Basic Definitions

Controlled Variable: The controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is

measured and controlled. Normally, the controlled variable is the output of the
system.

Manipulated Variable: The manipulated variable is the quantity or condition that

is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable.

Control: Means measuring the value of the controlled variable of the system and
applying the manipulated variable to the system to correct or limit deviation of the
measured value from a desired value.

Plants: A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine parts
functioning together, the purpose of which is to perform a particular operation.

Process: Any operation to be controlled called a process. Examples are chemical,

economic, and biological processes.

System: A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a

certain objective.

Disturbances: A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of

the output of a system. If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called
internal, while an external disturbance is generated outside the system and is an
input.

Feedback Control: Feedback control refers to an operation that tends to reduce

the difference between the output of a system and some reference input.

Introduction to Control System

In most systems there will be an input and an output as shown in the
following block diagram. . Signals flow from the input, through the system and
produce an output.

1 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

 The input will usually be an ideal form of the output. In other words the input
is really what we want the output to be. It's the desired output.

 The output of the system has to be measured. In the figure below, we show
the system we are trying to control -the "plant"- and a sensor that measures
what the controlled system is doing.

 The input to the plant is usually called the control effort, and the output of the
sensor is usually called the measured output, as shown below in the figure.

If we want to control the output, we first need to measure the output. Within the
whole system is the system we want to control - the plant - along with
a sensor that measures what the output actually is.

 In our block diagram representation, we show the output signal being fed to
the sensor which produces another signal that is dependent upon the output.

 A sensor, which produces a voltage proportional to temperature - if the

output signal is a temperature.

We need the sensor in the system to measure what the system is doing.

To control the system we need to use the information provided by the sensor.

 Usually, the output, as measured by the sensor is subtracted from the input
(which is the desired output) as shown below. That forms an error signal that
the controller can use to control the plant.

 The device which performs the subtraction to compute the error, E, is

a comparator.

2 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Finally, the last part of this system is the controller.

Types of Control Systems

There are various types of control system but all of them are created to
control outputs. The system used for controlling the position, velocity,
acceleration, temperature, pressure, voltage and current etc. are examples of
control systems.

Let us take an example of simple temperature controller of the room, to clear the
concept. Suppose there is a simple heating element, which is heated up as long as
the electric power supply is switched on. As long as the power supply switch of the
heater is on the temperature of the room rises and after achieving the desired
temperature of the room, the power supply is switched off. Again due to ambient
temperature, the room temperature falls and then manually the heater element is
switched on to achieve the desired room temperature again. In this way one can
manually control the room temperature at desired level. This is an example of
manual control system.

The above system can further be improved by using timer switching arrangement
of the power supply where the supply to the heating element is switched on and off
in a predetermined interval to achieve desired temperature level of the room. There
is another improved way of controlling the temperature of the room. Here one
sensor measures the difference between actual temperature and desired
temperature. If there is any difference between them, the heating element functions
to reduce the difference and when the difference becomes lower than a
predetermined level, the heating elements stop functioning. Both forms of the
system are automatic control system.

In former one the input of the system is entirely independent of the output of the
system. Temperature of the room (output) increases as long as the power supply
switch is kept on. That means heating element produces heat as long as the power
supply is kept on and final room temperature does not have any control to the input
power supply of the system. This system is referred as open loop control system.
3 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
But in the latter case, the heating elements of the system function, depending upon
the difference between, actual temperature and desired temperature. This
difference is called error of the system. This error signal is fed back to the system
to control the input. As the input to output path and the error feedback path create a
closed loop, this type of control system is referred as closed loop control system.
Hence, there are two main types of control system. They are as follow open loop
control system and closed loop control system.

Open Loop Control System

A control system in which the control action is totally independent of output of the
system then it is called open loop control system. Manual control system is also an
open loop control system. Fig - 1 shows the block diagram of open loop control
system in which process output is totally independent of controller action.

Practical Examples of Open Loop Control System

1. Electric Hand Drier – Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your hand
under the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried.

2. Automatic Washing Machine – This machine runs according to the pre-set time
irrespective of washing is completed or not.

3. Bread Toaster - This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.

4. Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker – These machines also function for pre adjusted
time only.

5. Timer Based Clothes Drier – This machine dries wet clothes for pre – adjusted
time, it does not matter how much the clothes are dried.

6. Light Switch – lamps glow whenever light switch is on irrespective of light is

required or not.

7. Volume on Stereo System – Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of output

volume level.

4 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Advantages of Open Loop Control System

1. Simple in construction and design.

2. Economical.

3. Easy to maintain.

4. Generally stable.

5. Convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.

Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System

1. They are inaccurate.

2. They are unreliable.

3. Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.

Closed Loop Control System

Control system in which the output has an effect on the input quantity in such a
manner that the input quantity will adjust itself based on the output generated is
called closed loop control system. Open loop control system can be converted in to
closed loop control system by providing a feedback. This feedback automatically
makes the suitable changes in the output due to external disturbance. In this way
closed loop control system is called automatic control system. Figure below shows
the block diagram of closed loop control system in which feedback is taken from
output and fed in to input.

Practical Examples of Closed Loop Control System

1. Automatic Electric Iron – Heating elements are controlled by output temperature

of the iron.

