also support mobile communication and include mobile hardware, software, and hardware.
Our quality of life has increased as a result of these.

Traffic

If we need to be aware of the road situation, the most recent news, or if driving makes us
more anxious, we can play music while receiving other crucial broadcast information via
digital audio broadcasting (DAB). With a global positioning system, we can determine our
precise location even if we forget the route (GPS).

If you have an accident, you can phone the service provider’s emergency line to notify the
police and an ambulance, which can help with organization and help you save both time and
money.

Emergencies situation

An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection can be hired to play a crucial role in
the medical field. With its support, important information about injured people can be
transported. The helpful action is to get ready for a certain accident and visit a doctor for a
diagnostic.

Only wireless networks are functional for communication in natural disasters like
earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, and fires. Only wireless, decentralized ad hoc networks can
endure under the worst circumstances. a way for mobile computing to readily manage
emergency situations.

Use in business

From a business perspective, a CEO can make a presentation in front of their clients with this
computing system while accessing the most recent market news. With the aid of a video
conference, any topic can be discussed without restriction.Perhaps participating in a good
course would be most beneficial for you if these applications seem

On the other hand, if a salesperson on the road has to access the company database, he can
retrieve the information using a wireless device and preserve the consistency of the database.
Because of this, every employee is informed and current.

Credit card verification

The most secure method of credit card verification is through mobile computing. Regarding
Sale terminals (POS), when customers purchase items from malls and other small shops and
pay their bills using a credit card, a network must be established between the POS terminal
and the bank’s central computer.

Over a secure wireless network, the card’s credentials must be quickly verified; if they match,
the transaction can move forward; if not, it is denied. This speeds up transaction times and
reduces the load on the POS network.

Infotainment

Wireless networks can transmit the most up-to-date information to relevant locations and
download concert information in the morning from anywhere a concert takes place.

For instance, enabling ad-hoc gaming networks as soon as players meet to play together is a
rising area of wireless network applications. Consequently, wireless computing makes
infotainment easier.

Best mobile computing courses in 2022

You should take beginning computer science classes and courses on data structures and
algorithms. In these beginning courses, you will learn about object-oriented programming, a
key programming technique utilized in creating web and mobile applications.

Perhaps participating in a good course would be most beneficial for you if the above
applications seemed challenging to implement.

You can check Coursera for related topics like Parallel, Concurrent, and Distributed
Programming in Java Specialization, and more.

Best mobile computing master’s degrees in 2022

Mobile computing degrees could improve your career. These are some of the best mobile
computing master’s degrees in 2022:

 University of Southampton / Electronic Engineering with Mobile & Secure Systems

MEng (Hons)
 University of Greenwich / Digital Media Design and Development BSc (Hons)
 University of the West of Scotland / Web and Mobile Development BSc (Hons)

What language is used in mobile computing?

The mobile industry has expanded significantly during the past ten years, while coding has
developed into a real industry. Most businesses are now transferring their operations to
mobile devices or creating business apps.

Several businesses, like Instagram, WhatsApp, and others, have grown into billion-dollar
firms with enormous internet popularity due to this burgeoning industry.
Are you wonder what programming language for artificial intelligence is the best, too?

We showcase some of the best 5 mobile computing languages:

HTML5

In the world of mobile applications, it is one of the best programming languages. An

individual should be well-versed in HTML coding. Only when a person chooses an
appropriate coder will they receive a successful result if they are looking for rationalized
parameters and immaculate feedback. Due to the industry’s high demand, HTML coders are
paid excellent wages.

Swift

The kit includes the newest programming language. Swift is a type of script with useful code.
This script is used to create the majority of Apple Platform applications. Swift is a popular
option among programmers, which you come across while taking the course on iOS Mobile
Development. It has become one of the essential language abilities if you wish to work in the
iOS development industry.

Java

It’s a hybrid language utilized in both the app and the website. Java’s coding is simpler than
other languages but may also be highly difficult. The mobile market has a huge demand for
Java developers. Most mobile development companies hire applicants who are fluent in this
language.

Python

In the mobile app market, there is complex coding. Python coders are also extremely hard to
come by. Python programming is also quite expensive and secure. It is primarily used by
some of the biggest asset management firms in the world, including Morgan Stanley, UBS,
and others.

Annual compensation of between Rs. 6 Lac and Rs. 10 Lac is reasonable for a developer with
five years of experience. In the business, Python developers are one of the best.

What are the advantages of mobile computing?

Our daily lives have undergone a dramatic transformation thanks to mobile computers. The
following are mobile computing’s main benefits:

 Increasing productivity
 Entertainment
 Portability (Location flexibility)

Our daily lives have undergone a dramatic transformation thanks to mobile computers

 Cloud computing
  Saves time
 Streamlining of business processes

What are the disadvantages of mobile computing?

Like everything else, mobile computing has some issues and difficulties:

 Battery consumption
 Small screen sizes
 Inefficient bandwidth
 Network stability
 Protection
 Data management issues

What is the future of mobile computing?

We have entered the mobile computing era. One of the global trends that is advancing the
quickest is the use of web-connected mobile devices. Most of us are now accustomed to using
mobile web access as consumers who have become accustomed to mobile technologies.

With mobile computing, users may work comfortably wherever they choose, provided that
the connection and security issues are considered. Similarly, the availability of fast
connectivity will encourage the usage of mobile computing.

Nowadays, everyone has a smartphone. Smartphones act anything from email machines to
AR-based Pokemon catchers, thanks to the over 6 billion apps accessible on iPhones and
Androids.

However, given the variety of jobs they now carry out, their small size is not ideal.
Furthermore, merely enlarging the screen doesn’t really alleviate this issue, particularly as
more and more people turn to their devices for immersive media experiences.

Smartphone sales growth is currently practically negative, and most cellphones are purchased
as replacement items

Application of Mobile Computing

The importance of Mobile Communication has been highlighted in many

fields. Some of which a few are described below:
1. Business:
o Managers can use mobile computers say, critical presentations to
major customers. They can access the latest market share
information. To enable the company to keep track of all activities
of their travelling employees, to keep databases consistent etc.
With wireless access, the laptop can be turned into a true mobile
office, but efficient and powerful synchronization mechanisms
are needed to ensure data consistency.
2. Infotainment:
o Now a days there is a huge market of Entertainment for humans
while they are on move. Watching movies, listening music and
playing a game is become a part of life for entertainment. In this
case mobile computing performs a major role to provide
uninterrupted internet connection to digital devices.
3. Replacement of Wired Networks:
o wireless networks can also be used to replace wired networks.
e.g., remote sensors, for tradeshows, or in historic buildings. Due
to economic reasons, it is often impossible to wire remote sensors
for weather forecasts, earthquake detection, or to provide
environmental information.
4. Credit Card Verification
o At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and supermarkets,
when customers use credit cards for transactions, the
intercommunication required between the bank central computer
and the POS terminal, in order to effect verification of the card
usage, can take place quickly and securely over cellular channels
using a mobile computer unit. This can speed up the transaction
process and relieve congestion at the POS terminals.
5. Emergencies:
o An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection to a
hospital can carry vital information about injured persons to the
hospital from the scene of the accident. All the necessary steps for
this particular type of accident can be prepared and specialists
can be consulted for an early diagnosis.
6. Tourism:
o Tourism is the largest industry for all the countries. Mostly
tourism places are at remote location from the developed cities. In
this case wireless communication performs a vital role in
connectivity for people who are enjoying their tour. They are
continuously in contact with the family and friends and searching
for travel services, hotel services food services etc.
7. E-Governance:
o Governments are using many communication services to update
their rural areas. To provide health, education, safety , farming ,
weather forecast and many other related information to
governance, governments are connecting rural areas with head
quarter offices for monitoring.
8. Education:
o 2020 COVID Pandemic teach us a great lesson to provide distance
education to all who can not reach to the college or schools.
Wireless communication and digital devices are the backbone for
such distance learning concept. Now all private and public
 industries are moving towards the online education with help of
good wireless connectivity.
9. Manage Personal Records :
o Some mobile applications allows user to manage their personal
records such as day to day activities, some useful notes, etc…
10. Social Media and Group Message :
o Some mobile applications allows user to keep in touch with their
friends and relatives by sending messages, images, audio and
video clips.
11. Transaction :
o Some mobile applications allow the facility of transaction such as
recharge mobile, pay bills etc…
In today’s techno-crazy world almost all the peoples required mobile
computing services in one or another way. There are lots of applications, and
services available in the world of mobile computing. Following are the
application of Mobile Computing:
These are the just few examples of wireless communication. So many new
areas are growing towards the internet facility to break the wall and put them
to the space of world.

Generations of wireless communication

 Last Updated : 11 Oct, 2022
 Read
 Discuss
We have made very huge improvements in wireless communication and have
expanded the capabilities of our wireless communication system. We all have
seen various generations in our life. Let’s discuss them one by one.
0th  Generation:
 Pre-cell phone mobile telephony technology, such as radio telephones
some had in cars before the arrival of cell phones.
 Communication was possible through voice only.
 These mobile telephones were usually mounted in cars or trucks.
1G (1st Generation):
 First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.
 It used analog signals.
 It used an FDD scheme and typically allocated a bandwidth of 25 Mhz.
 The coverage area was small.
 No roaming support between various operators.
 Low sound quality.
 Speed:- 2.4 kbps.
2G (2nd Generation) :
 Shifted from analog to digital.
 It supported voice and SMS both.
  Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely Digital cellular,
Mobile Data, PCS, WLAN,
 Moderate mobile data service.
 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.
 Speed:- 64 kbps.
2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also
introduced and mail services too. Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster
in providing services than 2.5G. It gave faster internet speed up to 128kbps
and also used edge connection. 
3G (3rd Generation) :
 The Internet system was improved.
 Better system and capacity.
 Offers high-speed wireless internet.
 The connection used was UMTS and WCMA.
 Speed:- 2mbps.
4G (4th Generation) :
 IP-based protocols.
 LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.
 Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.
 Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with reasonable
QoS.
 High usability.
 Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.
 HD Quality Streaming.
 Speed:-100mbps.
5G (5th Generation): It is yet to come in many countries but here are some
notable points about 5G.
 Higher data rates.
 Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,
 Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
 Massive network capacity.
 It is 30 times faster than 4G.
 There would be more flexibility in the network.
First Generation (1G) Technology

In this generation of technology, mobile communication is done only through

an analog signal that has been used to transmit the user data. The wireless
industry has gone through a phase of digitization in which many of the
devices that users today use with a wired PC connect to the Internet. 1G
technology was primarily used and designed for voice communication
purposes. The US Army began using VoIP (Voice over IP) technology in the
late 1980s to create a new way of communication for soldiers in wartime, and
this first generation of VOIP systems could be considered a breakthrough in
the field of communications. However, these systems were not practical as
many voice calls were not available, including government communications.
It is an analog voice communication system consisting of two microphones, an
amplifier, and a signal generator/modulator, called Voice Over Internet
Protocol. This method of data transmission enables communication with any
other device by using only the telephone line. When the user connects his
device via the telephone, he will be connected to the other person over the
telephone line. That connection provides both parties with the same
information. So, the receiver and transmitter share the information.
Second Generation (2G) Technology

The first time the digital signal was used in mobile telephony to transmit
signals was in the second generation era of mobile communication. Mobile
phones in this generation were capable of transmitting audio and video. The
technology was used in more than 60 countries and is already well established
in North America and Europe. 2G in a way revolutionized the mobile
communication industry although the network speed is limited to 64kbps lots
of digital information was being shared.

