REVIEW

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A Shift from Efficiency to Adaptability: Recent Progress in

Biomimetic Interactive Soft Robotics in Wet Environments
Jielun Fang, Yanfeng Zhuang, Kailang Liu, Zhuo Chen, Zhou Liu, Tiantian Kong,
Jianhong Xu,* and Cheng Qi*

Soft robots are robots made from elas-

Research field of soft robotics develops exponentially since it opens up many tomers, gels, and other easily deformable
imaginations, such as human-interactive robot, wearable robots, and matters. Owing to its softness and compli-
transformable robots in unpredictable environments. Wet environments such ance, a soft robot can serve as an intermedi-
as sea and in vivo represent dynamic and unstructured environments that ary between humans and machines. When
combined with soft electronics and artificial
adaptive soft robots can reach their potentials. Recent progresses in soft
intelligence (AI), soft robots and hybridized
hybridized robotics performing tasks underwater herald a diversity of systems hold the promise for bridging hu-
interactive soft robotics in wet environments. Here, the development of soft man with hard robots and electronic com-
robots in wet environments is reviewed. The authors recapitulate biomimetic puters for performing tasks and processing
inspirations, recent advances in soft matter materials, representative information.
Prior to future with neuro-control inter-
fabrication techniques, system integration, and exemplary functions for
face, wearable computing and augmented
underwater soft robots. The authors consider the key challenges the field body, soft robots can already provide unique
faces in engineering material, software, and hardware that can bring highly advantages over conventional robots. Con-
intelligent soft robots into real world. ventional robots are commonly rigid,
heavy, and highly complex in design. They
can exert large forces, and accomplish
1. Introduction sophisticated tasks with high precision. However, they bend and
straighten only around fixed points; their inflexibility makes
Emerging paradigms like Internet of Things (IoT) and human– them incapable of coping with dynamic, unstructured, or con-
machine interfacing set off frontier technologies of soft robotics. fined environments. Thus, they can be dangerous when deal-
ing with adaptable humans, animals, and unpredictable situa-
tions. Inspired by boneless biological organisms, soft robots re-
Y. Zhuang, T. Kong
Department of Biomedical Engineering
capitulate the softness, compliance, and responsiveness of soft-
School of Medicine bodied creatures. They can stretch, twist, and squeeze into nar-
Shenzhen University row spaces, they can transform into configurations upon envi-
Shenzhen, Guangdong 518000, China ronmental stimuli, and they can grip objects with soft touches,
J. Fang, K. Liu, C. Qi bringing inherent safety when interacting with human and an-
College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering imals. Soft robots with fundamentally different solutions from
Shenzhen University
Shenzhen 518000, China conventional hard robots are new classes of machines.
E-mail: [email protected] The field of soft robotics has expanded rapidly, and its ad-
Z. Liu vances have been summarized in reviews with various focuses,
College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering namely, the actuation mechanisms of soft robots, novel hydrogels
Shenzhen University for constructing soft robots, and the next-generation blueprints
Shenzhen, Guangdong 518000, China
of drug delivery robots.[1–8] To unleash its full potentials, the ca-
Z. Chen, J. Xu
The State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering
pabilities of soft robots to intelligently interact with surround-
Department of Chemical Engineering ing environments, specially, wet environments, are vital for their
Tsinghua University uses underwater and in vivo. This poses challenges, to name a
Beijing 100084, China few, integration, stability, durability, and environmental compat-
E-mail: [email protected] ibility to be addressed. Recent progresses demonstrated soft hy-
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article
bridized robots performing simple tasks in wet/moist conditions,
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202104347 bringing us closer to interactive soft robots in wet environments.
© 2022 The Authors. Advanced Science published by Wiley-VCH GmbH. However, there exists inadequate state-of-art reviews focusing on
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons progresses and future challenges of interactive soft robotics in
Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in wet/moist environments. The structure of this review follows the
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. basic principles for developing biomimicry soft robots. Inspira-
DOI: 10.1002/advs.202104347 tions of aquatic and amphibious organisms are first discussed.

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Figure 1. A schematic representation of contents discussed in this review.

Their functions are categorized, which are mimicked by aquatic ent strategies for locomotion and manipulations from those of
soft robots. Suitable soft matter materials and representative fab- hard-bodied animals. For instance, caterpillars escape danger by
rication techniques for aquatic soft robotics are overviewed. This snapping into a circle and wheel away.[10] Thus, designing and
is followed by detailed accounts of implemented functions of fabricating soft robots can potentially provide new capabilities
state-of-the-art soft robots in wet environments, as well as exem- that hard robots cannot provide.
plary demonstrations of these functions (Figure 1). This review Among numerous aquatic organisms, jellyfish and starfish are
is closed by a brief discussion on unaddressed challenges and fu- the simplest structures, often chosen as the bioinspiration for in-
ture directions. expensive soft robots (Figure 2a,b). Despite their simple struc-
ture and tissues of extremely low modulus, they can perform
2. Inspirations from Aquatic and Amphibious multi-gait movements, such as catching objects and defending
Organism themselves by manipulating surrounding flows.[11] Octopus is
the most popular source of inspiration, since they are armed
Nature, rich sources of inspirations, has iterated solutions that with astonishing abilities, such as, to undulate in tightly con-
continuously motivate human engineering achievements. For in- fined spaces, to adhere to uneven surfaces, to capture moving
stance, inspired by hard-skeleton birds, scientists and engineers objects at distances, and to camouflage itself through changes in
have worked out hard-bodied robotic aircrafts. Naturally, when shapes, colors, and surface textures (Figure 2c). Manta rays and
designing soft robots, soft-bodied, and flexible creatures with snailfishes can generate highly efficient thrusts by flapping their
high agility, such as octopuses, fishes, squids, starfish, and jel- pectoral fins, and it becomes a long pursuit for making robotic
lyfishes are sources of inspirations. fishes swimming amazingly fast (Figure 2d,e).[12–14] Other loco-
Most soft-bodied organisms without skeletons are living in motion modes, such as jetting inspired by squids, water-walking
aquatic environments, since a mechanically stiff and heavy skele- inspired by striders (Figure 2), jumping inspired by frogs (Fig-
ton is not a necessity for surviving owing to the buoyancy of ure 2f),[15] oscillating inspired by eel (Figure 2g),[16,17] are also
water.[9] As a result, these marine organisms have entirely differ- sources of imitation in soft robotic design. When locomoting and