5 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

2. Servo Voltage Stabilizer – Voltage controller operates depending upon output
voltage of the system.

3. Water Level Controller– Input water is controlled by water level of the reservoir.

4. Missile Launched & Auto Tracked by Radar – The direction of missile is

controlled by comparing the target and position of the missile.

5. An Air Conditioner – An air conditioner functions depending upon the

temperature of the room.

6. Cooling System in Car – It operates depending upon the temperature which it

controls.

Advantages of Closed Loop Control System

1. Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of non-
linearity.

2. Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of feedback

signal.

3. Bandwidth range is large.

4. Facilitates automation.

5. The sensitivity of system may be made small to make system more stable.

6. This system is less affected by noise.

Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System

1. They are costlier.

2. They are complicated to design.

3. Required more maintenance.

4. Feedback leads to oscillatory response.

5. Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback.

6. Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a stable closed
loop system.

6 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

 Comparison of Closed Loop and Open Loop Control System:

N Open loop control system Closed loop control system

o.
1 The feedback element is absent. The feedback element is always present.
2 An error detector is not present. An error detector is always present.
3 It is stable one. It may become unstable.
4 Easy to construct. Complicated construction.
5 It is an economical. It is costly.
6 Having small bandwidth. Having large bandwidth.
7 It is inaccurate. It is accurate.
8 Less maintenance. More maintenance.
9 It is unreliable. It is reliable.

10 Examples: Hand drier, tea maker Examples: Servo voltage stabilizer, air
conditioner

Transfer Function (TF) of Control System

A control system consists of an output as well as an input signal. The output is
related to the input through a function called transfer function.

In Laplace Transform, if the input is represented by R(s) and output is represented

by C(s), then the transfer function will be

7 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

R(S): Reference input , E(S): Error signal , G(S): Plant or Process TF ,

C(S): Output , H(s): Feedback (FB) TF , B(s): Feedback signal

( )
( ) ( )
( )

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( -ve FB control system)

( ) ( )[ ( ) ( ) ( )]

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( )[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

Thus the output of the closed-loop system clearly depends on both the closed-loop
transfer function and the nature of the input.

When the H(s) = 1 or unity the system is called negative unity FB control system.

8 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

 R(S) + C (S)
E (S) 𝐆(𝐒)

-
B (S)

Black's Formula
It is a way of achieving close loop TF directly, without any equation
writing. It can be directly applied to general feedback configuration as
follows:

EX1:

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) (The –ve sign in the "loop" is due to the

negative feedback)
( ) ( )
( ( ) ( ) ( ))
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ))

9 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

EX2: For the feedback control system shown below:

i. Find open loop transfer function?

ii. Feed forward transfer function?

iii. Derive the feedback transfer function?

First find the transfer function of unity FB –ve loop of A(S):

The system will be as shown below:

+ +

A(S) B(S) C(S)

i. open loop transfer function = A(s)

A(S) B(S)
ii. Feed forward transfer function = A(s)

A(s) B(s)
A(s) A(s) B(s)
iii. The overall transfer function =
A(s) B(s) A(s) A(𝑆)𝐵(𝑆)𝐶(𝑆)
∙ 𝐶(𝑆)
A(s)
or by using Black's formula with 2 loop gains:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

10 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Close Loop System Subjected to Disturbance

N(S): Disturbance
In this case, one of the inputs, D(s), is known as disturbance, while R(s) is the
reference input. Before designing a proper controller for the system, it is always
important to learn the effects of D(s) on the system.

We use the method of superposition in modeling a multi-input system. We may

assume initially that the system is at rest with zero input ( R(s) =0) and we may
calculate the response CN(S) to the disturbance only:

With zero disturbance ( N(s) =0), we may calculate the response CR(S)
to the reference input only:

The response to the simultaneous application of the reference input and

the disturbance can be obtained by adding the two individual responses.

11 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical, Thermal and Electrical
Systems
One of the most important tasks in the analysis and design of control systems is the
mathematical modeling of the systems. In studying control systems the designer
must be able to model dynamic systems in mathematical terms and analyze their
dynamic characteristics. A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as
a set of equations that represents the dynamics of the system accurately.

Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical System

The fundamental law govering mechanical system is Newton’s second law. The
variables that are used to describe translational motion are acceleration, velocity,
and displacement.

Newton's law of motion states that the algebraic sum of external forces acting on a
rigid body in a given direction is equal to the product of the mass of the body and
its acceleration in the same direction.

12 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

The law can be expressed as:

Σ forces = Ma

where M denotes the mass, and a is the acceleration in the direction considered.
Fig. 1 illustrates the situation where a force is acting on a body with mass M. The
force equation is written as

where a(t) is the acceleration, v(t) denotes linear velocity, and y(t) is the
displacement of mass M, respectively.

The schematic diagram element for viscous friction is often represented by a

dashpot. A dashpot element is a form of damping and can be considered to be
represented by a piston moving in a viscous medium in a cylinder. The
mathematical expression of dashpot is:

𝒅𝒚
𝒇(𝒕) 𝑩
𝒅𝒕
where : B is frictional coefficient.