GPRS technology was introduced it became very useful in transmitting more

data through email and other web services that use slightly more network
speed. The text message SMS feature in 2G technology was widely used and
extremely popular at that time and it allowed many users to occupy a
frequency band which made it more efficient.
Third Generation (3G) Technology

In this technology true revolution took place where the network speed was
increased up to 2Mpbs which made high-speed browsing, gaming, email, and
other web services possible to a vast segment of the population. 3G
technology has made a scenario where new mobile phones are developed and
sold with major advertising capabilities. This makes the users a core
demographic and is very important for the mobile service provider. Since all
the existing mobile networks now have to run the latest operating systems
and hardware, the number of mobile phones has increased from about 600
million in 1998 to nearly 10 billion today. This huge number of mobile phones
is changing the face of telecommunications. Today, the mobile operator only
has to sell one million smartphones in a year or one percent of the total sales
in the mobile industry. This created some downside to the technology where
the infrastructure setup for mobile towers and services became high and
mobile phones became costly where a most segment of the population
couldn’t afford to buy.
Fourth Generation (4G) Technology

After the 3G transition, the next evolution took place with the introduction of
mobile broadband and mobile data in the year 2011 where 4G was introduced.
4G was one step higher than the 3G which was considered a revolution. With
4G, carriers can create a “super high speed” network so that even at 2G
speeds it’ll be able to deliver fast, reliable downloads in just 30 seconds. The
network speed in 4G has been increased up to 100Mpbs. This technology
made possible some of the things such as high-speed gaming, High-definition
Mobile Television, Digital Streaming, HD Television services, Cloud
computing, etc. 4G offers faster data speeds at lower prices, in areas that are
underserved by its competitors, and offers a wider variety of cellular
networks. The development of Smartphones became very popular after the
launching of 4G where all the devices manufactured post-2013 supported the
4G feature which made 4G technology reach a wider audience. The 4G
technology is being increasingly rolled out in 3G and 3G-LTE networks. As
the technology matures, the number of devices and applications to support 4G
growth will increase dramatically, from roughly 100 million devices today to
over 1.5 billion devices in 2020.

4G offers a lot of capabilities features to the users such as Advanced user

capabilities like multitasking, rich content browsing, and instant calling. A
new type of multimedia access with Wi-Fi. A new way to upload photos and
videos directly from their memory. Ability to share and view online content
with friends. Ability to transfer content from the mobile device and use it on
the go, etc.
Fifth Generation (5G) Technology

The wireless evolution of 5G is solving the problem of resource allocation by

means of cooperation and coordination. Basically, 5G is the standard of
wireless cellular technology, which was developed by 3GPP. The 5G is
following footsteps of the 3G and 4G technologies. 5G network is based on the
standards which was connecting wireless routers, smartphones, and other
communication devices. 5G is delivering a good improvement in latency,
transmission speed, and flexible deployment. 5G delivers additional
capabilities as compared to the 4G wireless network. The below figure shows
how revolution is done from 2G to 5G network.

5g network

5G supports multiple technologies. Aiming to meet the needs of upcoming

applications, the ambitious specification implies a significant improvement in
performance over 4G. Throughputs of 5G is 10Gbps which was 100 times
faster than 4G. In the below example, we can see the network distribution of
5G as compared to 4G.

5G multiple technologies
A full 5G network is required to implement a new one. Investment of
operators and considering the elapsed time will enable full rollout. 5G
revolution is allowing 5G services to be provided by the existing
infrastructure of LTE. In the 5G revolution, we expect a major transformation
in existing business models and economy, specifically in the vertical sector. 5G
contains customization and a scalable network. As compared to 4G, it will
contain a high KPI. 5G network contains the advanced KPIs in reliability, area
traffic capacity, latency, and in availability.

What is mobile communication technologies?

Mobile technology is technology that goes where the user goes. It consists of
portable two-way communications devices, computing devices and the
networking technology that connects them. Currently, mobile technology is
typified by internet-enabled devices like smartphones, tablets and watches.

What is mobile communication technology example?

A mobile phone (also called mobile cellular network, cell phone or hand
phone) is an example of mobile communication (wireless communication). It
is an electric device used for full duplex two way radio telecommunication
over a cellular network of base stations known as cell site.

Communication Technologies - Mobile

Since the introduction of first commercial mobile phone in 1983 by Motorola,

mobile technology has come a long way. Be it technology, protocols, services
offered or speed, the changes in mobile telephony have been recorded as
generation of mobile communication. Here we will discuss the basic features
of these generations that differentiate it from the previous generations.
1G Technology
1G refers to the first generation of wireless mobile communication where
analog signals were used to transmit data. It was introduced in the US in early
1980s and designed exclusively for voice communication. Some characteristics
of 1G communication are −
 Speeds up to 2.4 kbps
  Poor voice quality
 Large phones with limited battery life
 No data security
2G Technology
2G refers to the second generation of mobile telephony which used digital
signals for the first time. It was launched in Finland in 1991 and used GSM
technology. Some prominent characteristics of 2G communication are −
 Data speeds up to 64 kbps
 Text and multimedia messaging possible
 Better quality than 1G
When GPRS technology was introduced, it enabled web browsing, e-mail
services and fast upload/download speeds. 2G with GPRS is also referred as
2.5G, a step short of next mobile generation.
3G Technology
Third generation (3G) of mobile telephony began with the start of the new
millennium and offered major advancement over previous generations. Some
of the characteristics of this generation are −
 Data speeds of 144 kbps to 2 Mbps
 High speed web browsing
 Running web based applications like video conferencing, multimedia e-
mails, etc.
 Fast and easy transfer of audio and video files
 3D gaming
Every coin has two sides. Here are some downsides of 3G technology −
 Expensive mobile phones
 High infrastructure costs like licensing fees and mobile towers
 Trained personnel required for infrastructure set up
The intermediate generation, 3.5G grouped together dissimilar mobile
telephony and data technologies and paved way for the next generation of
mobile communication.

4G Technology
Keeping up the trend of a new mobile generation every decade, fourth
generation (4G) of mobile communication was introduced in 2011. Its major
characteristics are −
 Speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps
 Mobile web access
 High definition mobile TV
  Cloud computing
 IP telephony
MTP

SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is connection oriented

application layer protocol that is widely used to send and receive email
messages. It was introduced in 1982 by RFC 821 and last updated in 2008 by
RFC 5321. The updated version is most widely used email protocol.

Mail servers and mail transfer agents use SMTP to both send and receive
messages. However, user level applications use it only for sending messages.
For retrieving they use IMAP or POP3 because they provide mail box
management

RFC or Request for Comments is a peer reviewed document jointly published

by Internet Engineering Task Force and the Internet Society. It is written by
researchers and computer scientists describing how the Internet should work
and protocols and systems supporting them.
SMTP
POP3

POP3 or Post Office Protocol Version 3 is an application layer protocol used

by email clients to retrieve email messages from mail servers over TCP/IP
network. POP was designed to move the messages from server to local disk
but version 3 has the option of leaving a copy on the server

POP3 is a very simple protocol to implement but that limits its usage. For
example, POP3 supports only one mail server for each mailbox. It has now has
been made obsolete by modern protocols like IMAP.
IMAP

IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. IMAP was defined by
RFC 3501 to enable email clients to retrieve email messages from mail servers
over a TCP/IP connection. IMAP is designed to retrieve messages from
multiple mail servers and consolidate them all in the user’s mailbox. A typical
example is a corporate client handling multiple corporate accounts through a
local mailbox located on her system.

All modern email clients and servers like Gmail, Outlook and Yahoo Mail
support IMAP or POP3 protocol. These are some advantages that IMAP offers
over POP3 −

Faster response time than POP3

Multiple mail clients connected to a single mailbox simultaneously
 Keep track of message state like read, deleted, starred, replied, etc.
Search for messages on the server

Classification of MAC protocols

 Difficulty Level : Easy
 Last Updated : 25 May, 2020

 Read
 Discuss

MAC protocol is the first protocol layer above the Physical Layer in ad hoc .The primary task
of any MAC protocol is to control the access of the nodes to shared medium.

Classification of MAC protocols :

These are as following below.

1. Contention-based protocols without reservation/scheduling –

o Bandwidth are not reserved.
o No guarantees.
2. Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms –
o Bandwidth is reserved for transmission.
o Guarantees can be given.
3. Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms –
o Distributed scheduling is done between nodes.
o Guarantees can be given.
4. Other protocols –
o Combine multiple features of other protocols.
o It can also use a completely new approach.

1. Contention-based protocols without reservation/scheduling –

 Sender-initiated protocols:
The transmission of packets are initiated by the sender node.
o Single-channel sender initiated. For example, MACAW, FAMA.
o Multiple-channel sender initiated protocols. For example, BTMA, DBTMA,
ICSMA.
  Receiver-initiated protocols:
The connection is initiated by the receiver node. For example, RI-BTMA, MACA-BI,
MARCH.

2. Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms –

 Synchronous protocols:
All node are kept synchronized. For example, D-PRMA, CATA, HRMA, SRMA/PA,
FPRP.
 Asynchronous protocols:
Relative time information is used to achieve effecting reservations. For example,
MACA/PR, RTMAC..
 Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms –
All the nodes are treated equally and no node is get deprived of bandwidth. For
example, Eg. DPS, DWOP, DLPS.

Other protocols –
These MAC protocols do not strictly fall into any above category. For example, MMAC,
MCSMA, PCM, RBAR.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a complex technology, because it requires an
accurate synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver. TDMA is used in digital
mobile radio systems. The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency for the
exclusive use of a time interval.

In most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not assigned to a
station. However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands, and TDMA is used
for the multiple access in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known as carrier frequencies. The
mobile system that uses this technique is referred as the multi-carrier systems.

In the following example, the frequency band has been shared by three users. Each user is
assigned definite timeslots to send and receive data. In this example, user ‘B’ sends after user
‘A,’ and user ‘C’ sends thereafter. In this way, the peak power becomes a problem and larger
by the burst communication.

FDMA and TDMA

This is a multi-carrier TDMA system. A 25 MHz frequency range holds 124 single chains
(carrier frequencies 200) bandwidth of each kHz; each of these frequency channels contains 8
TDMA conversation channels. Thus, the sequence of timeslots and frequencies assigned to a
mobile station is the physical channels of a TDMA system. In each timeslot, the mobile
station transmits a data packet.

The period of time assigned to a timeslot for a mobile station also determines the number of
TDMA channels on a carrier frequency. The period of timeslots are combined in a so-called
TDMA frame. TDMA signal transmitted on a carrier frequency usually requires more
bandwidth than FDMA signal. Due to the use of multiple times, the gross data rate should be
even higher.

Advantages of TDMA
Here is a list of few notable advantages of TDMA −

 Permits flexible rates (i.e. several slots can be assigned to a user, for example, each
time interval translates 32Kbps, a user is assigned two 64 Kbps slots per frame).
 Can withstand gusty or variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to a user can
be changed frame by frame (for example, two slots in the frame 1, three slots in the
frame 2, one slot in the frame 3, frame 0 of the notches 4, etc.).
 No guard band required for the wideband system.
 No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.

Disadvantages of TDMA
The disadvantages of TDMA are as follow −

 High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization.

 Due to the burst mode, a large number of additional bits are required for
synchronization and supervision.
 Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies (due to clock
instability).
 Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption.
 Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.

FDMA - Technology

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is one of the most common analogue multiple
access methods. The frequency band is divided into channels of equal bandwidth so that each
conversation is carried on a different frequency (as shown in the figure below).

FDMA Overview
In FDMA method, guard bands are used between the adjacent signal spectra to minimize
crosstalk between the channels. A specific frequency band is given to one person, and it will
received by identifying each of the frequency on the receiving end. It is often used in the first
generation of analog mobile phone.

Advantages of FDMA
As FDMA systems use low bit rates (large symbol time) compared to average delay spread, it
offers the following advantages −

 Reduces the bit rate information and the use of efficient numerical codes increases the
capacity.
 It reduces the cost and lowers the inter symbol interference (ISI)
 Equalization is not necessary.
 An FDMA system can be easily implemented. A system can be configured so that the
improvements in terms of speech encoder and bit rate reduction may be easily
incorporated.
 Since the transmission is continuous, less number of bits are required for
synchronization and framing.