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Figure 2. Representative images of living creatures and their robotic counterparts: a) jellyfish. Top photo by Thomas Millot on Unsplash, bottom repro-
duced with permission.[347] Copyright 2019, Springer Nature. b) starfish. Top photo by shahd h on Unsplash, bottom reproduced with permission.[19]
Copyright 2014, Springer Nature. c) octopus. Top photo by Serena Repice Lentini on Unsplash, bottom reproduced with permission.[20] Copyright 2016,
Springer Nature. d) Manta ray. Top photo by Naushad Mohamed on Unsplash, bottom reproduced with permission.[21] Copyright 2017, American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science. e) fish. Top photo by Rachel Hisko on Unsplash, bottom reproduced with permission.[348] Copyright 2017,
IOP Publishing. f) water-strider. Top photo by Tanguy Sauvin on Unsplash, bottom reproduced with permission.[349] Copyright 2011, American Chemical
Society. g) frog. Top photo by Joel Henry on Unsplash, bottom reproduced with permission.[350] Copyright 2020, IOP Publishing. h) eel. Top photo by
Francisco Jesús Navarro Hernández on Unsplash, bottom reproduced with permission.[351] Copyright 2021, IOP Publishing. i) sea turtle. Photo by Wexor
Tmg on Unsplash, Reproduced with permission.[18] Copyright 2016, IOP Publishing.

maneuvering in water, avoiding obstacles is also important. Sea 3. Soft Matter Materials and Design Strategies
turtle combines both the flapping and twisting of flippers. The
complex 3D motion of its flippers makes it the fastest and agilest Soft robots are composed of deformable soft matter materials, in-
reptile (Figure 2h).[18] cluding elastomer, hydrogels, alloys, and fluids. These materials
The aim of a soft robot is to replicate some of the motions and are lightweight, compliant, resilient, and easily deformable in 3D,
functionalities of soft-bodied animals, namely, multi-gait locomo- with elastic, plastic, and rheological properties that could match
tion and manipulation. It is not the key to mimic the in vivo bio- those of natural organisms.
logical mechanisms by which these functions are achieved. For a The first class of soft materials used for soft robots is silicone
simple aquatic organism, such as jellyfish, its structure is widely elastomers. Deformable elastomers are embedded with networks
used for gripping various delicate and deformable objects; for of perfusable chambers and channels, within which pressurized
fishes, swimming modes including flapping, undulating and jet- gases or liquids can pass through, causing inflation of chambers
ting are imitated in different robotic fishes. Aside from basic ac- and channels.[23] By attaching this layer of deformable microflu-
tuations, moving, gripping, and additional functionalities such as idic channel with a layer of less inflatable elastomer, the elas-
sensing, camouflaging, and adapting to environmental changes tomer device exhibits unilateral bending upon pressurization. A
are also key for achieving original aspirations of soft robots. These typical combination of inflatable and less inflatable elastomers
functionalities of current aquatic soft robotics will be discussed are Ecoflex and poly(dimethyl siloxane) (PDMS).[9] Instead of
in the following sections. choosing elastomers with different rigidities, the mismatching in
Through multibillion years of evolution, marine species with rigidity can also be achieved by doping filler particles and fibers
soft bodies have developed ubiquitous strategies for underwater in elastomers. A pair of layers with mismatched rigidities gener-
tasks, becoming inexhaustible fuels for current soft-robotic re- ates a facile control over bending and thus actuation motion. The
search, and, in turn, man-made robotic marine creatures may of- elaborate design of networks and segments of inflated microflu-
fer a new approach for exploring deep sea. idic channels and chambers dictates the nature of the motion.

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Figure 3. The examples of representative methods for fabricating soft robots: a) origami folding. Reproduced with permission.[343] Copyright 2018,
National Academy of Sciences. b) soft lithography. Reproduced with permission.[344] Copyright 2016, Springer Nature. c) multi-material 3D print-
ing. Reproduced with permission.[32] Copyright 2021, American Association for the Advancement of Science. d) system integration, Reproduced with
permission.[33] Copyright 2019, Springer Nature.