Any mechanical element that undergoes a change in shape (size) when subjected to
a force can be characterized as a spring.

f(t) = K. y(t)

where K is the spring constant, or simply stiffness. Eq. above implies that the force
acting on the spring is directly proportional to the displacement (deformation) of
the spring.

13 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

EX: Consider the mass-spring-friction system shown in Fig. (a). The linear motion
concerned is in the horizontal direction. The free-body diagram of the system is
shown in Fig. (b).

The force equation of the system is:

Eq.1

The last equation may be rearranged by equating the highest-order derivative term
to the rest of the terms:

Eq.2

Eq.3

The transfer function between Y(s) and F(s) is obtained by taking the Laplace
transform on both sides of Eq. (3) with zero initial conditions:

14 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Mathematical Modeling of Electrical System

The voltage drop across a resistor R , inductor L and capacitor C are given as
follows:

( )

∫ ( )

In Laplace transform the derivative is represents by S and the integral is

represented by 1/S.

To draw a block diagram for an electrical system, first write the equations that
describe the dynamic behavior of each component. Then take the Laplace
transform of equation individually in block form. Finally, assemble the elements
into a complete block diagram.

15 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

EX1: For Electric circuit shown, Derive and draw the overall diagram in S-
Domain and hence write the overall transfer function of the system?

The equations for this circuit are:

( )

∫ ( ) ( )

The Laplace transform of the above two equations become:

Assembling these two elements, we obtain the overall diagram in S-Domain for the
system.

The overall transfer function =

16 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

EX2: For Electric circuit shown, Derive and draw the overall diagram in S-
Domain and hence write the overall transfer function of the system?

ei eo

The equations for this circuit are:

( )

( )
( )

The Laplace transform of the above two equations become:

( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( )

The overall diagram in S-Domain for the system will be :

LS

The overall transfer function =

17 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Homework: For Electric circuit shown, Derive and draw the overall diagram in S-
Domain and hence write the overall transfer function of the system?

ei eo

Sol.: The overall transfer function =

( )( )

Mathematical Modeling of Thermal System

The thermal system shown below in Fig. a will has the block diagram shown in
Fig.b.

Where :

Θi :steady-state temperature of inflowing liquid, C

Θ :steady-state temperature of outflowing liquid, C
R: thermal resistance, C sec_kcal
C: thermal capacitance, kcal_ C
H: steady-state heat input rate, kcal_sec

18 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Block Diagram Reduction
A complicated block diagram involving many feedback loops can be simplified by
a step–by–step rearrangements using rules of block diagram algebra, some of them
are given in table 1.3
The steps for reduction of complicated block diagram are :
1. Combine all cascade blocks.
2. Combine all parallel blocks.
3. Eliminate all minor feedback.
4. Shift summing points to the left and take off point to the right of major loop. 5.
Repeat steps 1-4 until you obtain the comical form.

EX1: Consider the system shown below, simplify this diagram by using block
diagram reduction techniques?

First, eliminating loop containing G2 and H results the following figure:

Combining two blocks into one and finally, eliminating the unity feedback loop
results in following figure:

19 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

20 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
EX2: Consider the system shown below, simplify this diagram by using block
diagram reduction techniques?

First, move the branch point of the path involving H1 outside the loop involving
H2, as in following figure:

Then eliminating two loops results the following figure:

Combining two blocks into one gives the following figure:

21 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

EX3: Consider the system shown below, simplify this diagram by using block
diagram reduction techniques?

By moving the summing point of the negative feedback loop containing H2 outside
the positive feedback loop containing H1, we obtain the following figure:

Eliminating the positive feedback loop of H1, we have the following figure:

Elimination of the loop containing H2/G1 gives the following figure:

Finally, eliminating the unity feedback loop results in following figure:

22 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Homwork1: Consider the system shown below, simplify this diagram by using
block diagram reduction techniques?

Hint: moving pickoff point A behind G4 block.

Homwork2: Consider the system shown below, simplify this diagram and find the
system transfer function?

( )
( )

23 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Routh's Stability Criterion
Under Control System it can easily say that any pole of the system lies on the right
hand plane (RHP) of the origin of the s plane, it makes the system unstable. On
the basis of this condition E. J. Routh and A. Hurwitz started investigating the
necessary and sufficient conditions of stability of a system. The beauty of this
technique is that you don't actually have to solve for the roots of the nth-order
characteristic polynomial, which can be quite difficult for higher-order systems.

Most linear closed-loop systems have closed-loop transfer functions of the form:

where the a’s and b’s are constants and m ≤ n.

The procedure in Routh’s stability criterion is as follows:

1. Write the polynomial in s in the following form:

2. If any of the coefficients are zero or negative in the presence of at least one
positive coefficient, a root or roots exist that are imaginary or that have positive
real parts. Therefore, in such a case, the system is not stable.

3. If all coefficients are positive, arrange the coefficients of the polynomial in rows
and columns according to the following pattern:
Complex Imaginary
Conjugate Axis
Poles jw Complex
Poles

Real
-2 -1 0 Axis
Real σ
Pole Real
Pole

LHP RHP

24 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

4. The process of forming rows continues until we run out of elements. (The total
number of rows is n+1.) The coefficients b1, b2, b3 , and so on, are evaluated as
follows:

The evaluation of the b’s is continued until the remaining ones are all zero. The
same pattern of cross-multiplying the coefficients of the two previous rows is
followed in evaluating the c’s, d’s, e’s, and so on. That is,

This process is continued until the nth row has been completed. The complete
array of coefficients is triangular.