Disadvantages of FDMA
Although FDMA offers several advantages, it has a few drawbacks as well, which are listed
below −

 It does not differ significantly from analog systems; improving the capacity depends
on the signal-to-interference reduction, or a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
 The maximum flow rate per channel is fixed and small.
 Guard bands lead to a waste of capacity.
 Hardware implies narrowband filters, which cannot be realized in VLSI and therefore
increases the cost.
 What is CDMA?
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital cellular technology used for
mobile communication. CDMA is the base on which access methods such as
cdmaOne, CDMA2000, and WCDMA are built. CDMA cellular systems are deemed
superior to FDMA and TDMA, which is why CDMA plays a critical role in building
efficient, robust, and secure radio communication systems.
CDMA - Handoff

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Whenever a cellular subscriber passes through one base station to another, the network
automatically switches to the other respective base station and maintains the coverage
responsibility. This behavior called "hand-off" (Handoff) or "hand-over" (Handover).

Whereas in FDMA and TDMA systems, it uses a different frequency to communicate with
the base station of that area. It means, there will be a frequency switch from one frequency to
another, and during the switching, there will be slightly communication cut, which is called
as "hard handoff" (Hard Handoff) or "hard handover" (Hard Handover).

Hard Handoff
In FDMA or TDMA cellular system, a new communication can be established after breaking
the current communication at the moment of handoff. Communication between MS and BS
breaks at the time of switching the frequency or timeslot.

Soft Handoff
Cellular systems track mobile stations in order to maintain their communication links. When
mobile station goes to a neighbor cell, the communication link switches from the current cell
to the neighbor cell.
When a mobile enters in a new area (from the base station to another base station), the mobile
is the second pilot of sufficient power by sending the message to the strength of the driver to
the first base station. The base station notifies the MTSO and then the MTSO requests new
Walsh code assignment of the second base station.

 The first base station controls with new progressive transfer Walsh assignment MTSO
then sends land link to the second base station. Mobile is powered by two base
stations and MTSO selects the best quality status for every 20 ms.
 The power goes low at the mobile station by the first BS and mobile sends a pilot
strength message then the first BS transmission stops and releases the channel. And,
traffic channel continues on the second base station.
 In CDMA cellular system, communication does not break even at the moment doing
handoff, because switching frequency or timeslot is not required.

Note − A Walsh sequence is a part of Orthogonal Codes, whereas other sequences such as
PN, Gold, and Kasami are shift register sequences. In case orthogonal codes are assigned to
the users, the output of the correlator in the receiver will be zero except the desired sequence,
whereas synchronous direct sequence receiver receives the same code sequence which was
transmitted, so there is no time shift between the users.

Near-far problem is one of the major problems that hurts mobile communications badly. In a
CDMA system, mutual interference will determine the majority of SN ratio of each user.

How Near-Far Problem Affects Communication?

The following illustration shows how near-far problem affects communication.
As shown in the illustration, user A is far away from the receiver and user B is close to the
receiver, there will be big difference between desired signal power and interfered signal
power. Desired signal power will be much higher than the interfered signal power and hence
SN ratio of user A will be smaller and communication quality of user A will be severely
degraded.

What is CDMA?
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital cellular technology used for mobile
communication. CDMA is the base on which access methods such as cdmaOne, CDMA2000,
and WCDMA are built. CDMA cellular systems are deemed superior to FDMA and TDMA,
which is why CDMA plays a critical role in building efficient, robust, and secure radio
communication systems.

A Simple Analogy

Let’s take a simple analogy to understand the concept of CDMA. Assume we have a few
students gathered in a classroom who would like to talk to each other simultaneously.
Nothing would be audible if everyone starts speaking at the same time. Either they must take
turns to speak or use different languages to communicate.

The second option is quite similar to CDMA — students speaking the same language can
understand each other, while other languages are perceived as noise and rejected. Similarly,
in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same
channel, but only those users associated with a particular code can communicate.

Salient Features of CDMA

CDMA, which is based on the spread spectrum technique has following salient features −

 In CDMA, every channel uses the full available spectrum.

 Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence and then
transmitted using a wide frequency range.
 CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications,
allowing more subscribers to connect at any given time.
 CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built. For 3G, CDMA
uses 1x EV-DO and EV-DV.

dvantages

 Increased user capacity is an advantage of the CDMA as it supports a lot more users
in comparison to TDMA or FDMA.
 CDMA is more secure as the information transmitted is below the noise floor making
the intrusion of the spectrum difficult.
 CDMA systems have comparatively fewer dropouts than GSM. Thus, it can also be
used in rural areas.
 The cost of the calls in CDMA is lower in comparison to the cost in GSM.
 CDMA provides a high quality of voice with almost no noise during the calls.
 Using CDMA problems like multipath and fading do not occur.
  CDMA has a very low power requirement.

Disadvantages

 CDMA lacks the facility of international roaming which is provided by GSM.

 Since there is no limit to the number of users the system performance degrades with
an increase in the number of users.
 Self-jamming problem occurs in CDMA systems because of loss of orthogonality.
 The problem of channel pollution occurs in CDMA systems which thus degrades the
quality of audio.
 Since most of the mobile companies use GSM thus there is a lack of handsets for
CDMA technology.

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) –

theteche.com
December 18, 2021

Principle : The narrow beam of radio waves is aimed at particular part of space. The same
channel is reused over the another narrow beam aimed at another part of the space. This
division of space in different directions of base station through highly directional beams is
called Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA).

As shown above the space is divided and three channels are transmitted on same frequency.

Advantages
 i. It saves the channel bandwidth.
ii. Improves the utility of bandwidth.

Role of SDMA in wire and Wireless Communications

 SDMA can be used for mobile communication and satelite communication. The
satelite dish antennas transmit signals to various zones on earth’s surface. These
antennas are highly directional. Hence same frequency can be used for multiple
surface zones, as shown in Fig.
 As shown in Fig, area A1 and area A3 are physically apart. Hence same channel-1 is
used to send signals to A1 and A3 with the help of highly directional atennas. There
will be no signal interface between the signals of areas A1 and A3.

 Satellite based SDMA required careful selection of zones (area) for each transmitter
and precise antenna alignment to avoid co-channel and Fig. Frequency reuse by
SDMA interchannel interference.
 In cellular (mobile) communiation, the power of the transmitting antennas is to be
controlled to avoid the co-channel and interchannel interference.
 In cellular communication Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA), there are
multidirectional horn antennas at the base station (BS). The base station identifies
mobile users by means of their spatial signatures.
 The base station has complete control over the power of all the transmitted signals on
the forward link. The transmitted power from each mobile user is dynamically
controlled to avoid inter channel interference.
 The base station detects the power level from each mobile user and connects it.
Adpative antennas are also used.
 UNIT II

What are the types of mobile communication?

Most common types of communication technology

 Global Systems for Mobile (GSM) Communications.

 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)
 Long Term Evolution (LTE) using the Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM)method.
 Adaptive communication.

What is telecommunication system in mobile computing?

The purpose of a telecommunication system is to exchange information among users of the

system. This information exchange can take place in a variety of ways, for example,
multiparty voice communications, television, electronic mail, and electronic message
exchange

What is GSM (Global System for Mobile communication)?

GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile network that is widely
used by mobile phone users in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM uses a variation of
time division multiple access (TDMA) and is the most widely used of the three digital
wireless telephony technologies: TDMA, GSM and code-division multiple access (CDMA).
GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of
user data, each in its own time slot. It operates at either the 900 megahertz (MHz) or 1,800
MHz frequency band.

GSM, together with other technologies, is part of the evolution of wireless mobile
telecommunications that includes High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE) and Universal
Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS).

Composition of the network

The GSM network has four separate parts that work together to function as a whole: the
mobile device itself, the base station subsystem (BSS), the network switching subsystem
(NSS) and the operation and support subsystem (OSS).
The mobile device connects to the network via hardware. The subscriber identity module
(SIM) card provides the network with identifying information about the mobile user.

Diagr
am of the GSM network organization

The BSS handles traffic between the cellphone and the NSS. It consists of two main
components: the base transceiver station (BTS) and the base station controller (BSC). The
BTS contains the equipment that communicates with the mobile phones, largely the radio
transmitter receivers and antennas, while the BSC is the intelligence behind it. The BSC
communicates with and controls a group of base transceiver stations.

The NSS portion of the GSM network architecture, often called the core network, tracks the
location of callers to enable the delivery of cellular services. Mobile carriers own the NSS.
The NSS has a variety of parts, including mobile switching center (MSC) and home location
register (HLR). These components perform different functions, such as routing calls and
Short Message Service (SMS) and authenticating and storing caller account information via
SIM cards.

Because many GSM network operators have roaming agreements with foreign operators,
users can often continue to use their phones when they travel to other countries. SIM cards
that hold home network access configurations may be switched to those with metered local
access, significantly reducing roaming costs, while experiencing no reductions in service.

Security details

Although GSM was designed as a secure wireless system, it can still experience attacks.
GSM uses authentication measures, such as challenge-response authentication, which
prompts a user to provide a valid answer to a question, and a preshared key that is in the form
of a password or passphrase.

There are a few cryptographic security algorithms that GMS employs, including stream
ciphers that encrypt plaintext digits. A5/1, A5/2 and A5/3 are three stream ciphers that ensure
a user's conversation is private. However, the algorithms for both A5/1 and A5/2 have been
broken and published and are therefore susceptible to plaintext attacks.

GSM uses GPRS, a packet-based communication service, to transmit data, such as through
web browsing. However, the ciphers that GPRS uses, GEA1 and GEA2, were broken and
published as well in 2011. Researchers published open source software to sniff packets in the
GPRS network.

What are GSM vs. CDMA vs. LTE differences?

The big difference among GSM, CDMA and LTE (long-term evolution) cellular-wireless
communications is the technology behind them and the business objectives each is designed
to meet. GSM is the oldest of the three. Developed and adopted as a standard in Europe,
GSM used the processor/chip technologies available at the time to encode and decode data.

For a time, mobile operators deployed 2G GSM across many countries worldwide except for
the U.S. and several countries in South America. Incompatibility with existing analog AMPS
systems largely drove these exceptions. To provide the necessary interim compatibility with
GSM, they evaluated GSM's economies of scale for their networks. Carriers employed D-
AMPS (Digital-Advanced Mobile Phone Service), a digital version of AMPS based on
Interim Standard (IS)-136 for TDMA networking (itself an evolution of the original 2GL D-
AMPS standard, IS-54) from the Electronics Industries Association/Telecommunication
Industry Association. It eventually became clear that TDMA protocols weren't sufficiently
spectrum efficient to support fast-growing cellular services, however. This led to the
introduction of CDMA protocols.

ITU IS-95, also known as cdmaOne, became the CDMA digital cellular standard in 1993,
gaining popularity in countries using older Analog AMPS systems. That said, IS-95 needed
powerful processors because coding and decoding CDMA required significantly more
compute power than decoding and coding TDMA. As a result, CDMA phones were more
expensive than GSM models.

Cellular technology evolved from there. For data, GSM introduced GPRS, which led to
EDGE, while cdmaOne led to ANSI-2000 1xRTT. That, in turn, led to EV-DO. Because of
their superior efficiency, 3GPP adopted CDMA protocols under Wide-Band CDMA (W-
CDMA) for implementation in 3G UMTS.
The evolution of GSM and CDMA technologies and standards from 1G to 5G.

By contrast, 4G LTE is a GSM technology and a major upgrade over 3G in terms of data
transfer speeds. It offers no way of making phone calls in the traditional sense, however. To
make regular phone calls, LTE uses specialized voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) for
what's referred to as VoLTE.

CDMA and GSM technologies eventually converged through Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiple Access (OFDMA), LTE's encoding protocol. OFDMA is also the encoding protocol
used for WiMAX and Wi-Fi networks.