This type of soft robots is also known as Pneumatic Networks area. Actuators based on this mechanism is also known as DE
actuators (PneuNets). Since silicone elastomers are water-tight, actuator (DEA). If the DE is replaced by a dielectric liquid, which
they are indispensable seals for underwater soft robots. may endow with an actuator the self-healing ability with immedi-
To endow soft robots with adaptability, smart materials that re- ate recovery of functionality after numerous dielectric breakdown
spond to various stimuli are extensively adopted. These smart events.[24–26] Both IPMSCs and DEAs are frequently utilized in
materials can expand or shrink upon thermal, electrical, light, underwater soft robots.
and moisture/solvent triggers. For instance, thermo-responsive Shape memory materials are a type of smart stimuli-
and pH-responsive hydrogels swell upon water retention and responsive materials that not only deform in three dimensions
shrink upon water loss, triggered by temperature and pH upon external triggers but also can spontaneously recover to their
changes, respectively; liquid crystalline elastomers exhibit large original shapes after excitations. For instance, shape memory
deformation under illumination of visible light. alloy (SMA) undergoes reversible phase transitions upon each
Owing to the fast and pronounced response, the electrical trig- heating and cooling. They are often made into straight, twisted,
ger is the most commonly adopted stimulus. It needs to be in- coiled and bundled fibers to provide contraction, torsion, and
duced via compliant electrodes. For instance, for a layer of ionic bending motions. Both SMA and shape memory polymers are
polymer between two flexible electrodes, by employing voltage, unutilized in wet environments.
migration and redistribution of ions give rise to an osmotic pres- To facilitate multigait motion modes, rational design of 3D
sure gradient, resulting in a unilateral bending of the whole struc- complex architectures with multiple materials of programmable
ture. The same happens for a membrane of electroactive polymer strains is necessary. Inspired by nature, patterning different
containing electrolytes upon voltage excitation via electrodes. smart materials of distinctive mechanical properties on a single
This is also referred to as the ionic-polymer/metal composites planar sheet can create complex 3D objects by origami folding.[27]
(IPMCs) actuator. Similarly, when a dielectric elastomer (DE) is This “fabricating 2D and folding into 3D” approach facilitates
sandwiched between two flexible electrodes, an applied electric fast and efficient prototyping and product iteration (Figure 3a).
field causes a strong attraction between electrodes, squeezing the SMA, shape memory polymers, and stimuli-responsive polymers
DE and leading to reduction in its thickness and expansion in its are often used for origami self-folding. For example, a planar

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sheet of liquid crystal polymer with patterned crosslinked and the robotic fish to swim and fan its pectoral fins for communica-
un-crosslinked domains can fold into an actuator. This actu- tion (Figure 3d).
ator can be light-fueled to walk and optically reconfigured to
adopt different locomotion behaviors, such as changing mov-
ing directions.[30] By selectively modifying an elastomer surface 4. Biomimetic Functions and Potential Applications
with active particles, the surface self-folds into ferromagnetic
origami robots with functions including swimming, multimode- Construction of simplified, lightweight, adaptive, and energy-
locomoting, and delivering objecting.[30] efficient soft robots is supposed to be a powerful tool for per-
Origami approach of “fabricating 2D and folding into 3D” is forming diverse tasks in wet environments. This section will start
ingenious, but direct fabrication of 3D soft robots is versatile with the introduction of different actuation strategies with their
and compatible with various designs. Typical 3D fabrication tech- corresponding disadvantages and advantages. The comparison
niques are “top down” soft lithography and “bottom up” 3D print- of their performance will be also given. It aims at providing a
ing. Soft lithography is well established to process silicone elas- guidance to choose a suitable actuation method for different sce-
tomer into microfluidic chips with sophisticated designs, and it narios. Actuation is fundamental to robots just like muscles to
is widely used for fabricating composite fluid-elastomer struc- living creatures, through which the robot can perform the most
tures, such as PneuNets and grippers. Actuation is then real- basic deformations of contraction, expansion, or bending. Upon
ized by pressurzing fluids into networks of microchannels. For delicate designs and integrations, superior bionic tasks such as
example, an octopus robot utilized gas generated from fuel cat- locomotion, gripping, sensing, and color display and camouflage
alytic decompositions to inflate the downstream channels for can be realized. Recent studies on achieving these tasks will be
untethered actuation (Figure 3b).[344] Not only pressurized flu- reviewed subsequently. Particular attention will be given to those
ids can flow through networks of microchannels for actuation, soft robots used in wet environments.
color-changing fluids, conductive fluids, chemical combustive
fluids, and stimuli-responsive fluids can be also incorporated
in microfluidic channels of soft robots to achieve camouflaging 4.1. Actuation
and locomotion. For instance, a color-changing and walking soft
robot is realized by two layers of microfluidic channel in a thin The most fundamental function of robot is actuation, which
elastic Ecoflex. The soft robot walks when fluids are pumped is equivalent to the function of muscle that contracts, extends,
into one layer, and it displays colors for disguise when thermo- and bends. A typical actuator, also known as artificial muscle,
responsive pigment dispersions are perfused in another layer of is the work horse of soft robots.[34] It typically needs external
microchannels.[31] stimuli, such as water,[35–45] pH,[46–50] heat,[47,51–57] light,[58–65]
Most soft materials such as elastomers, electroactive polymers, electricity,[53,66–71] and magnetic field to perform.[27,72–75] In recent
and hydrogels are suitable for 3D printing.[28] For instance, by years, soft actuators can be classified based on materials as elas-
using two photocurable silicone resins with different stretcha- tomeric pneumatic actuator (PA), hydrogel actuator (HA), bio-
bilities, PDMS-based gripper actuated by compressed fluids has hybrid actuator (BHA), actuators made of DE, twisted and coiled
been fabricated via multi-material digital light processing. Ac- yarns (TCY), SMA, liquid crystal elastomers (LCE), and ionic
tuators can also be printed utilizing two types of shape mem- polymer-metal composites (IPMC).[76] Extensive efforts in design
ory polymers with different glass transition temperatures, or a and fabrication are dedicated to improving the performance of
shape memory polymer and an elastomer, via multi-material artificial muscles, such as efficiency,[42,77,78] power density,[79–81]
stereolithography.[29] Functional modules such as actuators, sen- actuation force,[82–85] and the response speed[66,82,86–89] (Table 1).
sors, and power modules can be 3D printed, but a fully 3D- PA are devices in which pressurized fluids expand deformable
printed soft robot is challenging. With further development of chambers and channels, converting the energy of compressed
multi-materials 3D printing, a fully integrated robotic turtle with fluids into mechanical actuation of objects (Figure 4a).[107,108] PA
modular components of actuator, circuitry, and interconnects is can generate a power density as high as 103 KW m−3 and an ac-
fabricated during a single print. Constant-flow inputs can be con- tuation force up to 1 MPa,[91] and it can be used in extreme con-
verted to periodic oscillations of limbs (Figure 3c). ditions, such as deep sea. The major limitation of PA is its bulky
To fabricate a sophisticated soft robot capable of performing appearance, largely owing to the size of the fluid tank,[109,110] and
challenging tasks, techniques such as multi-material 3D print- the actuation is generally slow and inefficient.[111] Additionally,
ing, shape deposition manufacturing, soft lithography, and even the nonlinear relationship between pressure and contraction ra-
hard robotic techniques need to be adopted altogether. A complex tio, as well as the hysteresis characteristics of PA may lead to a
robotic system includes actuation, sensing, power, and control low accuracy of modeling and control.[112]
modules. Each of these modules may be fabricated by different Actuation can also be achieved by stimulus-responsive soft
techniques and integrated together, analogous to hard robots. For materials, which change their sizes and shapes, reversibly via
instance, an electronic fish swimming in deep sea is composed swelling/deswelling, upon various external stimuli in ambient
of DE actuator for its flapping fins, polymer-encapsulated power environment. SMA, LCE, and TCYs can be actuated by temper-
unit, voltage amplifier, and control units, all embedded in soft ature changes (Figure 4b). Reversible phase transitions of SMA
elastomer shells in a decentralized manner. To reduce weight, and LCE during heating and cooling cycles result in actuation,
conventional rigid battery can be replaced by flexible redox flow thus, the heat storage and release in these materials typically slow
battery. For instance, in a lionfish-inspired aquatic robot, a flow- their actuation speed and the response frequency.[90] TCY actu-
cell battery supplies power to the pump and electronics, enabling ators refer to coiled yarns of nylon, carbon, and fishing lines,

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Table 1. Comparison of actuation method of soft robots. Bold denotes better performance. Adapted with permission.[90] Copyright 2018, Springer Nature.

Actuation method Strain [%] Work density [kJ m−3 ] Modulus [MPa] Power density [kW m−3 ] Strain rate [% s−1 ] Frequency [Hz] Auxiliary equipment

Skeletal muscle 20–40 8–40 10–60 50–300 10–50 1–10 Body metabolism
PA 10–40 1–200 0.1–100 10–103 10–70 1–5 Pneumatic pump, values
LCE 10–50 1–180[ 55 ] 0.1–3 0.01–10 1–10 0.001–1 Light, heat
BHA 10–25 0.1–10 0.01–1 1–10 10–100 1–5 Biocompatible medium
SMA 4–8 104 –105 28–75 × 103 103 –105 10–50 0.5–5 Power supply
IPMC 0.5–10 1–10 25–2.5 × 103 0.01–1 1–3 0.1–2 Power supply
DE 1–103 102 –3.5 × 103[ 91] 0.1–3 103 –105 102 –105 1–100 Power supply
HA <87[ 84,92] 10−2[ 83] –102[ 93] 10−3 –0.1[ 94 ] 10−5[ 95] –35[ 96 ] – <1[97] Light, heat, pH, water, etc.
TCY 0.2–90[ 98–103] 2.5 × 103 [ 104] –1.6 × 104 [ 105] 2.4 × 103[ 91] 1.3 × 103[ 105]− 5 × 103[ 104] 15[ 98 ] –50[ 103] 2–12[ 79,99,100,106] Heat, solvent

Figure 4. Actuation methods by external stimuli through: a) pressurized fluid. Reproduced with permission.[132] Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. b)
heat. Reproduced with permission.[133] Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH. c) electricity. Reproduced with permission.[345] Copyright 2020, American Chemical
Society. d) light. Reproduced with permission.[135] Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. e) solvent. Reproduced with permission.[136] Copyright
2015, Springer Nature. f) magnetic field. Reproduced with permission.[137] Copyright 2020, Springer Nature. g) pH. Reproduced with permission.[46]
Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry.

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Figure 5. Illustrations of some soft robots locomoting in wet environments: a) a soft robotic fish using DEs as flapping fins that swims freely in the
Mariana Trench at a depth of 10900 m and in the South China Sea at a depth of 3224 m. Reproduced with permission.[172] Copyright 2021, Springer Nature.
b) a soft robot with multiple hydrophobic tapered feet that moves on wet surface with liquid film. Reproduced with permission.[346] Copyright 2018,
Springer Nature. c) a small-scale soft robot exhibiting a multimode locomoting ability in water and on land. Reproduced with permission.[188] Copyright
2018, Springer Nature. d) a multi-legged soft robot moving in a wet cow stomach. Reproduced with permission.[191] Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH.

which are thermally activated by hot fluids, joule heat produced propulsion in underwater soft robots.[124–126] However, the
by electrical current or heating wire. Upon heating, the volumet- flapping frequency of IPMC fins is restrained by the speed of
ric expansion of TCY results in contraction or bending. TCY ac- ion migration, which in turn limits the propulsion speed of the
tuators are capable of generating high output stress, power, and soft robot.[127]
work densities with long working life. The thermal actuation typ- Hydrogel-based actuators are a class of actuators that swell by
ically has low energy conversion efficiency and thus consumes gaining water and shrink by losing water, upon various stimuli,
remarkable amount of energy. Also, it usually takes a long time including water, light, pH, and biomolecules (Figure 4d–g). Hy-
for heat transfer, the response speed and frequency for this type drogel has a near 90% of water content, and its softness makes
of actuation is low. them suitable for constructing underwater and in vivo robots.[90]
The fastest responsive actuators are electrically triggered ones. For instance, it is extensively used for creating nondestructively
IPMC and DEs are representative examples that can be actuated gripping robots for fragile and delicate objects, since HA may
by applying an electric field (Figure 4c). DE actuators are fea- minimize the risk of damaging target objects.[128] In addition,
tured by high power density, fast response speed, large strain and HA is highly designable and programmable to swell and deswell
strain rate, good reliability, and long lifetime.[113–118] Underwa- in response to an external stimulus.[129,130] The major challenge
ter, the weight of the DE actuator is balanced by buoyance and for HA is that its current energy density, power density, and en-
its surrounding water can be used as an electric ground, which durance are far lower than those of biological muscles.[131]
enables high payload[119] and even untethered swimming of soft
robots.[120] One concern of DE actuators is its high operating volt-
age (typically thousands of volts), which can cause safety problem 4.2. Locomotion and Swimming in Aquatic Environments
for biomedical and wearable applications.[91]
In contrast to DE, IPMC actuators only require a low operating Soft robots that can autonomously move in aqueous environ-
voltage of 1–5 voltages.[121,122] The three-orders-of magnitude ments have been developed for a spectrum of purposes, such as
reduction in actuating voltage lies in their compositions. The exploring sea and seabed conditions, investigating marine life,
responsive material sandwiched by two electrodes is com- detecting ocean intruders, and recording ocean currents (see ex-
posed of ionic polymer and electrolyte for IPMC, while in amples in Figure 5).[119] Soft robots operate in unsafe and unpre-
DE it is composed of a DE. In IPMC, only a few voltages can dictable aqueous environments, thus they ought to cope with risk
drive the electrolysis of electrolyte solution, leading to ion of mechanical failure under dynamic conditions and complexity
migration, generating osmotic pressure gradient, and making of navigation in unstructured submerged scenarios.[138,139] Lo-
IPMC bending. It is naturally suitable for IPMC actuators to comotion of soft robots can be achieved either by rigid motors
be used in wet environments due to the presence of aqueous or stimuli-responsive soft actuators.[7] Rigid motors are effective,
electrolyte.[123] IPMC is frequently used as a caudal fin for but the rigidity impedes a lightweight and flexible integration,[120]

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which are not enclosed in the current review. Interested readers Table 2. Comparison of soft grippers of their performance (FE: fluidic elas-
may refer to other reviews for more details.[140,141] tomer; DE: dielectric elastomer; IPMC: ionic polymer-metal composites;
SMA: shape memory alloy; PG: pneumatic gripper; SMP: shape memory
In aqueous environments, hydrogels can take up water and polymer; LCE: liquid crystal elastomer).
swell by external stimulus. The reversible swelling-deswelling
property of hydrogels by stimuli can be exploited to produce Category Lifting ratio Gripper size Response
macroscopic actuation for soft robots. A large variety of stim- (By materials) (Object mass/gripper mass) [10−2 m] time [s]
uli, such as heat,[142–149] light,[150–153] water,[154,155] pH,[156–158]
FE 2[ 193] –68[ 194] 0.5[ 195] –120[ 196] 0.1[ 197]
biomolecules,[159,160] and electric field,[157,161–163] can change the
osmotic pressure of solvents in hydrogels and/or environments, DE 5.5[ 198] –100.8[ 199] 2[ 200] –10.3[ 201] 0.1[ 201]