The necessary and sufficient condition that all roots of characteristic equation lie in
the left-half s plane is that all the coefficients are be positive and all terms in the
first column of the array have positive signs.

Each sign change counts as one pole in the right half of the complex plane (RHP)
and, as mentioned earlier, poles in the RHP make the system unstable. Therefore,
you want all the elements in the first column to be positive and if you get that, your
poles are safely in the LHP and your system will be stable.

25 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

EX1: Consider the following characteristic equation:

Using the Routh stability criterion, determine the stability of the system?

S4 1 3 5
𝟐∗𝟑 𝟒∗𝟏
S3 2 4 0 𝟐
𝟐∗𝟓 𝟎∗𝟏
S2 1 5
𝟐
𝟏∗𝟒 𝟓∗𝟐
S1 -6
𝟏
0
S 5
𝟔∗𝟓 𝟎∗𝟏
𝟔

The number of roots in the right half-plane (RHP) is equal to the number of sign
changes in the first column of Routh array. Since there are 2 sign changes therefore
the system has 2 poles in the RHP and hence the system is unstable.

Special Cases
If a first-column term in any row is zero, but the remaining terms are not zero or
there is no remaining term, then the zero term is replaced by a very small positive
number and the rest of the array is evaluated.

If the sign of the coefficient above the zero ( ) is the same as that below it, then it
indicates that there are a pair of imaginary roots and the system is critical stable or
oscillatory.

If however, the sign of the coefficient above the zero is opposite that below it, it
indicates that there is one sign change and the system is unstable.

26 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

EX2: Consider the following characteristic equation:

Special case: replace the zero

by very small no. ( 𝛜 )

The system is critical stable or oscillatory since the sign of the coefficient above
the zero ( ) is the same as that below it. The system has a pair of imaginary roots
at +j and –j ( (S+2)(S-j)(S+j) ).

EX3: Consider the following characteristic equation:

Using the Routh stability criterion, determine the stability of the system?
Special case: replace the zero by
very small no. ( 𝛜 )

There are two sign changes of the coefficients in the first column which indicated
of 2 poles in RHP and hence the system is unstable.

27 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

EX4: Using the Routh stability criterion, determine the stability of the system
which has the following characteristic equation:

( )

S5 1 2 4
Special case : replace the zero by
S4 2 4 10
very small no. ( 𝛜 )
S3 0≈ϵ -1 0

S2 10

S1 ≈-1

S0 10

There are two sign changes of the coefficients in the first column and hence the
system is unstable.

Relative Stability Analysis

Routh's stability criterion provides the answer to the question of absolute stability.
This, in many practical cases, is not sufficient. We usually require information
about the relative stability of the system. A useful approach for examining relative
stability is to shift the s-plane axis and apply Routh's stability criterion.

It is possible, however, to determine the effect of changing one or two parameters

of a system by examining the values that cause instability. In the following, we
shall consider the problem of determining the stability range of a parameter value.

Consider the system shown in figure below. Let us determine the range of K for
stability.

28 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

The closed-loop transfer function is:

The characteristic equation is:

The array of the coefficients becomes:

For stability, K must be positive ( K>0 ), and all coefficients in the first column
must be positive ( ). Therefore,

When K=14/9 , the system becomes oscillatory and, mathematically the oscillation
is sustained at constant amplitude.

29 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

EX5: Determine the range of K for stability of a unity feedback control system
whose open-loop transfer function is:

The closed-loop transfer function is:

( )
( ) ( )( )

The characteristic equation is:

( )( )

The Routh array coefficient will be:

S3 1 2

S2 3 K

S1

S0 K

For stability all coefficients in the first column must be positive, therefore K must
be positive ( K > 0 ), and ( ). Therefore,

6 > K >0
EX6: Consider the following characteristic equation:

Using the Routh stability criterion, determine the range of K for stability?

The Routh array coefficient will be:

S4 1 4+K 25

S3 2 9 0

30 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

S2 25

S1

S0 25

For stability all coefficients in the first column must be positive, therefore ( K> ),

and ( ). For satisfying the two conditions,

K> ( i. e. K>6.056 )

Homework: Consider the closed-loop system shown in Figure below, determine

the range of K for stability? (Assume that K>0)

Answer: ( 12.5 > K >0 )

31 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Root Locus Analysis

A pole-zero plot is simply a plot of the open-loop poles in the complex

plane. Since the closed-loop poles depend on the controller parameters, we don't
get single points; instead, we get curves showing the pole position as a function of
controller gain (K). Such plots are called Root Locus Plots. The root locus is the
locus of roots of the characteristic equation of the closed-loop system as a specific
parameter (usually, gain K) is varied from zero to infinity. The plots that result
provide some very useful qualitative understanding of the closed loop response.