As 5G becomes more commonplace, there's an expectation that it will come with new
encoding protocols. It's still too early to predict whether 5G will be a progressive evolution in
telecommunications or mark a technological revolution in this market. Either way, most
telecommunication industry watchers agree that its effects will be global in scale and
dramatic.

GSM or CDMA: Which is more popular?

Between GSM and CDMA, GSM -- and, by extension, its descendants 5G New Radio (NR),
UMTS and LTE -- is more popular. GSM-based technologies are deployed in practically
every country in the world.

CDMA, by contrast, is currently used in less than 10 countries. Furthermore, carriers will
shut down almost all those CDMA networks in the next five years.

What is GSM?
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular technology
used for transmitting mobile voice and data services. Important facts about the GSM are
given below −

 The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell
Laboratories in the early 1970s.
  GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common
European mobile telephone standard.
 GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is
implemented globally.
 GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25
kHz time-slots. GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and
1800 MHz in most parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz
and 1900 MHz.
 GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular
subscribers.
 GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique
for transmitting signals.
 GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120
Mbps of data rates.
 Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210
countries throughout the world.
 GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service.
Roaming is the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network.

GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down through a channel with two other
streams of user data, each in its own timeslot.

Why GSM?
Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.

 Improved spectrum efficiency

 International roaming
 Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
 High-quality speech
 Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone
company services
 Support for new services

GSM History
The following table shows some of the important events in the rollout of the GSM system.

Years Events
Conference of European Posts and Telegraph (CEPT) establishes a GSM group to
1982
widen the standards for a pan-European cellular mobile system.
1985 A list of recommendations to be generated by the group is accepted.
Executed field tests to check the different radio techniques recommended for the air
1986
interface.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is chosen as the access method (with
Frequency Division Multiple Access [FDMA]). The initial Memorandum of
1987
Understanding (MoU) is signed by telecommunication operators representing 12
countries.
1988 GSM system is validated.
The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) was given the
1989
responsibility of the GSM specifications.
1990 Phase 1 of the GSM specifications is delivered.
Commercial launch of the GSM service occurs. The DCS1800 specifications are
1991
finalized.
The addition of the countries that signed the GSM MoU takes place. Coverage spreads
1992
to larger cities and airports.
1993 Coverage of main roads GSM services starts outside Europe.
Data transmission capabilities launched. The number of networks rises to 69 in 43
1994
countries by the end of 1994.
1995 Phase 2 of the GSM specifications occurs. Coverage is extended to rural areas.
1996 June− 133 network in 81 countries operational.
July− 200 network in 109 countries operational, around 44 million subscribers
1997
worldwide.
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) came into existence and became operational in
1999
130 countries with 260 million subscribers.
2000 General Packet Radio Service(GPRS) came into existence.
As of May 2001, over 550 million people were subscribers to mobile
2001
telecommunications.

A GSM network comprises of many functional units. These functions and interfaces are
explained in this chapter. The GSM network can be broadly divided into −

 The Mobile Station (MS)

 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
 The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

GSM - The Mobile Station

The MS consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio transceiver, display and digital
signal processors, and the SIM card. It provides the air interface to the user in GSM
networks. As such, other services are also provided, which include −

 Voice teleservices
 Data bearer services
 The features' supplementary services
The MS also provides the receptor for SMS messages, enabling the user to toggle between
the voice and data use. Moreover, the mobile facilitates access to voice messaging systems.
The MS also provides access to the various data services available in a GSM network. These
data services include −

 X.25 packet switching through a synchronous or asynchronous dial-up connection to

the PAD at speeds typically at 9.6 Kbps.
 General Packet Radio Services (GPRSs) using either an X.25 or IP based data transfer
method at the speed up to 115 Kbps.
 High speed, circuit switched data at speeds up to 64 Kbps.

We will discuss more about GMS services in GSM - User Services.

What is SIM?

The SIM provides personal mobility so that the user can have access to all subscribed
services irrespective of both the location of the terminal and the use of a specific terminal.
You need to insert the SIM card into another GSM cellular phone to receive calls at that
phone, make calls from that phone, or receive other subscribed services.

GSM - The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The BSS is composed of two parts −

 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

 The Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling operations
between components that are made by different suppliers. The radio components of a BSS
may consist of four to seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one or more base stations. The
BSS uses the Abis interface between the BTS and the BSC. A separate high-speed line (T1 or
E1) is then connected from the BSS to the Mobile MSC.
The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The BTS houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and handles the radio link protocols
with the MS. In a large urban area, a large number of BTSs may be deployed.

The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas used in each cell of the network. A
BTS is usually placed in the center of a cell. Its transmitting power defines the size of a cell.
Each BTS has between 1 and 16 transceivers, depending on the density of users in the cell.
Each BTS serves as a single cell. It also includes the following functions −

 Encoding, encrypting, multiplexing, modulating, and feeding the RF signals to the

antenna
 Transcoding and rate adaptation
 Time and frequency synchronizing
 Voice through full- or half-rate services
  Decoding, decrypting, and equalizing received signals
 Random access detection
 Timing advances
 Uplink channel measurements

The Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio channel setup,
frequency hopping, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between the mobile and the
MSC. The BSC also translates the 13 Kbps voice channel used over the radio link to the
standard 64 Kbps channel used by the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSDN) or ISDN.

It assigns and releases frequencies and time slots for the MS. The BSC also handles intercell
handover. It controls the power transmission of the BSS and MS in its area. The function of
the BSC is to allocate the necessary time slots between the BTS and the MSC. It is a
switching device that handles the radio resources.

The additional functions include−

 Control of frequency hopping

 Performing traffic concentration to reduce the number of lines from the MSC
 Providing an interface to the Operations and Maintenance Center for the BSS
 Reallocation of frequencies among BTSs
 Time and frequency synchronization
 Power management
 Time-delay measurements of received signals from the MS

GSM - The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The Network switching system (NSS), the main part of which is the Mobile Switching Center
(MSC), performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile
network users, as well as the management of mobile services such as authentication.
The switching system includes the following functional elements −

Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is
considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers,
including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity status. When an
individual buys a subscription in the form of SIM, then all the information about this
subscription is registered in the HLR of that operator.

Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)

The central component of the Network Subsystem is the MSC. The MSC performs the
switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as the
management of mobile services such as registration, authentication, location updating,
handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber. It also performs such functions as toll
ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others. Every MSC is
identified by a unique ID.

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed
by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the
MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC
will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a
call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate
the HLR each time.

Authentication Center (AUC)

The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored
in each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and ciphering of the radio
channel. The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's
cellular world.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile
equipment on the network, where its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)
identifies each MS. An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type
approved.

GSM - The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching
system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and support
system (OSS).

Here are some of the OMC functions−

  Administration and commercial operation (subscription, end terminals, charging, and
statistics).
 Security Management.
 Network configuration, Operation, and Performance Management.
 Maintenance Tasks.

The operation and Maintenance functions are based on the concepts of the
Telecommunication Management Network (TMN), which is standardized in the ITU-T series
M.30.

Following is the figure, which shows how OMC system covers all the GSM elements.

The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors and controls the
system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized,
regional, and local operational and maintenance activities that are required for a GSM
network. An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and support the
maintenance activities of different operation and maintenance organizations.

A simple pictorial view of the GSM architecture is given below −

The additional components of the GSM architecture comprise of databases and messaging
systems functions −

 Home Location Register (HLR)

 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 Authentication Center (AuC)
 SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
 Gateway MSC (GMSC)
 Chargeback Center (CBC)
 Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)

The following diagram shows the GSM network along with the added elements −
The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface. It is also known as the air
interface or the radio link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching
(NSS) center across the A interface.

GSM network areas

In a GSM network, the following areas are defined −

 Cell − Cell is the basic service area; one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a
Cell Global Identity (CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
 Location Area − A group of cells form a Location Area (LA). This is the area that is
paged when a subscriber gets an incoming call. Each LA is assigned a Location Area
Identity (LAI). Each LA is served by one or more BSCs.
 MSC/VLR Service Area − The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR
service area.
 PLMN − The area covered by one network operator is called the Public Land Mobile
Network (PLMN). A PLMN can contain one or more MSCs.

GSM - Protocol Stack

GSM architecture is a layered model that is designed to allow communications between two
different systems. The lower layers assure the services of the upper-layer protocols. Each
layer passes suitable notifications to ensure the transmitted data has been formatted,
transmitted, and received accurately.

The GMS protocol stacks diagram is shown below −

MS Protocols
Based on the interface, the GSM signaling protocol is assembled into three general layers −
  Layer 1 − The physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air interface.
 Layer 2 − The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer is a
modified version of the Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol
used in ISDN, called Link access protocol on the Dm channel (LAP-Dm). Across the
A interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used.
 Layer 3 − GSM signalling protocol’s third layer is divided into three sublayers −
o Radio Resource Management (RR),
o Mobility Management (MM), and
o Connection Management (CM).

MS to BTS Protocols
The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio and fixed, between the MS
and the MSC. For this formation, the main components involved are the MS, BSS, and MSC.
The responsibility of the RR layer is to manage the RR-session, the time when a mobile is in
a dedicated mode, and the radio channels including the allocation of dedicated channels.

The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It handles the functions that arise from the
mobility of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and security aspects. Location
management is concerned with the procedures that enable the system to know the current
location of a powered-on MS so that incoming call routing can be completed.

The CM layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer is responsible for
Call Control, Supplementary Service Management, and Short Message Service Management.
Each of these services are treated as individual layer within the CM layer. Other functions of
the CC sublayer include call establishment, selection of the type of service (including
alternating between services during a call), and call release.

BSC Protocols
The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data from the BTS. The Abis
interface is used between the BTS and BSC. At this level, the radio resources at the lower
portion of Layer 3 are changed from the RR to the Base Transceiver Station Management
(BTSM). The BTS management layer is a relay function at the BTS to the BSC.

The RR protocols are responsible for the allocation and reallocation of traffic channels
between the MS and the BTS. These services include controlling the initial access to the
system, paging for MT calls, the handover of calls between cell sites, power control, and call
termination. The BSC still has some radio resource management in place for the frequency
coordination, frequency allocation, and the management of the overall network layer for the
Layer 2 interfaces.

To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application part or the direct application
part is used, and SS7 protocols is applied by the relay, so that the MTP 1-3 can be used as the
prime architecture.

MSC Protocols
At the MSC, starting from the BSC, the information is mapped across the A interface to the
MTP Layers 1 through 3. Here, Base Station System Management Application Part (BSS
MAP) is said to be the equivalent set of radio resources. The relay process is finished by the
layers that are stacked on top of Layer 3 protocols, they are BSS MAP/DTAP, MM, and CM.
This completes the relay process. To find and connect to the users across the network, MSCs
interact using the control-signalling network. Location registers are included in the MSC
databases to assist in the role of determining how and whether connections are to be made to
roaming users.

Each GSM MS user is given a HLR that in turn comprises of the user’s location and
subscribed services. VLR is a separate register that is used to track the location of a user.
When the users move out of the HLR covered area, the VLR is notified by the MS to find the
location of the user. The VLR in turn, with the help of the control network, signals the HLR
of the MS’s new location. With the help of location information contained in the user’s HLR,
the MT calls can be routed to the user.

CONNECTION ESTABLISHMENT: 

The number dialed to reach a mobile subscriber (MSISDN) contains no

information at all about the current location of the subscriber. In order to
establish a complete connection to a mobile subscriber, however, one must
determine the current location and the locally responsible switch (MSC). In
order to be able to route the call to this switch, the routing address to this
subscriber (MSRN) has to be obtained. This routing address is assigned
temporarily to a subscriber by its currently associated VLR. At the arrival of a
call at the GMSC, the HLR is the only entity in the GSM network which can
supply this information, and therefore it must be interrogated for each
connection setup to a mobile subscriber. An ISDN switch recognizes from the
MSISDN that the called subscriber is a mobile subscriber, and therefore can
forward the call to the GMSC of the subscriber's home PLMN based on the CC
and NDC in the MSISDN. This GMSC can now request the current routing
address (MSRN) for the mobile subscriber from the HLR using the MAP . By
way of the MSRN the call is forwarded to the local MSC, which determines the
TMSI of the subscriber and initiates the paging procedure in the relevant
location area . After the MS has responded to the paging call, the connection
can be switched through.Several variants for determining the route and
interrogating the HLR exist, depending on how the MSRN was assigned and
stored, whether the call is national or international and depending on the
capabilities of the associated switching centers. 