resulting in water diffusion in or out of the hydrogels, cor- IPMC 2[ 202] –3.5[ 203] 0.5[ 203] –8[ 204] 0.33[ 205]
responding to their expansion or contraction, respectively.[164] SMA 15[ 206] –25.8[ 207] 0.9[ 208] –11.5[ 209] 0.15[ 206]
Other than common physical stimuli, a recent study showed that PG 13[ 210] –38.3[ 211] 0.5[ 195,212] –148[ 213] 0.1[ 197]
a hydrogel robot could locomote on water surface for 3.5 h by SMP 48.9[ 214] 0.4[ 215] –6[ 216] 10[ 217]
the Marangoni effect (Figure 5e).[165] This effect has been widely LCE 210[ 218] 0.03[ 219] –3[ 220] 0.2[ 221]
used for self-propelling robots, where they locomote by an inter-
facial flow from low surface tension domain toward high surface
tension domain. Gripping an object that is ultra-smooth, ultra-thin, or highly
Besides hydrogels, other soft stimuli-responsive materials and greasy is extraordinarily difficult. In these situations, special
pneumatic devices[108,166–168] have been also used for locomot- strategies should be adopted when designing the gripper. In-
ing soft robots, including DEs,[119,120,134,169–174] ionic polymer spired by octopus, which uses tentacles covered with suction cups
metal composites (IPMCs),[124–126,175–179] and SMAs.[180–182] These to grasp objects underwater, electro-adhesion is a useful method.
robots can reach the speeds of 0.35 body length per second (BL It exploits the attraction force between the object and integrated
s−1 ) by SMAs,[183] 0.25 BL s−1 by IPMCs,[176] 0.69 BL s−1 by electrode in gripper.[199,222–228] It generally requires a high volt-
DEs,[120] and 0.78 BL s−1 by PAs[184] in aqueous environments. age, on the order of a few kilovolts, and can produce high hold-
Despite recent advances, it still remains challenging to achieve ing force. For instance, the generated normal and shear stresses
fast locomotion speed. Compared with the moving speed of an- are in the range of 4–13 and 12–62 kPa,[227,229–231] respectively.
imals and rigid robots, 1 to 100 BL s−1 , the reported locomo- By optimizing the geometries of the electrodes and the insu-
tion speed of soft robots in literature is less than 0.8 BL s−1 .[184] lating layer, the performance of electro-adhesion can be further
This is partially owing to intrinsic nature of soft materials con- improved.[229,232,233]
stituting the robots.[185] Mechanical energy transfers slower in Soft gripper typically exhibits small grasping force.[234–236]
soft materials than hard materials, resulting in a slower locomo- To lift heavy objects, soft materials with variable stiffness,
tion of soft robots.[186] Moreover, soft materials typically exhibit including low-melting point alloys,[198,237–241] shape memory
nonlinear mechanical properties. For instance, their elasticity can materials,[214,242–244] electrorheological and magnetorheological
change remarkably upon a threshold strain, adding difficulty to fluids[245] are adopted. Generally, the gripper is soft when ap-
accurately model and control the locomotion of soft robots. proaching the object, after enveloping the target, it suddenly stiff-
ens and holds the target by caging. A stiffness-tunable soft grip-
per of shape memory materials is fabricated and it finishes its
4.3. Gripping softening-stiffening cycle within 32 s.[243] The gripper could en-
hance its stiffness by 120 times and pick up the objects of the
Biological sampling of ocean species is important for studying weights ranging from 10 g to 1.5 kg (Figure 6f).[243]
sea ecosystem, biological diversity, and genetic adaptions. How- Most existing soft grippers are challenging when operat-
ever, collecting intact samples of delicate sea creatures has been ing under high-pressure, extreme temperatures, and corrosive
a challenge, since existing technologies, such as nets and vac- environments.[213] A soft gripper operates in deep sea at depths
uum devices, often damage their integrity during capture.[192] over 1200 m with ambient pressure exceeds 100 atmospheres is
Soft gripping robots provide a safer way for this task. A soft grip- developed, where it can produce a pulling force larger than 35 N
per should be sufficiently compliant to avoid any damage to frag- on an object.[246] However, the effects of position, geometry, and
ile objects, and it also should conform to objects with complex support of the sample on the performance of the gripper remain
shape to handle them reliably. to be addressed.
Similar to human using fingers to hold an object, soft robots
grip by bending themselves around the object. There are two
types of grippers: one is a soft actuator that can autonomously 4.4. Sensing
bend and cap the target object upon a stimulus, which is often
achieved by stimuli-responsive soft materials; the other is a soft Sensing empowers soft robots with capability to continuously
gripper that cannot actuate autonomously and hence is powered detect and regulate their motions, for adaptations, autonomy,
by an external actuator. The maximum mass of an object that the and interactions with humans and environment.[4–6] Sensing is
gripper can elevate and the minimum time it takes to complete exceptionally important for interactive soft robots operating in
the task are two basic criteria for evaluating the performance of wet, dynamic, and complex environments.[248] Sensors mounted
grippers, which are given in Table 2 with respect to their consti- on rigid bodies cannot be used directly on soft robots, due to
tuting materials (Figure 6a–h). the mechanical mismatch between sensors and soft robots. For-

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Figure 6. Demonstrations of soft grippers consisting of different materials: a) a SMA gripper to pick up two daisy-like flowers with different sizesand a
panicle of green bristlegrass. Reproduced with permission.[352] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. b) a LCE gripper to grip and lift a cherry tomato. Reproduced with
permission.[353] Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. c) an SMP gripper capable of grasping and lifting a wide range of object weights from 10
to 1500 g. Reproduced with permission.[243] Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH. d) a soft gripper collecting Rubik’s cube by a pressurized air input. Reproduced
with permission.[354] Copyright 2020, IOP Publishing. e) a DE gripper approaches the cube and then grips it by turning off the voltage. Reproduced with
permission.[355] Copyright 2019, Elsevier. f) a soft pneumatic gripper to grasp a cube, sphere and cylinder. Reproduced with permission.[357] Copyright
2021, IOP Publishing. g) IPMC gripper robots splice components cooperatively. Reproduced with permission.[356] Copyright 2019, IOP Publishing. h) a
transparent hydrogel gripper to catch, raise and release a live goldfish. Reproduced with permission.[128] Copyright 2017, Springer Nature.

tunately, flexible sensors have been rapidly developed in recent tacles of anemones can sensor the flow velocity and inform its
years, which are composed of a variety of sensitive materials, body to shrink to protect itself at a fast water flow. Inspired by
such as metals,[249–251] carbons,[252–257] oxides,[258–260] and stimuli- the sea anemone, a NdFeB/Ecoflex composite robot combining
responsive gels.[261–264] These flexible sensors can be integrated shape-deforming and sensing capabilities was developed. The top
with underwater soft robots, from which a variety of information tentacle-like magnetoelectric sensors could perceive surround-
ranging from physical, chemical, and biological signals can be ing flow velocity, and the bottom magneto-stimulated shrinkable
perceived. For example, a soft somatosensitive HA that could body can deform accordingly.[270]
perform feedback-controlled gripping is reported.[265] When the Recent advances in electronic skins have significantly pro-
actuator perceived and gripped three objects of different sizes moted sensing capability and diversity of soft robots.[3,271–279] This
under NIR illumination, both the time and magnitude of resis- is mostly achieved by capacitive or resistive strain sensors,[280–283]
tance change by piezoresistive effect were distinct for different or optical devices like optical fibers and cameras to de-
sized objects, providing the potential for shape recognition of tect deformations.[284–286] However, sophistication of current
unknown objects.[265] A closed-loop control system to regulate skin sensors may not be comparable to that of human skin
shrinking and relaxation motions of the octopus-like arm was receptors.[3] Considering interactive robots in wet environments
also developed.[265] may experience complex deformations, large amounts of infor-
To precisely control and locate a robot in aquatic environments, mation during tasks in unknown or dynamic environments need
whisker-inspired sensor arrays have been developed.[266–269] to be collected and processed, such as abyssal exploration and
These sensors are dense arrays which are distributed over the sampling, more sophisticated sensors are required to be devel-
surface of the robot. In this way, the robot can perceive relevant oped. Additionally, it is also necessary to extract useful infor-
information of interest precisely and make a response. For ex- mation from vast amount of data collected by sensors. Machine
ample, sea anemones are able to avoid being broken or swept learning could play an important role in bringing sensing to
away by their surrounding flowing seawater.[270] The array of ten- human-like performance levels.[3,287]

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Figure 7. Examples of soft robots with the capability of color display and camouflage: a) a soft robotic fish actuated by cardiomyocyte beating with the
tail showing variable structural color during one myocardial cycle. Reproduced with permission.[299] Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. b) a
biomimetic chameleon soft robot that can detect and match the local background color in real-time. Reproduced with permission.[323] Copyright 2021,
Springer Nature. c) a transparent hydrogel robotic fish to camouflage when moving over rainbow-colored background. Reproduced with permission.[128]
Copyright 2017, Springer Nature. d) a soft transparent DEA robot camouflaging under the application of voltage. Reproduced with permission.[324]
Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH.

4.5. Color Display and Camouflage Other than structural colors, dyes, pigments, and luminescent
color-switchable polymers can be employed.[31,49,316–322] Directly
To closely investigate marine life within their habitats with min- embedding light-emitting elements to mimic chromatophores in
imal disturbance for long-term, camouflage soft robot that can living species is more widely employed in soft robotic systems.[4]
locomote alongside with marine life without alarming them is Chromomorphism in artificial systems has been successfully
an ideal tool. A diversity of living creatures can change their replicated either by controlling pigment-containing liquids in an
color and morphology, which endows them with the adaptive artificial dermal melanophore, or using areal expansion of DE
abilities for camouflage, display, or communication.[288–292] For structures.[322] By designing microfluidic networks which were
example, sea animals like jellyfish and leptocephalus can de- then integrated on soft substrates, coloration was accomplished
tect external stimuli and camouflage themselves to escape from by hydrostatic translocation of pigmented fluids with different
predators.[293–295] Inspired by these sea animals, various soft colors in microchannels.[31,317] Doping fluorescent substance into
robots with the capability of color display and camouflage have substrate materials endows soft robots with a variety of color-
been developed and will be reviewed in this section. ing patterns.[49,319,320] Thin rubber sheets consisting of a ZnS
phosphor-doped DE layer sandwiched by layers of hydrogel elec-
trodes were created.[320] These sheets were able to vary illumi-
4.5.1. Color Display nance under deformation and were integrated onto the skin of a
soft robot, equipped with the functions of sensory feedback from
Nanostructured photonic materials can tune electromagnetic outer surrounding and dynamic coloration.[320]
waves and control propagation of photons with the en-
ergy in their photonic band gap (PBG), resulting in bril-
liant structural colors.[296] If the PBG is changed by an ex- 4.5.2. Camouflage
ternal stimulus in environment, the output color will be
also changed, which is used as an effective strategy in The most simple strategy for camouflage is transparent soft robot
soft robotic systems to display.[296–304] The stimulus can be (Figure 7b-d).[2,120,128,324–326] If a soft robot is composed of en-
mechanical,[305–307] chemical,[308] electrical,[309,310] magnetic,[311] tirely transparent components absorbing very little light, it can
light,[312] or thermal.[313,314] The response time of color switch- disguise itself in water as its refractive index is close to that of
ing can be as fast as 0.1 millisecond to mechanical stimuli.[307] water (≈1.33).[128,324] DE actuators (DEAs),[134,324,327] electrother-
Color displaying capacity can also be achieved by autonomic mal actuators (ETAs),[328–330] and stimuli-responsive polymers
regulation.[296,299,300,315] For example, cardiomyocyte cells with re- and hydrogels[128,331] show a high transmittance across visible
peated contraction were integrated into an intelligent soft robotic spectrum larger than 80%, thus they can be used for transpar-
“heart-on-a-chip”, which could visualize therapeutic effects of ent actuators.[2] For example, a DEA was invented by using an
screened drug (Figure 7a).[296,300,315] acrylic adhesive as the dielectric layer, an internal chamber filled

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with ionic fluid as one of the electrodes and surrounding liquid ing methodology are the key to robots with embodied mechanical
as another electrode, which has a transparency as high as 94%, intelligence.
similar to a leptocephalus.[134] System integration is often not emphasized sufficiently, but it
An active camouflage strategy refers to a soft robot chang- is indispensable for lightweight, flexible, compact, and agile soft
ing its color actively adaptive to environment. This kind of soft robots. The actuator, sensor, controller, and power components of
robot needs to acquire prior information of background colors a soft robot have distinct stiffnesses, to interface them efficiently
in its surrounding environment to match with them. The group and seamlessly becomes increasingly important, as the complex-
of Whitesides demonstrated a pneumatically driven camouflaged ity of the soft robotic system increases.[90] At system level, tac-
soft robot in water.[31] Camouflage was realized by pumping col- tile sensing capability and bi-directional control are the core for
ored liquids through a network of microfluidic channels to match realizing organism-like soft robot. Currently, most soft robots
the background colors.[31] However, this color matching was con- lack autonomy, closed-loop, and bi-directional control. In biolog-
ducted manually by the operator, instead of an automatic system. ical systems, living creatures can detect dangers through recep-
To develop an intelligent robotic system, it should automatically tors to receive information, either light, sound, pain, or chemi-
sense surrounding colors and complete color-shifting to adapt to cals, which help them escape from predators and thrive in the
the surrounding environment. For example, a highly integrated world. To mimic these creatures, multimodal sensors that can
system can consist of three units, embedded color sensors to provide feedbacks from surroundings are necessary. Achieving
record color patterns of the surrounding environment, a smart precise control after sensing and proprioception is also challeng-
program to analyze the acquired information from the sensors, ing, since the soft-bodied robot has almost infinite degrees of
and a feedback control system to guide the change of the appear- freedom.[6] Currently, AI and machine learning have been in-
ance of robot accordingly.[310] troduced to learn and predict the behavior of soft robot, in pur-
pose of aiding in sensing and adaptive control of these systems.
5. Challenges and Perspectives We envision that with synergistic developments of soft materials,
novel soft robotic algorithms, and hardware, intelligent robotic
Soft robotics emerges from a bioinspired idea to make robots systems with high level of planning, control, state estimation, and
soft, flexible, compliant, reconfigurable, and adaptable, like soft- decision-making can be possible.
bodied biological organisms, while hard robots are heavy, rigid,
and sophisticated machines. The application scenario for soft
robots is distinctively different from hard robots. Soft robots are Acknowledgements
supposed to be more fitting for interacting with humans, han- This research was supported by the National Natural Science Founda-
dling fragile objects, and operating in dynamic environments.[246] tion of China (NSFC 22078197, 5217021005), and Natural Science Foun-
A soft robot is not driven by rigid motors, but like biological dation of Guangdong Province (2021A1515012506, 2020A1515110480,
organisms, which is driven by artificial muscles. Moreover, to- 20180303A0588). The authors are also thankful for the support of the
gether with the rapid development of skin electronics, seamless Guangdong Province Universities and Colleges Pearl River Scholar Funded
Scheme (2018) and Shenzhen Overseas High-level Talents Key Foundation
integration of soft tactile sensors and transducers in a soft robot, for Innovation and Entrepreneurship.
it will enable multiple sensing modalities that mimic biological
systems, bringing us closer to a future of artificial-organism-like
soft robots. Despite the great perspective and recent advances of Conflict of Interest
soft robotics, there still need considerable endeavors ahead, for
instance, intelligent material, novel design methodology, and bi- The authors declare no conflict of interest.
directional control.
Intelligent materials that can switch between soft/compliant Author Contributions
and stiff/load-bearing states are demanded. This class of ma-
terials can provide either stability and high output or com- Y.F.Z. and J.L.F. contributed equally to this work. C.Q. and J.H.X. conceived,
pliance and versatility as it needs.[214,243,332,333] Representative designed, and supervised the review. Z.L. provides important insights for
this review. C.Q. and T.T.K. wrote the manuscript. Y.F.Z., J.L.F., and K.L.L.
intelligent material is self-regulating biological muscles. In-
conducted investigation and collected figures. All authors commented on
spired by this, current artificial muscle can progressively stiffen the manuscript.
through mechanical training.[84,334,335] In addition, self-healing
artificial muscle is also developed for coping with unpredictable
environments.[336–342] Keywords
Structural design optimized by computer modeling is critical
actuator, hydrogels, interactive, soft robotics, underwater
for embedding the functionality of soft robots. For instance, 3D-
printed pneumatic soft robot has demonstrated how shapes and
Received: September 29, 2021
configurations of air chambers can be manipulated to realize
Revised: November 30, 2021
multigait behaviors. Morphological computation that emulates Published online:
high-order nonlinear systems is essential to find topology opti-
mization approach for discovering origami fold patterns that re-
sult in optimal out-of-plane motion. Design optimization is also
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Adv. Sci. 2022, 2104347 2104347 (11 of 17) © 2022 The Authors. Advanced Science published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.advancedscience.com

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Jianhong Xu received his B.Sc. and Ph.D. from Tsinghua University in 2002 and 2007, respectively. He
continued his research at Tsinghua University as a postdoctoral fellow after graduation. He finished
the postdoctoral program in May 2009 and became a formal faculty of the Department of Chemical
Engineering, Tsinghua University. He studied as a visiting scholar in Prof. David Weitz’s lab at Harvard
University from 2012 to 2013. Currently, his research areas are microstructured chemical systems,
multiphase microfluidic technology, and functional materials synthesis.

Cheng Qi is an assistant professor at the College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen
University. He received his bachelor’s degree from Huazhong University of Science and Technology
and his Ph.D. degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Hong Kong in 2016. He worked
as an associate professor at Wuhan University of Technology before joining Shenzhen University. His
research interest includes smart materials, electrohydrodynamics, and microfluidics.

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