Summary of the Steps for Constructing Root Loci

1. Locate the open loop poles and zeros of G(S)H(S) on the S-plane (K=0).
2. Determine the root-locus on the real axis.
* To determine the branches of root loci on the real axis, we select a test point S
and check if the angle condition can be satisfied,

* Another method that the branches of root loci on the real axis lie to the left of
an odd number of finite poles and zeros.
3. Determine the asymptotes of the root-locus branches.
* No. of asymptotes = No. of poles (n) – No. of zeros (m)
( )
* Angles of asymptotes =
∑ ∑
* Intersection point of asymptotes with real axis σc=
( Pi and Zi : numerical values of poles and zeros respectively)
4. Find the breakaway and break-in pints.
* From the characteristic Equation ( 1 + G(S)H(S) = 0 ) find the equation of gain
parameter (K).
* The breakaway points can be simply determined from the roots of dK/ds=0.
* It should be noted that not all the solutions of Equation dK/ds=0 correspond
to actual breakaway or break-in points. If a point at which dK/ds=0 is on a root
locus, it is an actual breakaway or break-in point.
5. Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis.
* These points can be found by use of Routh’s stability criterion and find value
of K that makes the term in the first column equal zero.
32 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
 * The crossing points on the imaginary axis can then be found by solving the
auxiliary equation obtained from the one upper row.
* an alternative approach to find these points by let S=jw in the characteristic
equation, equate both the real part and the imaginary part to zero, and then solve
for w and K.
6. Taking a series of test points in the bread neighborhood of the origin of the s
plane, and finally sketch the root loci.
Note : The root-locus branches start from open-loop poles and terminate at
zeros (finite zeros or zeros at infinity).

EX.1: Draw the root locus for the unity negative feedback system has a gain and
transfer functions as follows?
( ) ( )
( )
SOL.: Imaginary
Axis
(1) Poles (S1 = 0 , S2 = -3 ) , No finite Zeros.
jw
(2) Branches on real axis : [ ∞ 0] No branch
[0 -3] branch
-3 0
[ -3 -∞ ] No branch Real Axis σ
(3) No. of asymptotes = No. of poles (n) – No. of zeros (m)
=2–0=2
( )
Angles of asymptotes =
= ± 90 (k=0)
= ± 270 (k=1) = ± 90
Therefore angles of asymptotes will be +90o and -90o .
∑ ∑
Intersection point of asymptotes with real axis σc=
( )

(4) Find the breakaway (or break-in) points: 1'st asymptote

1 + G(S)H(S) = 0 Imaginary
Axis
σc= -1.5 jw
( ) +90o

S(S+3) + K =0 -3 0
-90o Real Axis σ
2
K = - S(S+3) = - S - 3S

33 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

2'nd asymptote
Now apply dK/ds=0
-2S -3=0 S = - 3/2 = - 1.5 ( breakaway point)
Based on the information obtained in the foregoing steps the root locus will be as
shown below.

-1.5
-3 0

EX.2: Consider the negative feedback system shown in Figure below, sketch the
root-locus plot?

SOL.:

(1) Poles (S1 = 0 , S2 = -1 & S3= -2 ) , No finite Zeros.

(2) Branches on real axis : [ ∞ 0] No branch
[0 -1] branch
[ -1 -2 ] No branch
[ -2 -∞] branch

34 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

(3) No. of asymptotes = No. of poles (n) – No. of zeros (m)
=3–0=3 Imaginary
( ) Axis
Angles of asymptotes =
jw
= ± 60 (k=0)
= ± 180 (k=1)
-2 -1 0
= ± 300 (k=2) = ± 60 Real Axis σ

Therefore angles of asymptotes will be +60o , -60o and 180o .

∑ ∑
Intersection point of asymptotes with real axis σc=
( )

(4) Find the breakaway (or break-in) points:

1 + G(S)H(S) = 0

Since the breakaway point must lie on a root locus between 0 and –1, it is clear that
s=-0.4226 corresponds to the actual breakaway point. Point s=-1.5774 is not on the
root locus. Hence, this point is not an actual breakaway or break-in point.

5. Determine the points where the root loci cross the imaginary axis. These points
can be found by use of Routh’s stability criterion as follows: Since the
characteristic equation for the present system is:

The Routh array becomes:

35 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

The value of K that makes the S1 term in the first column equal zero is K=6.The
crossing points on the imaginary axis can then be found by solving the auxiliary
equation obtained from the S2 row; that is,

which yields:

The frequencies at the crossing points on the imaginary axis are thus √
.The gain value corresponding to the crossing points is K=6.

An alternative approach is to let S=jw in the characteristic equation, equate both

the real part and the imaginary part to zero, and then solve for w and K.

Based on above information the root locus will be as shown below.

36 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

EX.3: Draw the root locus for the unity negative feedback system has a gain and
transfer functions as follows?
( )
( ) ( )
SOL.:

( ) ( )
( )
( )( )
(1) Poles (S1 = 2 & S2 = -1 ) , Zeros (S1= -3 )
(2) Branches on real axis : [ ∞ 2] No branch
[2 -1] branch
[ -1 -3 ] No branch
[ -3 -∞] branch
(3) No. of asymptotes = No. of poles (n) – No. of zeros (m)
=2–1=1
( )
Angles of asymptotes =
= ± 180 (k=0)
= ± 540 (k=1) = ± 180
Therefore angles of asymptotes will be +180o (or -180 o).
Since the asymptotes has 180o angle , therefore there are no intersection point
with the real axis ( i. e. parallel with real axis).