To locate a MS and to address the MS, several numbers are

needed: 

MOBILE STATION INTERNATIONAL ISDN NUMBER (MSISDN): 

The only important number from the user of GSM is phone number.
Remember that the phone number is not associated with certain device but with
the SIM, which is personalized for user. The number consist of country
code(CC) as eg.+49 179 1234567 with 49 for germany. National Destination
Code (NDC) is used to locate the network provider and Subscriber number. 

INTERNATIONAL MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY(IMSI):

 GSM uses the IMSI for internal unique identification of a subscriber. IMSI
consist of a mobile country code (MCC) and mobile network code(MNC) and
finally the mobile subscriber identification number(MSIN).

 TEMPORARY MOBILE SUBSCRIBE IDENTITY(TMSI): 

To hide the IMSI, which would give away the exact identity of user signaling
over the air interface, GSM uses the 4 byte.TMSI is selected by current VLR
and is only valid temporarily and within location area of VLR. 

MOBILE STATION ROAMING NUMBER (MSRM): 

Another temporary address which hides the identity and location of

a subscriber is MSRN. The VLR generates this address on request from MSC,
and the address is stored in the HLR . MSRN contains current visitory and
visitor national destination code(VNDC). 
MESSAGE TERMINATED CALL (MTC): 

This figure shows the basic steps needed to connect the calling station with the
mobile user.

 Step 1: A user dials the phone number of GSM subscriber. The fixed network
PSTN notices that the number belongs to the user in the GSM network and
forwards the call setup to the Gateway MSC . 

Step 2: The GMSC identifies the HLR for the subscriber and signals the call
setup to the HLR.

Step 3: The HLR now checks whether the number exists and whether the user
has subscribed to the requested services, and the requests an MSRN from the
current VLR. 

Step 4 : After receiving the request from MSRN 

Step 5 : HLR can determine the MSC responsible for the MS and forwards this
information to GMSC 

Step 6 : GMSC can now forward the call setup request to MSC indicated. 

Step 7: From this, MSC is responsible for all further steps. First it requests the
current status of MS from VLR. 

Step 8 : If MS is available, then MSC initiates paging in all cells it is

responsible for as searching for the right cell would be too time consuming. 

Step 9: This approach puts some load on signalling channels so optimization

exist.

Step 10 : Location area (LA) can be determined. 

Step 11 : The BTSs of all BSSs transmit this paging signal to MS. 

Step 12 & 13 : If MS answers ( 12 and 13) the VLR has to perform security
checks set up be encryption techniques.

 Steps 14 to 17 : The VLR signals to MSC to setup a connection to MS. 

 MESSAGE ORIGINATED CALL (MOC): 

It is simpler to perform message originated call(MOC)

compared to MTC.
The basic steps for MOC are, 

Step 1: MS transmits a request for a new connection. 

Step 2: BSS forwards the request to MSC.

 Steps 3 & 4 : MSC then checks if the user is allowed to set up a call with the
requested service(3 and 4) and checks the availability of resources through
GSM network into PSTN.

Steps 5to 8 : If all resources are available, MSC sets up a connection between
MS and fixed network. 

Steps 9 & 10 : Its set up a call with the help of BSS and MS. 

MESSAGE FLOW FOR MTC AND MOC : 

In addition to the above steps mentioned above , the other messages are
exxchanged between an MS and BTS during connection setup. These messages
can be quite often heard in radios or badly sheileded speakers as crackling noise
before the phone rings. Figure shows the message for an MTC and MOC.
Paging is only necessary for an MTC, then similar message exchanges follow.
The next step which are needed for a communication security comprises the
authentication of MS and switching to encrytpted communication

The following steps which are mentioned in the figure denotes th euse of MSC
and MOC. If someone is calling the MS, it answers now with ‗alerting‘ that MS
is ringing and with ‗connect‘ that the user has pressed the connect button. The
same actions happen the other way round if MS has initiated the call. Af.ter
connection acknowledgement both parties are exchanged.

What is the frequency allocation of GSM?

These networks, which are still used today, operate according to the GSM standard (Global
System for Mobile Communications). They employ radio frequencies in the range of 900
MHz and 1800 MHz.

Frequency allocation (or spectrum allocation or spectrum management) is the allocation

and regulation of the electromagnetic spectrum into radio frequency bands, normally done by
governments in most countries.[1] Because radio propagation does not stop at national
boundaries, governments have sought to harmonise the allocation of RF bands and their
standardization.
ITU definition
The International Telecommunication Union defines frequency allocation as being of "a
given frequency band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or space
radiocommunication services or the radio astronomy service under specified conditions".[2]

Frequency allocation is also a special term, used in national frequency administration. Other
terms are:

ITU-terms pertaining to frequency regulation

ITU languages ITU
Frequency
distribution to: Arabi Chines RR
French English Spanish Russian (article)
c e
распределени
attributio allocation
Radiocommunicati atribución е
n (to 划分 1.16
on services (atribuir) (распределят
(attribuer) allocate)
ь)
allotisemen adjudicació
allotment выделение
Regions or countries t n 分配 1.17
(to allot) (выделять)
(allotir) (adjudicar)
assignmen
assignation asignación присвоение
Radio stations t 指配 1.18
(assigner) (asignar) (присваивать)
(to assign)

Bodies
Several bodies set standards for frequency allocation, including:

 International Telecommunication
Union (ITU)
 European Conference of Postal
and Telecommunications
Administrations (CEPT)
 Inter-American
Telecommunication Commission
(CITEL)

To improve harmonisation in spectrum utilisation, most service allocations are incorporated

in national Tables of Frequency Allocations and Utilisations within the responsibility of the
appropriate national administration. Allocations are:

 primary
 secondary
 exclusive or shared utilization, within the responsibility of national administrations.
Allocations of military usage will be in accordance with the ITU Radio Regulations. In
NATO countries, military mobile utilizations are made in accordance with the NATO Joint
Civil/Military Frequency Agreement (NJFA).

Examples of frequency allocations

Some of the bands listed (e.g., amateur 1.8–29.7 MHz) have gaps / are not continuous
allocations.

Common frequencies [3]

Meters
Typical radiated
Source Frequency (MHz)
power (kW)
(approx)
Longwave BCB (EU) 0.150–0.285 320
AM BCB (EU & J) 0.525–1.605 500 630
AM BCB (US) 0.530–1.710 50
Amateur 1.8–29.7 0.16 (mobile) 15
Citizens band 26.9–27.4 0.004 12
Amateur 28–30 0.2 (mobile) 10
Land mobile 29–54 0.1
Amateur 50–54 0.2 (mobile) 6
TV low VHF 54–88 100
Land mobile (EU) 65–85 0.1
FM BCB (J) 76–90 44
FM BCB (US & EU) 88–108 105
Aircraft 108–136 1
Land mobile (EU) 120–160 0.1
Land mobile 132–174 18–100
Land mobile (J) 142–170
Amateur 144–148 0.2 (mobile) 2
TV high VHF 174–216 316
Land mobile 216–222 0.2
Amateur 222–225 0.1 (mobile) 1.25
Land mobile (J) 335–384
Land mobile 406–512 0.1
Land mobile (J) 450–470 .70
Amateur 430–450 0.1 (mobile)
TV UHF 470–806 5000
Land mobile 806–947 0.035 .33
Cellular AMPS 806–947 0.003 .33
Amateur
Land mobile 1200–1600 .23
GPS
Cellular PCS 1700–2000 0.003
ISM 2400–2500 0.0000025
Bluetooth
 Wi-Fi

 BCB is an abbreviation for broadcast band, for commercial radio news and music
broadcasts.

GPRS 

INTRODUCTION: 

General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data

service available to users of the 2G cellular communication systems, 3G
systems and GSM. GPRS re-use the existing GSM infrastructure. It interworked
with existing circuit-switched services. It is based on standardized open
interfaces. 

GPRS usage is typically charged based on volume of data transferred,

contrasting with circuit switched data, which is usually billed per minute of
connection time. 5 GB per month for a fixed fee or on a pay-as-you-use basis.
Usage above the bundle cap is either charged per megabyte or disallowed. 

GPRS is a best effort service, implying variable throughput and latency

that depend on the number of other users sharing the service concurrently, as
opposed to circuit switching, where a certain quality of service (QoS) is
guaranteed during the connection. In 2G systems, GPRS provides data rates of
56–114 kbit/second. 2G cellular technology combined with GPRS is sometimes
described as 2.5G, that is, a technology between the second (2G) and third (3G)
generations of mobile telephony. It provides moderate-speed data transfer, by
using unused time division multiple access (TDMA) channels in, for example,
the GSM system. GPRS is integrated into GSM Release 97 and newer releases. 

GPRS provides two services: 1.  Point-to-point (PTP)

 2.  Point-to-multipoint (PTM)

 In point-to-point packet delivery service, in which packet is transfer between
two users and in point-to-multipoint (PTM) service, in which packet is
delivering to multiple destinations within one service request.

In PTP versions are PTP Connection oriented Network service (PTP-

CONS), which establish a logical relation in between users. Multiple packets
are sent between single source and a single destination. Other version is the PTP
Connectionless Network Service (PTP-CLNS), which does not require a logical
link between users. Packets are sent between a single source and a single
destination. Each packet is independent of its predecessor and successor. 

QoS-profile can be specified by the users of the GPRS. It is maintained in

the PDP context. PDP Context is nothing but which is created in each
communication session. QoS-profile is used to indicate the network and radio
resources required for data transmission. It has the attributes such as service
precedence (high,normal,low),reliability class, delay class, peak throughput
class, mean throughput class. GPRS must allocate radio resources to fulfill these
user specifications. GPRS network is suffered by the following delays such as
channel access delay, coding for error correction and transfer delay in the fixed
part and wireless part of the network. GPRS also includes several security
services namely authentication, user identity confidentiality, access control and
user information confidentiality. 

Main benefits 

Resources are reserved only when needed and charged accordingly.

Connection setup times are reduced. It will enable new service opportunities. It
has High Speed (Data Rate 14.4 – 115 kbps). It uses the efficient radio
bandwidth (Statistical Multiplexing).Circuit switching & Packet Switching can
be used in parallel. It has Constant connectivity. 
Characteristics of GPRS: 

1. GPRS uses packet switched resource allocation.

 2. Flexible channel allocation.

 3. Support for leading internet communication protocols.

 GPRS Terminal Classes:

 1. Class A

 It can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), using
both at the same time. Such devices are known to be available today.

2. Class B

 It can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), but using
only one or the other at a given time. During GSM service (voice call or SMS),
GPRS service is suspended, and then resumed automatically after the GSM
service (voice call or SMS) has concluded. Most GPRS mobile devices are
Class B.

3. Class C

 They are connected to either GPRS service or GSM service (voice, SMS). Must
be switched manually between one or the other service.

GPRS ARCHITECTURE 

In order to understand the GPRS network architecture, some fundamental

GSM terminology is necessary. This section describes some of the main
components of the GSM network.
GPRS Networks

GPRS architecture has two network elements, which are called as

GPRS support nodes (GSN).They are, 

1.     Gateway GPRS Support Node(GGSN)

 2.     Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

All GSNs are integrated into the standard GSM architecture and many
interfaces (see figure 1). The network elements are gateway GPRS support
node (GGSN) is provisioned by router, which supports traditional gateway
functionality. It is the interworking unit between the GPRS network and
external packet data networks (PDN). This node contains routing information
for GPRS users. It performs address conversion and tunnels data to a user via
encapsulation.

The other element is the serving GPRS support node (SGSN) which
connects BSS and GGSN. It supports the MS via the Gb interface. It requests the
user address from the GPRS register (GR). It keeps track of the individual
MSs‘ location, is in charge for collecting billing information. It performs many
security functions.

Packet Control Unit (PCU)

 he PCU separates the circuit switched and packet switched traffic from the user
and sends them to the GSM and GPRS networks respectively. It also performs
most of the radio resource management functions of the GPRS network. The
PCU can be either located in the BTS, BSC, or some other point between the
MS and the MSC. There will be at least one PCU that serves a cell in which
GPRS services will be available. Frame Relay technology is being used at
present to interconnect the PCU to the GPRS core. 

GPRS interfaces 

Um between an MS and the GPRS fixed network part. The Um is the access
interface the MS uses to access the GPRS network. The radio interface to the
BTS is the same interface used by the existing GSM network with some GPRS
specific changes. 

Gb between a SGSN and a BSS. The Gb interface carries the GPRS traffic and
signaling between the GSM radio network (BSS) and the GPRS network. Frame
Relay based network services is used for this interface.

Gn between two GSNs within the same PLMN. The Gn provides a data and
signalling interface in the Intra -PLMN backbone. The GPRS Tunnelling
Protocol (GTP) is used in the Gn (and in the Gp) interface over the IP based
backbone network.

 Mobile Station 

A GSM subscriber needs a terminal called Mobile Station (MS). It is used to

connect to the network using the radio interface U m. In idle mode an MS is not
reachable and all contexts will be deleted. In the standby state there is only
movement across routing areas which is updated to the SGSN. Before sending
any data over the GPRS network, an MS must attach to it, following the
procedures of the mobility management. The attachment procedure includes
assigning a temporal identifier, called a temporary logical link identity
(TLLI), and a ciphering key sequence number (CKSN) for data encryption. 

GPRS BSS 

Base Station Subsystem (BSS) which performs radio-related functions. BSS

contains Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) and Base Station Controllers (BSC). 

BTS which provides new GPRS channel coding schemes through Channel
Codec Unit (CCU). The BTS handles the radio interface to the MS. It consists
of radio equipment (transceivers and antennas) required to service each cell in
the network. 

BSC forwards the Circuit-switched calls to MSC and the Packet-switched

data to SGSN. The BSC provides the control functions and physical links
between the MSC and the BTS. A number of BSCs are served by one MSC
while several BTSs can be controlled by one BSC. 

The Network Switching Subsystem 

The NSS is responsible for call control, service control and subscriber mobility
manage

 a) Mobile Switching center (MSC)

MSC is in charge for telephony switching functions of the network. It also

performs authentication to verify the user‘s identity. It ensures the
confidentiality of the calls. The Authentication Center (AuC) provides the
necessary parameters to the MSC to perform the authentication procedure. The
AuC is shown as a separate logical entity but is generally integrated with the
HLR. The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is on the other hand a database
that contains information about the identity of the mobile equipment. It prevents
calls from unauthorized or stolen MSs. 

b)Home Location register (HLR) 

HLR is a database used to store and manage permanent data of

subscribers. HLR is used to map an MS to one or more GGSNs. It is used to
update the SGSN of the MS. It is also used to store the fixed IP address and
QoS profile for a transmission path. 

c) Visitor location register (VLR) 

VLR is a database used to store temporary information about the subscribers.

It is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The MSC and
VLR are commonly integrated into one single physical node and the term
MSC/VLR is used instead. When a subscriber enters a new MSC area, a copy of
all the ne) cessary information is downloaded from the HLR into the VLR. The
VLR keeps this information so that calls of the subscriber can be processed
without having to interrogate the HLR (which can be in another PLMN) each
time. The temporary information is cleared when the mobile station roams out
of the service area. 

d)Equipment identity register (EIR)

EIR is also a database that encloses information about the identity of the mobile
equipment. It prevents calls from unauthorized or stolen MSs. 

GPRS Mobility Management States 

a)Idle State 
A MS in the idle state is not traceable and can only receive PTM-M
transmissions such as general broadcast events destined to a specific
geographical area. The MS needs to perform the attach procedure in order to
connect to the GPRS network and become reachable. 

b)Ready State

Data is sent or received in this state. The MS informs the SGSN when it
changes cells. The MS may explicitly request (or can be forced by the network)
to detach in which case it moves to Idle. A timer monitors the Ready state and
upon its expiry, the MS is put on Standby. The timer insures that resources are
not wasted by an inactive MS. 

c)Standby State 

A connected MS which is inactive is put in the Standby state. Moving back to

Ready can be triggered by sending data or signalling information from the MS
to the SGSN. Upon arrival of data destined to the MS, the SGSN pages the
latter and a response to the page moves the MS back to the Ready state. The MS
may wish (or can be forced by the network) to terminate the connection by
requesting to detach in which case it returns to Idle. A timer is used by the
SGSN to monitor the tracking of the MS, and when it expires, the MS is
detached and is considered unreachable

GPRS PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

A GPRS network introduces many new protocols designed to convey user data
in a reliable and secure way. The protocol architecture is implemented for the
transmission and signaling planes in GPRS. Transmission plane protocols are
used for the transmission of user data and control functions. Signaling plane
protocols are used to convey signaling information that controls and supports
the transmission plane functions. (See figure 2).

Transmission protocols in the Um interface

a) Physical layer 

The physical layer can be divided into the Radio Frequency (RF) layer and
the Physical Link layer. 
 The Radio Frequency (RF) is the normal GSM physical radio layer. Among
other things the RF layer specifies the carrier frequency characteristics and
GSM radio channel structures. It uses the radio modulation scheme for the data.
The GSM RF physical layer is used for GPRS with the possibility for future
modifications. 

The Physical Link layer supports multiple MSs sharing a single physical
channel and provides communication between the MSs and the network.
Network controlled handovers are not used in the GPRS service. Instead,
routing area updates and cell updates are used. 

b)Medium Access Control (MAC) 

MAC protocol handles the channel allocation and the multiplexing. The
RLC and the MAC together form the OSI Layer 2 protocol for the U m interface.
The radio interface at Um need GPRS which does not require changes compared
to GSM. 

c) Radio Link Control (RLC) 

RLC protocol establishes a reliable radio link to the upper layers. It also works
either in acknowledged or unacknowledged modes.

Logical Link Control (LLC) 

LLC layer establishes a secure and reliable logical link between

the MS and the SGSN for upper layer protocols. It works either in
acknowledged or unacknowledged modes. The data confidentiality is ensured
by using ciphering functions. 

Subnetwork dependent convergence protocol (SNDCP) 

 SNDCP is used to transfer data packets between SGSN and MS. It
is used to provide multiplexing of several connections of network layer onto one
logical connection of underlying LLC layer. It provides functions that help to
improve channel efficiency. This is achieved by means of compression
techniques. Data Link layer is divided into LLC layer and RLC/MAC Layer. 

Transmission protocols in the Gb interface a)Physical Layer Protocol

 Several physical layer configurations and protocols are possible at the Gb

interface and the physical resources are allocated by Operation & Maintenance
(O&M) procedures. Normally a G703/704 2Mbit/s connection is provided.

 b) Network Services layer

 The Gb interface Network Services layer is based on Frame Relay. Frame

Relay virtual circuits are established between the SGSN and BSS. LLC PDUs
from many users are statistically multiplexed onto these virtual circuits. These
virtual circuits may traverse a network of Frame Relay switching nodes, or may
just be provided on a point to point link between the BSC and the SGSN.

Base station subsystem GPRS protocol (BSSGP) 

BSSGP is used to deliver routing and QoS-related information between the BSS
and SGSN. It is to enable two physically distinct nodes, the SGSN and BSS. It
is to operate node management control functions. There is a one-to-one
relationship between the BSSGP protocol in the SGSN and in the BSS. If one
SGSN handles multiple BSSs, the SGSN has to have one BSSGP protocol
device for each BSS. BSSGP does not perform error correction and works on
top of a frame relay (FR) network.

Transmission protocols in the Gn interface

 a)Layer 1 and Layer 2

 The L1 and the L2 protocols are vendor dependent OSI layer 1 and 2 protocols.
It carries the IP datagrams for the GPRS backbone network between the SGSN
and the GGSN. b) Internet Protocol (IP)

 The Internet Protocol (IP) datagram in the Gn interface is only used in the
GPRS backbone network. The GPRS backbone (core) network and the GPRS
subscribers use different IP addresses. This makes the GPRS backbone IP
network invisible to the subscribers and vice versa. The GPRS backbone
network carries the subscriber IP or X.25 traffic in a secure GPRS tunnel.

 c) TCP or UDP

 TCP or UDP are used to carry the GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP) PDUs
across the GPRS backbone network. TCP is used for user X.25 data and UDP is
used for user IP data and signalling in the Gn interface.

 d) GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP)

 GTP is the basis for tunnel signaling. It uses two transport protocols such as
reliable TCP and non-reliable UDP. The GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP)
allows multi-protocol packets to be tunnelled through the GPRS backbone
between GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs).

 SIGNIFICANCE:

 This unit is important for cellular telephone technique and GSM networks. and
also include security related techniques and recent technology in mobile
computing

 Study Material, Lecturing Notes, Assignment, Reference, Wiki description explanation,

brief detail
Mobile Networks : Cellular Wireless Network : GPRS |

MOBILITY MANAGEMENT:

 Mobility management is one of the major functions of a GSM or a UMTS

network that allows mobile phones to work. The aim of mobility management is
to track where the subscribers are, allowing calls, SMS and other mobile phone
services to be delivered to them. Location update procedure.

 A GSM or UMTS network, like all cellular networks, is a radio network of

individual cells, known as base stations. Each base station covers a small
geographical area which is part of a uniquely identified location area. By
integrating the coverage of each of these base stations, a cellular network
provides a radio coverage over a much wider area. A group of base stations is
named a location area, or a routing area.

 The location update procedure allows a mobile device to inform the cellular
network, whenever it moves from one location area to the next. Mobiles are
responsible for detecting location area codes. When a mobile finds that the
location area code is different from its last update, it performs another update by
sending to the network, a location update request, together with its previous
location, and its Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI).

 There are several reasons why a mobile may provide updated location
information to the network. Whenever a mobile is switched on or off, the
network may require it to perform an IMSI attach or IMSI detach location
update procedure. Also, each mobile is required to regularly report its location
at a set time interval using a periodic location update procedure. Whenever a
mobile moves from one location area to the next while not on a call, a random
location update is required. This is also required of a stationary mobile that
reselects coverage from a cell in a different location area, because of signal
fade. Thus a subscriber has reliable access to the network and may be reached
with a call, while enjoying the freedom of mobility within the whole coverage
area.

 When a subscriber is paged in an attempt to deliver a call or SMS and the

subscriber does not reply to that page then the subscriber is marked as absent in
both the Mobile Switching Center / Visitor Location Register (MSC/VLR) and
the Home Location Register (HLR) (Mobile not reachable flag MNRF is set).
The next time the mobile performs a location update the HLR is updated and the
mobile not reachable flag is cleared.

 TMSI

 The Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) is the identity that is most
commonly sent between the mobile and the network. TMSI is randomly
assigned by the VLR to every mobile in the area, the moment it is switched on.
The number is local to a location area, and so it has to be updated each time the
mobile moves to a new geographical area.

 The network can also change the TMSI of the mobile at any time. And it
normally does so, in order to avoid the subscriber from being identified, and
tracked by eavesdroppers on the radio interface. This makes it difficult to trace
which mobile is which, except briefly, when the mobile is just switched on, or
when the data in the mobile becomes invalid for one reason or another. At that
point, the global "international mobile subscriber identity" (IMSI) must be sent
to the network. The IMSI is sent as rarely as possible, to avoid it being
identified and tracked.