Imaginary
Axis
jw

-3 -1 0 2
Real Axis σ

37 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

(4) Find the breakaway and break-in points:

1 + G(S)H(S) = 0
( )
( )

( )
( )

Now apply dK/ds=0

( )∗( ) ( )∗( )
( )

( )

S = 0.16 (breakaway point)

S= -6.2 (break-in point)

5. Determine the points where the root loci cross the imaginary axis.

( ) ( ) ( )

The Routh arrow will be :

S2 1 3K - 2

S1 K-1 0

S0 3K - 2

The value of K that makes the S1 term in the first column equal zero is K=1.The
crossing points on the imaginary axis can then be found by solving the auxiliary
equation obtained from the S2 row; that is,

( )

S2 = -1

38 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Based on above information the root locus will be as shown below.

-3 -1 2

EX.4: Consider the negative feedback system shown in Figure below, sketch the
root-locus plot?

(1) Poles (S1 = √ & S2 = √ ) complex-conjugate poles ,

Zeros (S1= -2 )
(2) Branches on real axis : The net effect of the complex-conjugate poles is zero on
the real axis : [ ∞ -2] No branch
[ -2 -∞] branch
(3) No. of asymptotes = No. of poles (n) – No. of zeros (m)
=2–1=1
( )
Angles of asymptotes = = ± 180 (k=0)

39 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

 = ± 540 (k=1) = ± 180
Therefore angles of asymptotes will be +180o (or -180 o).
(4) Find the breakaway and break-in points:

1 + G(S)H(S) = 0
( )
( )

( )
( )
Now apply dK/ds=0

( )

S = - 3.732 and S= - 0.268

Notice that point S= - 3.732 is on the root locus. Hence this point is an actual
break-in point. (Note that at point s= -3.732 the corresponding gain value is
K=5.4641.) Since point s= - 0.2680 is not on the root locus, it cannot be a break-in
point and therefore it is ignored.

To determine accurate root loci, several points must be found by trial and error
between the break-in point and the complex open-loop poles. For Example by
taking K= 2 , S= -2 ± j1.73 ; for K=4 , S= -3 ± j1.4 and for K= 5 , S= -3.5 ± j0.866.

-3.732

40 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Homwork: Draw the root locus for the negative feedback system has a gain and
transfer functions as follows?
( )
( ) ( )
SOL.:

j1

-2 -1
-j1

41 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

 Table: Open-Loop Pole–Zero Configurations
and the Corresponding Root Loci

42 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

 Time Domain and Steady-State Error Analysis of Control System

Time Domain Analysis

Time domain gives the view that how the state of dynamic system changes
with respect to time when specific input is given. It gives you the manner of signal
over time characteristics of a measuring signal.
In time domain analysis, the time response of a linear dynamic system to an input
is denoted as time’s function c(t). We can calculate the time response if the input
and model of system is known.
The time response of linear system is the addition of transient response which
depend on preliminary conditions and the steady-state response which is based on
input of system.

1. Transient Response
The element of the system that vanishes with time is called transient response. It is
the response of the system from rest or equilibrium to steady state. It is denoted by
ctr(t).
2. Steady-State Response
It is the element of system response that is achieved when the time approaches to
infinity. The response of the system after transient response is basically called
steady state response. It is denoted by css(t).
Transient response doesn’t depend upon input of systems therefore can be analyzed
using step input. Steady state depends upon input and dynamics of system and can
be determined using different test signals by final value theorem.
The equation of time response will be:
c(t)= ctr(t) + css(t)

where,

c(t)=Time Response , ctr(t)= Transient Response

css(t)= Steady-State Response

43 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
Typical Test Signals in Time Domain
The dynamic behavior of a system is manipulated and judged under the application
and working of standard and typical test signals. There are four types of typical test
signals: Impulse, Step, Ramp, Parabolic and another important signal is sinusoidal
signal.

1. Impulse Signal:
Impulse response in control system imitates sudden shock quality of actual input
signal. It is the reply of the system to the direct delta input.

When A=1 then the impulse signal is called Unit impulse signal.
The Laplace Transform of the impulse signal is R(s) = 1.

44 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

2. Step Signal:
The step signal defines the sudden change in properties of actual signal. It is being
used to see the transient response of system as it gives you the idea about how the
system reply to interruption and somehow the system stability.

When A=1, the step is called unit step signal.

The Laplace Transform of the step signal is ( )

3. Ramp Signal:
The ramp signal tells you the constant velocity attribute of actual input signal. It is
being used to determine the behavior of system with the velocity factor.

When A=1, ramp signal is called unit ramp signal.

The Laplace Transform of the ramp signal is ( )

45 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

4. Parabolic Signal:
Parabolic signal gives the constant acceleration distinction of actual input signal. It
gives the idea about how the system will respond along with acceleration.

When A=1, the parabolic signal is called unit parabolic signal.