A key use of the TMSI is in paging a mobile. "Paging" is the

one-to-one communication between the mobile and the base station. The most
important use of broadcast information is to set up channels for "paging". Every
cellular system has a broadcast mechanism to distribute such information to a
plurality of mobiles. Size of TMSI is 4 octet with full hex digits and can't be all
1 because the SIM uses 4 octets with all bits equal to 1 to indicate that no valid
TMSI is available. 

ROAMING 

Roaming is one of the fundamental mobility management procedures of all

cellular networks. Roaming is defined as the ability for a cellular customer to
automatically make and receive voice calls, send and receive data, or access
other services, including home data services, when travelling outside the
geographical coverage area of the home network, by means of using a visited
network. This can be done by using a communication terminal or else just by
using the subscriber identity in the visited network. Roaming is technically
supported by mobility management, authentication, authorization and billing
procedures.

 LOCATION AREA 

A "location area" is a set of base stations that are grouped together to optimise
signalling. Typically, tens or even hundreds of base stations share a single Base
Station Controller (BSC) in GSM, or a Radio Network Controller (RNC) in
UMTS, the intelligence behind the base stations. The BSC handles allocation of
radio channels, receives measurements from the mobile phones, controls
handovers from base station to base station. 

To each location area, a unique number called a "location area

code" is assigned. The location area code is broadcast by each base station,
known as a "base transceiver station" BTS in GSM, or a Node B in UMTS, at
regular intervals. In GSM, the mobiles cannot communicate directly with each
other but, have to be channeled through the BTSs. In UMTS networks, if no
Node B is accessible to a mobile, it will not be able to make any connections at
all.

If the location areas are very large, there will be many mobiles
operating simultaneously, resulting in very high paging traffic, as every paging
request has to be broadcast to every base station in the location area. This
wastes bandwidth and power on the mobile, by requiring it to listen for
broadcast messages too much of the time. If on the other hand, there are too
many small location areas, the mobile must contact the network very often for
changes of location, which will also drain the mobile's battery. A balance has
therefore to be struck. 

ROUTING AREAThe routing area is the PS domain equivalent of the location

area. A "routing area" is normally a subdivision of a "location area". Routing
areas are used by mobiles which are GPRS-attached. GPRS is optimized for
"bursty" data communication services, such as wireless internet/intranet, and
multimedia services. It is also known as GSM-IP ("Internet Protocol") because
it will connect users directly to Internet Service Providers (ISP). 

The bursty nature of packet traffic means that more paging messages are
expected per mobile, and so it is worth knowing the location of the mobile
more accurately than it would be with traditional circuit-switched traffic. A
change from routing area to routing area (called a "Routing Area Update") is
done in an almost identical way to a change from location area to location area.
The main differences are that the "Serving GPRS Support Node" (SGSN) is
the element involved. 

TRACKING AREA 

The tracking area is the LTE counterpart of the location area and
routing area. A tracking area is a set of cells. Tracking areas can be grouped
 into lists of tracking areas (TA lists), which can be configured on the User
equipment. Tracking area updates are performed periodically or when the UE
moves to a tracking area that is not included in its TA list. 

Operators can allocate different TA lists to different UEs. This can avoid
signaling peaks in some conditions: for instance, the UEs of passengers of a
train may not perform tracking area updates simultaneously. On the network
side, the involved element is the Mobility Management Entity. 

HANDOVER 

Handover means handing over the mobile from one cell to

another cell. There are two reasons for handover.

 They are,(1)

·        When a mobile station moves out of the range of BTS the signal level decreases
continuously and falls below the minimal requirements for communication.

·        The error rate increases due to interference.

·        The quality of radio link decrease.

(2)·        The traffic in one cell is too high, shifting of some MS to other cells with
lower load.

·        This is called load balancing.

·        The number of handover will be more when the cell size is small.

Due to handover the calls should not get to cutoff which is called as call drop. 

TYPES OF HANDOVER : 
(1) INTRA CELL HANDOVER: 

With in a cell, narrow band interference can cause transmission at a certain

frequency impossible.

The BSC decides to change the carrier frequency. 

(2) INTER CELL, INTRA BSC HANDOVER:

 The mobile station moves from one cell to another but remains with in the
same BSC.

 The BSC performs a handover, assigns a new radio channel in the new cell and
releases the old one.  

(3) INTER BSC, INTRA MSC HANDOVER:

 The BSC controls only limited cells.

 Handover needs to be done between different BSC.

 This is controlled by MSC.  

(4) INTER MSC HANDOVER:

 A handover is needed between 2 cells which belong to Difference MSC.

Both MSC performs the handover together.

SECURITY : 

GSM offers several security services using confidential

information stored in the AuC and in the individual SIM (which is plugged into
an arbitrary MS). The SIM stores personal, secret data and is protected with a
PIN against unauthorized use. (For example, the secret key Ki used for
authentication and encryption procedures is stored in the SIM.) The security
services offered by GSM are explained below: 

● ACCESS CONTROL AND AUTHENTICATION: The first step includes

the authentication of a valid user for the SIM. The user needs a secret PIN to
access the SIM. The next step is the subscriber authentication . 

●  CONFIDENTIALITY: All user-related data is encrypted. After

authentication, BTS and MS apply encryption to voice, data, and signaling. This
confidentiality exists only between MS and BTS, but it does not exist end-to-
end or within the whole fixed GSM/telephone network. 

●     ANONYMITY: To provide user anonymity, all data is encrypted before

transmission, and user identifiers (which would reveal an identity) are not used
over the air. Instead, GSM transmits a temporary identifier (TMSI), which is
newly assigned by the VLR after each location update. Additionally, the VLR
can change the TMSI at any time. Three algorithms have been specified to
provide security services in GSM. Algorithm A3 is used for authentication, A5
for encryption, and A8 for the generation of a cipher key. In the GSM standard
only algorithm A5 was publicly available, whereas A3 and A8 were secret, but
standardized with open interfaces. Both A3 and A8 are no longer secret, but
were published on the internet in 1998. This demonstrates that security by
obscurity does not really work. As it turned out, the algorithms are not very
strong. However, network providers can use stronger algorithms for
authentication – or users can apply stronger end-to-end encryption. Algorithms
A3 and A8 (or their replacements) are located on the SIM and in the AuC and
can be proprietary. Only A5 which is implemented in the devices has to be
identical for all providers. 
AUTHENTICATION 

Before a subscriber can use any service from the GSM network,
he or she must be authenticated. Authentication is based on the SIM, which
stores the individual authentication key Ki, the user identification IMSI, and the
algorithm used for authentication A3. Authentication uses a challenge-response
method: the access control AC generates a random number RAND as challenge,
and the SIM within the MS answers with SRES (signed response) as response.
The AuC performs the basic generation of random values RAND, signed
responses SRES, and cipher keys Kc for each IMSI, and then forwards this
information to the HLR. The current VLR requests the appropriate values for
RAND, SRES, and Kc from the HLR. 

For authentication, For authentication, the VLR sends the

random value RAND to the SIM. Both sides, network and subscriber module,
perform the same operation with RAND and the key Ki, called A3. The MS
sends back the SRES generated by the SIM; the VLR can now compare both
values. If they are the same, the VLR accepts the subscriber, otherwise the
subscriber is rejected.

ENCRYPTION : 

To ensure privacy, all messages containing user-related information are

encrypted in GSM over the air interface. After authentication, MS and BSS can
start using encryption by applying the cipher key Kc (the precise location of
security functions for encryption, BTS and/or BSC are vendor dependent). Kc is
generated using the individual key Ki and a random value by applying the
algorithm A8. Note that the SIM in the MS and the network both calculate the
same Kc based on the random value RAND. The key Kc itself is not transmitted
over the air interface.

MS and BTS can now encrypt and decrypt data using the algorithm
A5 and the cipher key Kc. As Figure shows, Kc should be a 64 bit key which is
not very strong, but is at least a good protection against simple eavesdropping.
However, the publication of A3 and A8 on the internet showed that in certain
implementations 10 of the 64 bits are always set to 0, so that the real length of
the key is thus only 54 consequently, the encryption is much weaker.

Routing
Routing is the process of finding the best path for traffic in a network, or across multiple
networks. The role of routing is similar to the road map for a hotel. In both cases, we need to
deliver messages at proper location and in an appropriate way.
Routing in a mobile ad-hoc network depends on many factors such as:

 Modeling of the topology,

 Selection of routers,
 Initiation of a route request,
 And specific underlying characteristics that could serve as heuristics in finding the
path effectively.

In a MANET, each node or device is expected to serve as a router, and each router is
indistinguishable from another in the sense that all routers execute the same routing algorithm
to compute paths through the entire network.

Need for Routing

There are following needs for routing:

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 Since centralized routing in a dynamic and even for small networks is impossible
therefore routing computation must be distributed.
 Route computation should not add many more nodes.
 If any host demands for the route, they must have quick access.
 Maintenance of a global state should not involve in the route computation.
 Each node should care about their destination node to its route and should not be
involved in frequent topology updates for those portions of the network that have no
traffic.
 Since broadcast can be time consuming for MANETs, it must be avoided as much as
possible.
 In routing there must have a backup route when the primary route has become stale.

Routing Classification
Routing protocol can be classified as:

1. Proactive Protocol
2. Reactive Protocol
3. Hybrid Protocol

1. Proactive Protocol

Proactive protocols attempt to evaluate continuously the routes within the network. It means
proactive protocol continuously maintain the routing information, so that when a packet
needs to be forwarded, the path is known already and can be immediately used. The family of
distance vector protocols is an example of proactive scheme.
The advantage of the proactive schemes is that whenever a route is needed, there is negligible
delay in determining the route.

Unfortunately, it is a big overhead to maintain routing tables in the MANET environment.

Therefore, this type of protocol has following common disadvantages:

 Requires more amounts of data for maintaining routing information.

 Low reaction on re-structuring network and failures of individual nodes.

2. Reactive Protocols

Reactive protocols do not maintain routes but invoke a route determination procedure only on
demand or we can say reactive protocols build the routes only on demand. Thus, when a route
is required, some sort of global search procedure is initiated. The family of classical flooding
algorithms belongs to the reactive protocol group. Examples of reactive ad-hoc network
routing protocols include ad hoc on demand distance vector (AODV) and temporally ordered
routing algorithm (TORA).

These protocols have the following advantages:

 No large overhead for global routing table maintenance as in proactive protocols.

 Reaction is quick for network restructure and node failure.
Even though reactive protocols have become the main stream for MANET routing,
they still have the following disadvantages:
 Latency time is high in route finding
 Excessive flooding can lead to network clogging.

3. Hybrid Protocols

Hybrid protocols attempt to take advantage of best of reactive and proactive schemes. The
basic idea behind such protocols is to initiate route discovery on demand but at a limited
search cost. One of the popular hybrid protocols is zone routing protocol (ZRP).

Routing protocols may also be categorized as follows:

1. Table-driven protocols
2. Source initiated on -demand protocols

1. Table-driven routing protocol

 These protocols are called table-driven because each node is required to maintain one
or more tables containing routing information on every other node in the network.
 They are proactive in nature so that the routing information is always consistent and
up to date.
 The protocols respond to changes in network topology by propagating the updates
throughput the network so that every node has a consistent view of the network.

The table driven routing protocols are categorized as follows:

Destination - sequenced distance vector routing

 Destination sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV) is a table driven routing

protocol for MANET based on Bellman-Ford algorithm.
 DSDV was developed by C. Perkins and P. Bhagwat in 1994. The main
contribution of the algorithm was that the algorithm works correctly, even in the
presence of the loops in the routing table.
 As we know, each mobile node maintains a routing table with a route to every
possible destination in the network and the number of hops to the destination.
 Each entry in the table contains a sequence number assigned by the destination node.
 The sequence numbers allow the node to distinguish stale routes from new ones, and
help avoid formation of routing loops.
 A new route broadcast contains:
o The destination address.
o The number of hops required to reach the destination.
o The sequence number of the information received about the destination and a
new sequence number unique to the broadcast.
 If there multiple routes are available for the same destination, the route with the most
recent sequence number is used. If two updates have the same sequence number, the
route with smaller metric is used to optimize the routing.

For example the routing table of Node A from the above network is:

Destination Next Hop No. of Hops Sequence no. Install time

A A 0 A46 001000
B B 1 B36 001200
C B 2 C28 001500

Basically the table stores description of all possible paths reachable by node A, along with the
hop, number of hops, sequence number and install time.

Advantages

 Destination sequenced distance vector routing was one of the early algorithms
available. It is suitable for creating ad-hoc networks with small no. of nodes.

Disadvantage
  Destination sequenced distance vector routing requires a regular update of its routing
tables, which uses more battery power and a small amount of bandwidth even when
the network is idle.
 This algorithm is not suitable for highly dynamic networks.

Cluster Head gateway switch Routing

 The cluster head (CH) gateway switch routing (CGSR) protocol is different from the
destination sequenced distance vector routing in the type of addressing and the
network organization scheme employed.
 Instead of a flat network, CGSR uses cluster heads, which control a group of ad hoc
nodes and hence achieve a hierarchical framework for code separation among
clusters, routing, channel access, and bandwidth allocation.
 Identification of appropriate clusters and selection of cluster heads is quite complex.
Once clusters have been defined, it is desirable to use a distributed algorithm within
the cluster to elect a node as the cluster head.
 The disadvantage of using a cluster head scheme is that frequent changes adversely
affect performance as nodes spend more time selecting a cluster head rather than
relaying packets. Hence, the least cluster change (LCC) clustering algorithm is used
rather than CH selection every time the cluster membership changes. Using LCC,
CHs change only when two CHs come into contact, or when a node moves out of
contact with all other CHs.

 In this scheme, each node must maintain a cluster member table (CMT), which stores
the destination CH for each node in the network. The cluster member tables are
broadcast periodically by the nodes using the DSDV algorithm.
 When a node receives such a table from a neighbor, it can update its own information.
As expected, each node also maintains a routing table to determine the next hop
required to reach any destination.

Wireless routing protocol (WRP)

The wireless routing protocol is a proactive unicast routing protocol for MANETs. It uses an
enhanced version of the distance vector routing protocol, which uses the Bellman - Ford
algorithm to calculate paths.

For the wireless routing protocol (WRP) each node maintains 4 tables:

 Distance table
 Routing table
 Link cost table
 Message retransmission list (MRL) table

Each entry in the message retransmission list has a sequence number of the update message, a
retransmission counter, an acknowledgment required flag vector with one entry per neighbor,
and a list of updates sent in the update message. When any node receives a hello message
from a new node, it adds the new node to its routing table and sends the new node a copy of
its routing table. A node must send a message to its neighbors within a certain time to ensure
connectivity.

Advantages

 The advantage of WRP is similar to DSDV. In addition, it has faster convergence and
adds fewer table updates.

Disadvantage

 The complexity of maintenance of multiple tables demands a large amount of memory

and greater processing power from nodes in the MANET.
 Since it suffers from limited scalability therefore WRP is not suitable for highly
dynamic and for a very large ad hoc wireless network.

2. Source initiated on -demand protocols

 Source - initiated on demand routing is reactive in nature, unlike table driven routing.
This type of protocols generates routes only when a source demands it.
 In other words, when a source node requires a route to a destination, the source
initiates a route discovery process in the network. This process finishes when a route
to the destination has been discovered or all possible routes have been examined
without any success.
 The discovered route is maintained by a route maintenance procedure, until it is no
longer desired or the destination becomes inaccessible.

The source initiated on demand routing is categorized as follows:

Ad hoc on demand distance vector routing (AODV)

 AODV is a routing protocol for MANETs (mobile ad hoc networks) and other
wireless ad hoc networks.
 It is a reactive routing protocol; it means it establishes a route to a destination only on
demand.
  AODV routing is built over the DSDV algorithm. It is a significant improvement over
DSDV.
 The devices that are not on a particular path do not maintain routing information, nor
do they participate in the routing table exchanges.
 When a source requires sending a message to a destination and does not have a valid
route to the latter, the source initiates a route discovery process.
 Source sends a route request (RREQ) packet to all its neighbors, the latter forward the
request to all their neighbors, and so on, until either the destination or an intermediate
mobile (node) with a "fresh enough" route to the destination is reached.

The above figure illustrates the propagation of the broadcast request (RREQs) across the
network. Since in DSDV, destination sequence numbers are used to ensure that all routes are
loop free and contain the most recent route information. Each node has a unique sequence
number and a broadcast ID, which is incremented each time the node, initiates RREQ.

The broadcast ID, together with the IP address of node, uniquely identifies every RREQ.

Intermediate mobile reply only if they have a route to the destination with a sequence number
greater than or at least equal to that contained in the RREQ. To optimize the route
performance, intermediate nodes record the address.

From the above figure, since RREP (route reply packet) travels back on the reverse path, the
nodes on this path set up their forward route entries to point to the node from which RREP
had just been received. These forward route records indicate the active forward route. The
RREP continues traveling back along the reverse path till it reaches the initiator of the route
discovery. Thus, AODV can support only the use of symmetric links.

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

  Dynamic source routing is an on-demand routing protocol which is based on source
routing.
 It is very similar to AODV in that it forms a route on demand when a transmitting
computer requests one. But, it uses source routing instead of relying on the routing
table at each intermediate device. Many successive refinements have been made to
dynamic source routing.
 This protocol works in two main phases:
o Route discovery
o Route maintenance
 When a node has a message to send, it contacts to the route cache to determine
whether is it has a route to the destination. If an active route to the destination exists,
it is used to send a message.
 Otherwise a node initiates a route discovery by broadcasting a route request packet.
The route request stores the destination address, the source address, and a unique
identification number.
 Each device that receives the route request checks whether it has a route to the
destination. If it does not, it adds its own address to the route record of the packet and
then rebroadcasts the packet on its outgoing links.
 To minimize the no. of broadcasts, a mobile rebroadcasts a packet only if it has not
seen the packet before and its own address was not already in the route record.

What is UMTS architecture?

UMTS system uses the same core network as the GPRS and uses entirely new radio
interface. The new radio network in UMTS is called UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio
Access Network) and is connected to the core network (CN) of GPRS via Iu interface

What is UMTS(Universal Mobile

Telecommunication System)?
 Last Updated : 28 Jun, 2022

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UMTS or Universal Mobile Telecommunications Framework, is the 3G successor to the

GSM family of measures counting GPRS and EDGE. 3G UMTS employments a completely
diverse radio interface based around the utilize of Coordinate Grouping Spread Range as
CDMA or Code Division Multiple Access. Although 3G UMTS employments a completely
distinctive radio get to standard, the center arrange is the same as that utilized for GPRS and
EDGE to carry partitioned circuit exchanged voice and bundle data. 

UMTS employments a wideband adaptation of CDMA possessing a 5 MHz wide channel.

Being more extensive than its competition CDMA2000 which as it was utilized a 1.25MHz
channel, the tweak conspire was known as wideband CDMA or WCDMA/W-CDMA. This
title was regularly utilized to allude to the total framework. It could be a frame of media
transmission utilized for remote gathering and transmission. It is an advancement in speed
boost from the more seasoned 2G standard of transmission speed and can increment
information transmission times between gadgets and servers.

UMTS Applications

 Streaming / Download (Video, Audio)

 Videoconferences.
 Fast Internet / Intranet.
 Mobile E-Commerce (M-Commerce)
 Remote Login
 Background Class applications
 Multimedia-Messaging, E-Mail
 FTP Access
 Mobile Entertainment (Games)

Features of UMTS

 UMTS could be a component of IMT-2000 standard of the Universal Broadcast

communications Union (ITU), created by 3GPP.
 It employments wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) discuss
interface.
 It gives transmission of content, digitized voice, video and multimedia.
 It gives tall transmission capacity to portable operators.
 It gives a tall information rate of 2Mbps.
 For High-Speed Downlink Parcel Get to (HSDPA) handsets, the data-rate is as tall as
7.2 Mbps within the downlink connection.
 It is additionally known as Flexibility of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA).

Advantages of UMTS

 UMTS could be a successor to 2G based GSM advances counting GPRS and EDGE .
Gaining a 3rd title 3GSM since it could be a 3G relocation for GSM
 Support 2Mbit/s information rates.
 Higher Information rates at lower incremental costs.
 Benefits of programmed universal wandering also necessarily security and charging
capacities, permitting administrators emigrate from 2G to 3G whereas holding
numerous of their existing back-office frameworks
 Gives administrators the adaptability to present unused mixed media administrations
to trade clients and buyers
 This not as it were gives client a valuable phone but moreover deciphers higher
incomes for the administrator.
Disadvantages of UMTS

 It is more expensive than GSM.

 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System has poor video experience.
 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System still not broadband

Difference between GSM and LTE

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1. Global System for Mobile communication (GSM): It is a mobile network widely used
by mobile phone users around the world. In this, the information of the customer is put on a
sim card that can be carried in the new mobile handset. It is operated on either 900 MHz or 1,
800 MHz frequency band. In GSM, two technologies are used which are: FDMA and
TDMA. 

2. Long Term Evolution (LTE): It is a standard for high-speed data communication. It

delivers download speeds of around 100 Mbps and upload speeds of around 50 Mbps. It does
not deliver good voice call quality while using the data services. It needs a sim card to
validate the handset. 

Difference between GSM and LTE :

S.
GSM LTE
NO.
It is a prominent wireless technology LTE refers to the next generation of wireless
1. used to determine the cellular network technology for the cellular mobile
protocol used in mobile phones. communication system.
GSM supports both voice calls and Whereas it is used only for high speed data
2.
data. communication.
GSM uses Frequency Division Multiple Whereas it uses Orthogonal frequency division
3. Access(FDMA) and Time-division multiple access(OFDMA) and Single-carrier
multiple access(TDMA). frequency division multiple access(SC-FDMA)
In GSM, information is transported
Whereas in LTE, information is carried out
4. through channels that are separated into
using physical, logical, and transport channels.
physical and logical channels.
GSM uses both the second-generation
(also known as 2G) and third-
5. LTE only uses the fourth generation (4G).
generation (3G) communication
standards.
Whereas in LTE, frequency bands from 1 to 25
In GSM, two frequency bands are used and from 33 to 41 are reserved for
6.
900 MHz and 1800 MHz. FDD( Frequency Division Duplex) and
TDD(Time Division Duplex) respectively.
In this, the information of the customer Whereas in this, a sim card is required to verify
7.
is stored in a sim card. the mobile phone.
8. It is comparatively slow network. Whereas it is the fastest network.
 S.
GSM LTE
NO.
The fundamental elements in the Evolved
The GSM architecture consists of the Packet Core (EPC) LTE architecture of Release
following:- 8 are as follows:-

9.  Base Station Subsystem (BSS)  NB (E-UTRAN Node B)

 Core Network (CN)  eGW (access gateway)
 User Equipment (UE).  MME (Mobile Management Entity)
 UPE (User Plane Entity).

Modulation Method-
Modulation Method-
 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
10.  Gaussian Minimum Shift
 16 QAM
Keying (GMSK)
 64 QAM

11. ARFCN is GSM channel number. EARFCN is LTE channel number.

It is used for voice calls, GPRS, and
It is designed for data calls and includes
data communications, and it includes
12. MIMO, carrier aggregation, beamforming, and
new capabilities including SAIC,
enhanced release ten versions.
VAMOS, and MSRD.
13. GSM follows 2*2 MIMO advancement.  LTE follows 8*8, 4*4 MIMO advancement.