The Laplace Transform of the parabolic signal is ( )

First Order Systems

Consider the first-order system shown in Figure (a). Physically, this system may
represent an RC circuit, thermal system, or the like. A simplified block diagram is
shown in figure (b).

46 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

The input-output relationship is given by:

1. Unit-Step Response of First-Order System

Since the Laplace transform of the unit-step function is 1/s, substituting R(s)=1/s
into above Eq. we obtain:

The last Eq. states that initially the output c(t) is zero and finally it becomes unity.
One important characteristic of such an exponential response curve c(t) is that at
t=T the value of c(t) is 0.632, or the response c(t) has reached 63.2% of its total
change.

2. Unit-Ramp Response of First-Order System

Since the Laplace transform of the unit-ramp function is 1/S2, we obtain:

47 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Taking the inverse Laplace transform of above Eq., we obtain

The unit-ramp input and the system output are shown in below Figure.

3. Unit-Impulse Response of First-Order System

For the unit-impulse input, R(s)=1 and the output of the system can be obtained as:

The inverse Laplace transform of output Eq. gives:

48 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Second-Order System
The standard form of the second-order system is shown in the below Figure:

The closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) can be written as:

Where:
ωn is the undamped natural frequency of the system.
ζ is the damping ratio of the system.
ζ . ωn is called the attenuation ( σ).

The dynamic behavior of the second-order system can then be described in terms
of two parameters ζ and ωn.
If 0< ζ <1, the closed-loop poles are complex conjugates and lie in the left-half S
plane. The system is then called underdamped, and the transient response is
oscillatory.
If ζ =0, the transient response does not die out.
If ζ =1, the system is called critically damped.
Overdamped systems correspond to ζ >1.
A family of unit-step response curves c(t) with various values of ζ is shown below.

49 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

A family of unit-impulse response curves with various values of ζ is shown in
below Figure.

Transient-Response Specifications
The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped
oscillations before reaching steady state. In specifying the transient-response
characteristics of a control system to a unit-step input, it is common to specify the
following:
These specifications are defined in what follows and are shown graphically in
Figure.
1. Delay time (td): The delay time is the time required for the response to reach
half the final value the very first time.
2. Rise time (tr) : The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from
10% to 90%, 5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% of its final value. For underdamped
second order systems, the 0% to 100% rise time is normally used. For overdamped
systems, the 10% to 90% rise time is commonly used.
3. Peak time (tp) :The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the
first peak of the overshoot.

50 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

4. Maximum (percent) overshoot, Mp: The maximum overshoot is the maximum
peak value of the response curve measured from unity. If the final steady-state
value of the response differs from unity, then it is common to use the maximum
percent overshoot. It is defined by :

The amount of the maximum (percent) overshoot directly indicates the relative
stability of the system.
5. Settling time (ts) : The settling time is the time required for the response curve
to reach and stay within a range about the final value of size specified by absolute
percentage of the final value (usually 2% or 5%). The settling time is related to the
largest time constant of the control system.
The time-domain specifications just given are quite important, since most control
systems are time-domain systems; that is, they must exhibit acceptable time
responses. (This means that, the control system must be modified until the transient
response is satisfactory.)

51 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

The frequency ωd is called the damped natural frequency and given by:

damped natural frequency =

attenuation = σ = ζ . ωn

rise time =

angle ( rad )

peak time =

( )
( ) √
maximum overshoot = Mp =

setlling time = ts = for 2 % criterion

= for 5 % criterion

EX.1 : Consider the system shown in Figure below, where ζ=0.6 and ωn=5 rad-sec.
calculate the rise time tr , peak time tp, maximum overshoot Mp, and settling time
ts when the system is subjected to a unit-step input?

52 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

EX.2: When the system shown in Figure (a) is subjected to a unit-step input, the
system output responds as shown in Figure (b). Determine the values of K and T
from the response curve if ζ = 0.4?

( ) ⁄
( )

53 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

By comparing the last Eq. with the standard 2'nd order transfer function Eq. :

EX.3: For the system shown in Figure (a), determine the values of gain K and
velocity-feedback constant Kh so that the maximum overshoot in the unit-step
response is 0.2 and the peak time is 1 sec?

With these values of K and Kh, obtain the rise time and settling time. Assume that
J=1kg-m2 and B=1 N-m_rad_sec?

After simplification, the block diagram of the system will be as shown in Figure
(b) below

54 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Comparing the above Eq. with the standard second order transfer function Eq.:

( )
√
maximum overshoot = Mp =

55 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

56 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
Steady-State Error Analysis
The steady-state error is the difference between the input and the output for
specific test input as Consider the system shown in Figure below,

The closed-loop transfer function is:

57 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

58 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
59 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
60 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
The error constants Kp, Kv , and Ka describe the ability of a unity-feedback
system to reduce or eliminate steady-state error. Therefore, they are indicative of
the steady-state performance. It is generally desirable to increase the error
constants, while maintaining the transient response within an acceptable range. It is
noted that to improve the steady state performance we can increase the type of the
system by adding an integrator or integrators to the feedforward path.

61 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Industrial Controllers
In an industrial plant, a closed-loop control system has the role of keeping a
measured physical signal (output) to a predefined value (input or setpoint). The
physical signal can be of any kind, electrical (voltage, current, power), mechanical
(position, speed, force, torque), hydraulic (pressure, flow) or thermal
(temperature). The difference between the output (measured) and the input is
called error .
The input of the controller is the error and the controller output is an actuation
signal which is send to the process or system plant. The output is further measured
with a sensor and the information is feed back to the controller.

The various types of controllers are used to improve the performance of control
systems.

System without Controller or Compensator

System with Controller or Compensator

62 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
A number of different controllers are used in industry like production,
pharmaceutical and chemical industries and in other field. In quit general these
controller can be divided into two groups:

1- Conventional or Basic Controllers

2-Unconventional Controllers

Conventional controllers may consist of On-Off controller, proportional, the

derivative and the integral controllers.

Unconventional controllers may consist of Fuzzy, Neural , Fuzzy-Neural,

Optimal, Robust and recent proposed controllers.

63 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Classifications of Industrial Controllers
Industrial controllers may be classified according to their control actions as:

1.Two-position or on-off controllers

2.Proportional controllers (P—controller)

3.Integral controllers (I-controller)

4. Derivative Controller ( D- Controller )

5.Proportional-plus-integral controllers (Pl-controller)

6.Proportional-plus-derivative controllers (PD-controller)

7.Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers (PID-controller)

Tow position or On-Off Controller

The ON-OFF controller is the simplest form of a controller, which switches ON

when the error is positive and switches OFF when the error is zero or negative. An
on-off controller doesn’t have intermediate states but only fully ON or fully
OFF states. Due to the switching logic, an on-off controller is often called a bang-
bang controller or a two-step controller.

Regardless of the size of the error, the output of the on-off controller can only be
fully ON or fully OFF, it is not proportional with the error.

Let’s take as example the temperature control of an industrial oven. The

temperature inside the oven is measured with a sensor and feed back to the
controller. Based on the error (difference between setpoint temperature and
measured temperature), the heating elements are turned ON or OFF by the
controller. There are no intermediate values of the heating element, they are fully
ON or fully OFF.

64 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

The response of an on-off controller can be summarized as in the Fig. below.
When the error is positive, the controller is switched On. When the error is zero or
negative, the controller output is set to Off.

Let’s take as example the temperature control of an industrial oven. The

temperature inside the oven is measured with a sensor and feed back to the
controller. Based on the error (difference between input (setpoint) temperature and
output (measured) temperature), the heating elements are turned On or Off by the
controller. There are no intermediate values of the heating element, they are fully
On or fully Off.

65 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Other applications of On-Off controllers are :

Adjustable ON/OFF level control system for a tank

On-Off controller of Water Heater

66 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

 ON/OFF control system for output flow
Proportional Controller ( P- Controller )
The proportional controller produces an output, which is proportional to
error signal.

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides :

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional controller is KP.

Where,
U(s)is the Laplace transform of the actuating signal u(t(
E(s )is the Laplace transform of the error signal e(t(
KP is the proportionality constant

67 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Integral Controller ( I- Controller )

68 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Derivative Controller ( D- Controller )
The derivative controller produces an output, which is derivative of the error
signal.

Apply Laplace transform on both sides:

Therefore ,the transfer function of the derivative controller is KDS.

Where ,KD is the derivative constant.

69 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Proportional-plus-Integral Controllers (Pl-Controller)

►PI Controller decrease the steady state error

70 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Proportional-plus-Derivative Controllers (PD-Controller)

►PD Controller improve the stability of control system

without affecting the steady state error.

71 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Proportional-plus-Integral-plus-Derivative Controllers (PID -
Controller)

►PID Controller improve the stability of the control system and to decrease
steady state error.

72 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

73 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
74 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
75 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
Example: For negative unity feedback control system shown below, using
Matlab/Simulink to draw the system unit step input and output responses and find
Mp, ts and ess for the following cases :

1) without controller?

2) with PI controller (Kp=1 and Ki=0.5)?

3) with PD controller (Kp=1 and KD=1)?

4) with PID controller (Kp=1, Ki=0.01 and Kd=1)?

For Each case discuss the results?

R (S) + C (S)

𝑆 𝑆

- G(S)

1. without controller: The Simulink model and scope output is shown below

76 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

Mp= 0.444 = 44.4 %

ts ≈ 13 Sec

ess ≈ 0

The system without controller has poor transient responses since the Mp and ts are
large values.

77 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

2. with PI controller (Kp=1 and Ki=0.5) : The Simulink model and scope output is
shown

Mp= 0.75 = 75 %

ts ≈ 20 Sec The system with PI controller make transient

ess ≈ 0 responses worst since the Mp and ts are increased

78 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

3. with PD controller (Kp=1 and Kd=1) : The Simulink model and scope output is
shown below

Mp= 0.01 = 1 %
The system with PD controller give good transient
ts ≈ 1.75 Sec
responses since the Mp and ts are decreased
ess ≈ 0

79 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada

4. with PID controller (Kp=1, Ki=0.01 and Kd=1) : The Simulink model and scope
output is shown below:

Mp= 0.01 = 1 %

ts ≈ 1 Sec
The system with PID controller enhances transient
responses since the Mp and ts have very small values.
ess ≈ 0
80 ` Dr. Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada