Bio Notes (ZNotes) MYP
Bio Notes (ZNotes) MYP
ORG
Cell wall
Gives cell rigid structure
Plasma membrane
Controls what gets in and out of the cell
Cytoplasm
Holds all organelles together, gives cell structure Endoplasmic Reticulum
Nucleoid Rough
Unbound clump of genetic matter Many interconnected sacs with ribosomes
Plasmid attached to its membrane (it's what makes it
Floating chunks of genetic matter rough)
Flagella synthesizes and packages proteins
Pili folds protein molecules in sacs called cisternae
transport of synthesized proteins in vesicles to the
Golgi apparatus
Smooth
contains enzymes that help synthesize lipids,
phospholipids and steroids
detoxification
contains ions that the cell may need later such as
sodium and calcium
Golgi Apparatus
transports, modifies, and packages proteins and lipids
into vesicles
takes products from rough ER (bulk flow), then the
cisternae process, sort and label the chemicals
they are then dispatched to other parts of the cell or
Eukaryotic Cell to the extracellular space
Mitochondria
Nucleus powerhouse of the cell
Control center of cell Production of energy via synthesis of ATP molecules
Replicates DNA Important in cellular respiration
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also contains strands of glycerol as reserve power Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
regulates cellular metabolism Lacks a membrane bound
Lysosomes Membrane bound nucleus
nucleus
waste treatment plants of the cell
Smaller and simpler Specialized organelles
breaks down cellular waste
transports undigested material to the cell membrane Bacteria and Archaea Larger
for removal Unicellular Endomembrane System
cell breaks down if the lysosome explodes Mitochondria
Vesicles Plants, animals, Fungi and
Transports materials in or out of cells Protists
Vacuole
isolates materials that may be harmful/waste
products 1.4. Difference between Animal and
contains water
Plant Cell
maintains turgor/hydrostatic pressure
maintains pH
Plant Cell Animal Cell
exports unwanted substances
Has a cell wall
Cell Membrane No cell walll
Semi-permeable membrane, made of proteins and
Contains chloroplasts
No chloroplasts
lipids Large vacoule
Small vacoule
Semipermeable: Allows certain substances to enter Stores carbs as starch or
Stores carbs as glycogen
All Eukaryotic Cells have a cell membrane
sucrose
Made of protein and lipids
Cytoplasm
Site for all metabolic reactions & holds organelles 1.5. Levels of Organization
Metabolism: Sum total of all bodily reactions
Nearly all water Cells
Some dissolved substances such as minerals Tissues
Ribosomes Organs
Site for protein synthesis Organ systems
Amino acids used as material, and RNA as Organism
instructions
Attached to a network called the RER or scattered 1.6. Specialized cells
freely throughout the cytoplasm
Protein is needed for repairing damage or directing Cell Function Adaption
chemical processes
Packed with
Centrosomes
chloroplasts.
give structure to the microtubule
Leaf cell Regular shaped,
assemble microtubules Absorbs light
closely packed cells
centrioles energy for
form a continuous
Cytoskeleton - gives structure photosynthesis
layer for efficient
Cell membrane
absorption of
protects the cell and encloses its contents
sunlight.
monitors what enters and exits the cell
Cell wall (plants only) Long 'finger-like'
Root hair cell
provides protection, structure and support Absorbs water and process with very
prevents water loss mineral ions from thin wall, which
protection from the environment the soil gives a large
Chloroplast (plants only) surface area.
sites of photosynthesis
contain chlorophyll (granum)
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2. Biomolecules
1.7. Additional Structures in Cells
Glycogen granules (glycosomes) - found in the cytoplasm 2.1. Diffusion
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Occurs when particles spread Can be determined by examining the line of best fit.
Move from a region where they are in high concentration Where the line intersects the X axis (X intercept) is the
to a region where they are in low concentration. solute concentration of the cell, and the solute
Occurs when the particles are free to move concentration in a isotonic solution
True in gases and for particles dissolved in solutions Isotonic Solution has equal water potential as well
Passive; no energy used Hypotonic Solution: A solution with a higher solute
Experiment: Potassium Manganate VII crystal in a jar of concentration than the cell
water Hypertonic Solution: A solution with a lower solute
It is a purple solid concentration than the cell
When placed in water, we observe the purple color An Animal Cell:
spreading through diffusion In an Hypotonic Solution
After a while, the color is consistently purple The water will move into the cell as it has less
throughout the water water potential than the solution. Due to the
water entering the cell, the cell will expand and
2.2. Osmosis eventually burst
In a Hypertonic Solution
Water can move across cell membranes because of Water will leave the cell as the solution has less
osmosis. For osmosis to happen you need: water potential. The cell will shrink and eventually
Two solutions with different concentrations shrivel up
A partially permeable membrane to separate them A Plant Cell:
Partially permeable membranes let some substances In Hypotonic Solution
pass through them, but not others. Water moves into the cell (reason stated in animal
Water moves from high to low concentration cell) and the plant cell becomes turgid, however it
Water potential: The pressure/concentration of water does not explode due to its cell wall
Water potential judged by how dilute a solution is In a Hypertonic Solution
A more dilute solution has more water potential Water moves out of the cell, and the cell moves
Eg. A solution of 10 mg of solute per 100 ml (10 away from the cell wall. This is called plasmolysis
mg/100 ml0 of water has more water potential The cell wall remains in place and doesn’t
than a solution of 20mg solute per 100 ml shrink
water (20 mg/100 ml) The solution between the cell and its cell
Water potential is inversely proportional to wall will have the same solute
amount of solute concentration as the Hypertonic solution
Experiment: Potato Cylinders in NaCl solution Plasmolysis: The shrinking of the cell membrane away
Take 9 thin potato sticks (three per solution), weigh from the cell wall, when a plant is placed in a Hypertonic
them, measure their length, and put them in solutions solution
of NaCl of varying concentrations (20%, 10%, 0%)
Leave undisturbed for 20 minutes
Take them out and gently blot with tissue paper and
then weigh them and measure them again
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2.6. Biomolecules
Introduction
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Proteins
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2. The hot water kills the leaf, and the This creates a concentration difference of ions
alcohol kills the chlorophyll, removing it between the water and the soil, so water from the soil
from the leaf moves into the root
4. Place iodine on the leaf - the parts with From here, the water moves through the roots and
chlorophyll will turn a blue-black; other parts into the xylem tube
will be a yellow/brown The cells in the xylem lose their cell walls so that
2. Light - repeat chlorophyll experiment but with two they can transport water more easily
different normal plants; place one in the dark and one The water moves up the xylem through osmosis
in the light From here, water is distributed to the leaves who use
3. Carbon Dioxide it for photosynthesis
1. Destarch two plants Some water goes to the stomata where it swells the
2. Cover both plants with bell jars stoma
1. In one, place a dish containing KOH Transpiration
(this absorbs CO2) Plants need water for photosynthesis; also helps
2. Leave the other one as it is plants cool down
3. Seal the bottom of the bell jars Water is absorbed in the roots and evaporated out of
3. Keep the plants in sunlight for two hours the leaves
4. Try starch test Water is lost through the stomata
This water is replaced by the xylem vessels in the
Light and Dark Reactions leaf, creating a suction which pulls water from
xylem cells of the roots, causing the water to move
Light Reaction upwards
Requires light Root pressure at night; transpiration during the
Occurs in the thylakoids day
When the light energy from is trapped inside the Factors affecting transpiration
thylakoid, it excites the electron moving along the Light
electron transport chain Temperature
As a result, NADP+ is converted into NADPH Humidity
Additionally, ADP is joined to another phosphate Wind
group and becomes ATP Transpiration rate can be measured using a
Water molecules are split into hydrogen and oxygen potometer
The byproducts of this reaction are ATP, NADPH and Changing the conditions around the potometer
O2 will change the rate of transpiration
Dark Reaction It is a device used for measuring the rate of water
Also known as the calvin cycle uptake of a leafy plant shoot, mainly due to
Does not require light transpiration
In this process, ATP, NADPH, carbon dioxide and Guard cells
hydrogen are joined together to form glucose Water enters the guard cells
This is also called carbon fixation Becomes turgid
When this happens, ATP goes back to being ADP and Thin outer wall stretches more than thich inner
NADPH goes back to being NADP+ wall
ADP and NADP+ are recycled back into the light Stoma opens
reaction Water lost from guard cells
Guard cells become flaccid
3.2. Transportation in Plants Walls not stretched
Stoma closes
Vascular System Phloem - translocation takes place; movement of the
products of photosynthesis, as well as amino acids
Xylem - moves water and minerals obtained from the soil Translocation takes place in sieve tubes with the help
throughout the plant of companion cells
No cell contents or nucleus Transfer of material like sucrose using ATP
They are dead cells Increases osmotic pressure of the tissue → water
Side walls are strengthened by lignin to prevent moves in
damage Columns of sieve tubes with sieve plates at either end
Movement of water Sieve cells have thin walls; they lose their nucleus
In the roots, cells are in contact with the soil and and organelles, but retain their plasma membrane
actively take up ions Companion cells sit next to the sieve tubes; they
control the sieve tubes/cells
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They have a dense cytoplasm and a nucleus Reduces pressure in this region of the sieve
They are living cells tubes → fluid continues to move from regions
of higher pressure
Bidirectional flow - depending on stage of life and
time of year, various parts of the plant can act as a
source or a sink
In autumn, roots and stems act as sinks to store
starch, but in spring they act as sources to supply
the rest of the plant that is budding and flowering
When a plant is young, the leaves are sinks
because they aren’t completely developed yet, but
in older plants, they are sources
Parenchyma
Alive at maturity
Storage, photosynthesis
Collenchyma - support the plant
Alive at maturity
Occur as vascular bundles
Thick walls
Sclerenchyma - support the plant
Occur as bundle cap fibres
Thick secondary walls hardened with lignin
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Palisade mesophyll layer - contains chloroplasts; rod Electrical-chemical means: no specialized tissue to
shaped communicate
Close to surface → maximum absorption of light Cell changes shape by changing the amount of
Packed closely together to increase surface area water → swelling or shrinking
Chloroplasts found near the palisade surface reduce Tendrils - sensitive to touch
distance needed to travel by light, CO2 and O2 Part of the tendril is in contact with and part away
Spongy mesophyll layer - smaller than palisade from the object grow at different rates, causing
Fewer chloroplasts the plant to grow around the object
Lots of air space to allow for gas diffusion Receptor - the sensitive region, which is the tip of the
Vein - contains xylem and phloem shoot
Lower epidermis - protective layer; contains stomata; may Picks up the stimulus of light shining on it
be waxy in some species Effector - part of the shoot which responds to stimuli,
Stomata - pores surrounded by guard cells which is just below the tip
Effector and receptor communicate with each other by
Experiments means of chemicals called plant hormones
Phytohormones - plant hormones
1. Transpiration Produced by the plant
1. Take some plants, water them until the soil Most important one is called auxin - help in growth of
becomes spongy and then weigh the plant root and shoot tips
2. Cover them with a plastic bag and leave them Gibberellins - help in vegetative growth
outside for a few hours Cytokinins - promote cell division
3. Way them afterwards Abscisic acid - inhibit growth and caused wilting of
4. Broad leaf plants tend to lose more water than leaves
narrow leaf plants Auxins - help in growth of root and shoot tips
2. Transport of Water Produced in the tip of the shoot and diffuses
1. Pour water into a glass and add food coloring downwards
and place them by water Diffuses to shady side of the shoot → shady side
2. Place celery stalks in the colored water grows longer → plant appears to bend towards
3. Wait for a few days the light
4. Celery stalks will be dyed whatever color food It causes cell division and elongation
dye you used Response to high concentrations of auxins
5. Extension: split the stalk into three parts and Cells in stem
stick each into a different color to create a “tie- Grow more
dye” celery stalk Bend towards the light
When light comes from one direction, the
3.3. Coordination In Plants auxins get transported to the shaded side
The shaded side elongates faster than the
Tropisms illuminated side and the shoot bends towards
the light
Tropism - a growth response of a plant to directional Cells in root
stimuli Grow less
Slow - involves cell division to see results In a root, the shaded side contains more
Positive → growth towards the stimulus auxins and grow less, causing the root to bend
Negative → growth away from the stimulus away from the light
Phototropism - stimuli is light When the tips have been removed no auxin is
Growth towards light to maximize photosynthesis produced and the stems don’t grow longer
Positive When no light reaches the tips, there is equal
Geotropism - stimuli is gravity concentration of auxin on both sides and the stems
Positive geotropism - roots grow in the direction of grow longer evenly
the force of gravity When more light reaches on side of the tips, there is a
Positive gravitropism greater concentration of the auxin on the shaded side
Negative geotropism - shoots grow against the force and the cells on the darker side of the stem grow
of gravity longer
Negative gravitropism Gibberellins - growth of the stem
Hydrotropism - stimuli is water Cytokinins - promote cell division
Thigmotropism - stimuli is tough High concentration in fruits and seeds
Some plants like the touch me not are sensitive Abscisic acid - inhibits growth
Wilting of leaves
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Uses of plant hormones Complex series of organs and glands which break
Rooting powder contains growth hormones that make down insoluble food molecules into smaller water
stem cuttings develop more quickly soluble molecules using a number of processes
Delaying ripening of fruit Phases include:
Selective weedkillers kill some plants but not others Ingestion
Can be useful for getting rid of dandelions in a Movement
lawn without killing the grass Mechanical and chemical digestion
Absorption
Darwin’s Phototropism Experiment Elimination
Mechanical digestion includes
Take five shoots: control, tip removed, tip covered by Mastication (Chewing)
opaque cap, tip covered by transparent cap, and base Chew
covered by an opaque shield Tear
Grind
Mash
4. Human Physiology Mix
Rolling action of the tongue and secretion of saliva
4.1. The Digestive System creates bolus (chewed up food) which is swallowed and
transported to stomach
Nutrition is the set of processes used by an organism to Chemical digestion includes
provide itself with food and convert the food molecules Enzymes change food into smaller particles
into a form that can be used by the organism Helps in digestion of
Aka processes where organism gets nutrition from Carbs
food Proteins
Balanced diet lipids
Most animals need 7 types of nutrients in diet Involves hydrolysis (Addition of water)
Carbs Deficiency diseases
Proteins Protein - kwashiorkor
Fats Anaemia
Vitamins Goitre
Minerals Rickets
Fibre Night blindness
Water Scurvy
Fat, obesity and health issues Early aging
Fat found in animal food is called saturated fat
Contains cholesterol, which can lead to coronary Structures involved in digestive system
heart disease and heart attacks
People who take in more energy than needed gets Mouth - chewing/mastication
increased amount of fat, which leads to obesity Salivary glands release saliva which contains salivary
People who take in less energy than needed can amylase which breaks down starch into simple sugars
have malnutrition Tongue + teeth → mixing and grinding
Esophagus
Tube from mouth to stomach
Also known as the food pipe
25cm long tube connecting the mouth and the
stomach
Send the food down the pipe using a wave like motion
called peristalsis
Stomach
Has strong muscular walls which churn and mix food
Mixture is known as chyme
Secretes hydrochloric acid which kills bacteria and
provides low pH level for the activation of pepsin
(which acts on proteins and breaks peptide bonds)
acidic medium is created
Goblet cells
What is digestion? Give out the mucus that forms the mucus lining on
the stomach to stop the acid from breaking down
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the stomach walls After nutrients are absorbed into blood, it is taken
Sphincter muscle controls the exit by releasing foods to liver
in small amounts Dissolved nutrients are then sent to other parts of
Stomach stores food for a long time body where they are assimilated as part of cell
Small intestine Is responsible for the absorption of water
Divided into 2 parts: duodenum (close to stomach) Rectum - temporarily stores feces
and ileum (close to colon Anus - regulated by the anal sphincter
Several enzymes which are made in pancreas are Accessory organs: not part of path of food, but play
secreted in duodenum critical role
Pancreatic juice and bile flow along small intestine Liver
Contains sodium hydrogen carbonate which Directly affects digestion by producing bile which
neutralizes acid provides the alkaline medium for trypsin to act on
Trypsin acts on proteins the proteins
Lipase acts on fats Bile helps emulsify fat
Bile digests fats via emulsification and neutralizes acid Also filters out toxins and wastes including
Bile salts break down fat into small globules drugs and alcohol
Intestinal juice - contains enzymes which convert Important role in metabolism of glucose
proteins into amino acids, carbohydrates into glucose Detoxifying of the food we eat
and fats into fatty acids and glycerol Breaking down of larger fat molecules into smaller
Digestion is completed in small intestine ones which is easy for digestion
Absorption: by now carbs, proteins, and lipids Gallbladder
have been broken down into simple sugars, amino Stores and concentrates bile from the liver and
acids and glycerol respectively releases it into small intestine
These molecules are small enough to pass Fatty diets can cause gallstones
through the walls of small intestine and into the Pancreas
bloodstream Produces digestive enzymes to digest fats, carbs,
Lining of intestine walls have small finger-like and proteins
projections called villi which increase surface area Regulates blood sugar levels by producing insulin
The villi is then covered in microvilli for even Secretes trypsin, a protease that works in a
more surface area alkaline medium, which is used to neutralize the
They have lots of blood vessels to absorb sugars food that was made acidic by the HCl in the
and amino acids stomach
lacteals absorb fatty acids and glycerol Also secretes other carbohydrases, proteases,
The thin epithelium allows for a high diffusion lipases and nucleases
rate Carbohydrases - Act on carbohydrates
Lipases - Act on fats/lipids
Proteases - Act on proteins
Nucleases - Act on DNA
Also releases insulin
Insulin is a hormone that controls the levels of
sugar in the blood. If there is not enough
insulin, it can lead to diseases such as
diabetes, which happen when the blood sugar
levels go too high.
Appendix - true function is unknown
some think that it stores “good bacteria” to help
reboot the digestive system after an illness
others believe that it is a useless remnement from
our evolutionary past
Large intestine
Also called the colon
Accepts what small intestine does not absorb 4.2. The Circulatory System
Connects to rectim (short term storage which holds
feces before it is expelled) The body has its own transport system that carries
Function is to complete the absorption and substances around the body knows as the Circulatory
production of vitamins as well as the formation and System.
elimination of feces It is a network of tubes, blood vessels, blood and a
Assimilation pump (heart) that keeps blood flowing through the
vessels.
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CO combines with haemoglobin → reduces oxygen In cellular respiration, glucose and other organic
carrying capacity → strain on circulatory system molecules are broken down in a series of steps
Increased risk of coronary heart disease and Electrons from organic compounds are usually first
stroke transferred to NAD+, a coenzyme
Carcinogens may lead to lung cancer As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an
oxidizing agent during cellular respiration
4.4. Cellular Respiration Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD+) represents
stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP
Respiration is series of oxidation reactions taking place in NADH passes the electrons to the electron transport
all living cells. It results in the release of energy from chain
organic compounds such as glucose Unlike an uncontrolled reaction, the electron
Gas exchange ≠ respiration transport chain passes electrons in a series of steps
Gas exchange - oxygen into cell and carbon dioxide instead of one explosive reaction
out of cell O2 pulls electrons down the chain in an energy-
Why do living organisms need energy? yielding tumble
To drive metabolic reactions that take place inside The energy yielded is used to regenerate ATP
your body such as:
Movement 1. Glycolysis: breaking up of glucose - divides it
Muscle contraction from c-c-c-c-c-c to c-c-c and c-c-c
Movement of chromosomes in cell division Needs 2 ATPs to create 4 ATPs
Maintaining constant body temperature in mammals Creates 2 molecules of Pyruvic acid
and birds Anaerobic
Anabolic process
Process in which large complex molecules are built 2. Kreb’s Cycle
from smaller, simpler molecules The 2 c-c-c are converted into Acetyl CoA
Involves input of energy Generates 2 ATPs
Ex: sugars from polysaccharides Aerobic
Proteins from amino acids NAD+ turns into NADH (Each create 3 ATPS)
Catabolic process - complex molecules are broken down FAD turns into FADH2
to form smaller, simpler molecules
Aerobic respiration: consumes organic molecules and 3. Electron Transport Chain
oxygen to yield ATP Creates 34 ATPs
Anaerobic respiration: similar to aerobic but consumes Aerobic
other compounds instead of oxygen
Glucose = lactic acid + energy
Or in more simple terms…
Ex: alcohol fermentation
For all types of respiration - glucose (a 6 carbon
Pyruvate is converted into ethanol and CO2
molecule)is broken down into pyruvate (3 carbon
Anaerobic respiration is respiration in the absence of
molecule)
oxygen. Some organisms carry out aerobic respiration
This takes place in the cytoplasm
in the presence of oxygen, but are able to change to
Fermentation - anaerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration in its absence. Some bacteria
Takes place in things like yeast
can thrive only in the absence of oxygen.
Pyruvate → ethanol + CO2
In the absence of oxygen glycolysis can operate, as a
Aerobic respiration - presence of oxygen; takes place in
result energy yield in anaerobic respiration is low and
the mitochondria
the pyruvate is converted into waste products.
Pyruvate → CO2 + H2O
Lactic Acid fermentation
Lots of energy
Pyruvate is reduced to NADH
Lack of oxygen in muscle cells
Forms lactate, no CO2 produced
Pyruvate → lactic acid
Human muscles do this when O2 is scarce
Aka when u are running for so long, intake of O2 is
not enough
Buildup of lactic acid created the burning
sensation in muscles
Cellular respiration includes both but mostly refers to
aerobic
Controlled by the breakdown of organic molecules
C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + H2O + 38 ATPs + Heat
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Visceral muscles (smooth muscles) - found inside organs Ex: bicep curl - biceps contract while the triceps relax
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Neurons
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These receptor cells come in different shapes for Placebos can also reduce pain
different odors They mimic drugs
Receptors proteins are attached to the nasal cavity As a result, the brain releases opiates
neurons People also complain of the fake side
Odor molecules slip into these receptors effects of the placebo
There isn’t a receptor for each odor Osmoreceptors - a sensory receptor primarily found in
Combinations of receptors are triggered in the hypothalamus of most homeothermic organisms that
patterns that are interpreted by the olfactory detects changes in osmotic pressure
cortex Thermoreceptors - detect changes in temperature
Women have a better sense of smell than men Advantages of having major sense organs in the head
People with alzheimer’s, parkinson’s and alcohol Cephalization - evolutionary trend toward
dependence have a diminished sense of smell concentrating nervous tissue, the mouth and sense
Sense of smell peaks in early adulthood and gradually organs towards the front end of an animal
declines Fully cephalized animals have a head and brain
We have our own chemical signatures that dogs and It allows for the development of a brain, complex
cats can sense neural system and intelligence
We prefer smells based on association Clustering of sense to help and animal rapidly sense
Smells that invoke pleasant memories are food and threats
prefered Superior analysis of food sources - mouth is closer to
Hotline runs from area of the brain that receives the brain
information about smell and the limbic system
Smell is primitive and kept us safe Body Position and Movement
Photoreceptors - look at eyes
Mechanoreceptors kinesthesis - sense of position of body parts
Touch is vital for social connections light touch is important
4 parts also interacts with vision
Pressure without it, we would feel disembodied
Warmth vestibular sense - sense of body movement
Cold fluids in the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs,
Pain move when your head moves
Tells you that something has gone wrong movement stimulates hair like receptors which send
Without pain, we would be in great danger messages to the cerebellum enabling you to sense
as we wouldn’t know when we broke a movement of body
bone or other serious injuries
Chronic pain - unable to stop the feeling of 4.9. Vision
pain
Pain is a top- down process Stimulus: Light Energy
Women are more sensitive to pain than men
Nociceptors - receptors that detect hurtful Humans can see the visible light part of the
temperatures, pressures or chemicals electromagnetic spectrum
Gate control theory
Pain impulse → nociceptor → nerve cell → Physical properties wavelength determines hue which is the
spinal cord → brain dimension of color intensity is determined by amplitude and
Spinal cord contains a neurological gate affects brightness
When you are injured, small fibres activate
and open this gate The Eye cornea
Large fiber activity closes the gate
Endorphins reduce pain Allows light to enter and bends it to focus
Phantom limb sensation Pupil - Small opening
Brain only registers pain in memory at the Iris - controls how much light enters
peak moment, and end pain Lens - focuses light rays onto retina
Ex: if you feel sudden, sharp pain, and then
Accommodation - the process by which the eye’s lens
less sharp pain, your overall experience of
changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
the pain will decrease
When we see other in pain, our perception of
Retina
our own pain increases
Medication, acupuncture, hypnosis, etc… can
reduce pain
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The light sensitive inner surface of the eye containing 0 decibels is the absolute threshold for hearing
rods and cones and layers of neurons that begin the Every 10 decibel intensity corresponds to a 10x
processing of visual information increase in sound
Rods - detect black and white
Share bipolar cells with other rods The Ear
Cones - detect bright colors
Each cone is connected to its own bipolar cell Outer ear channels waves into the ear canal and then the
which transmits info to the visual cortex eardrum
Steps: The eardrum is a tight membrane that vibrates
Light entering the eye triggers photochemical reaction Middle ear - chamber between eardrum and the cochlea
in rods and cones at back of retina containing three tiny bones called the hammer, anvil and
Chemical Reaction activates bipolar cells stirrup, that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on
Bipolar cells activate ganglion cells whose axons the cochlea oval window
converge into the optic nerve Picks up vibrations from eardrum and sends them to
Optic nerve transmits information to the visual cortex cochlea
Blind spot - the spot where the optic nerve leaves the eye; Cochlea - snail shaped tube in the inner ear, filled with
there are no receptor cells here fluid
Sound waves travelling through the fluid trigger
Fovea - central focal point in the retina around which the neural impulses
eye’s cones cluster Inner ear - the innermost part of the ear that contains the
cochlea, semicircular canals and vestibular canals
Visual Information Processing Motion in the fluid causes ripples on the basilar
membrane, bending the hair cells lining the surface
Begins in retina Hair cells bending causes impulses to trigger in the
The layers help encode and analyze sensory adjacent nerve cells
information Cilia - tiny tips at top of the hair cells
Retinal cells are pressure sensitive Axons of the cells converge to form the auditory nerve
Bipolar cells → ganglion cells → optic nerve → brain Neural message is sent to the auditory cortex via the
thalamus
Any given retinal area has a corresponding area in the visual
Sensorineural hearing loss - hearing loss caused by
cortex
damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory
Feature Detection nerves
Also called nerve deafness
Feature detectors - nerve cells in the brain that respond Caused by aging, disease, hereditary, and prolonged
to specific features of the stimulus such as shape, angle exposure to loud noise
or movement Conduction hearing loss - hearing loss caused by damage
Located in the occipital lobe to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to
Receive info from individual ganglion cells the cochlea
Pass info on to other cortical areas Listening to loud noise over an extended period of time,
One temporal lobe area by right ear allows for facial can cause damage to the hair cells
recognition Cochlear implant - a device for converting sounds into
Can know angle, posture, gaze, body movement, etc… electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve
through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
parallel processing - the processing of many aspects Can help restore hearing
of a problem stimulus simultaneously Do not work if the person has always been deaf as the
brain hasn’t been trained to interpret sound
4.10. Hearing
4.11. Pavlov’s Experiment
The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves
Ivan Pavlov’s Experiments
Ears detect brief pressure changes of air Noticed that dog salivated at the sight of food
Physical characteristics of the wavs Paired the food with a neutral stimulus such as a bell
Amplitude determines loudness After several trials, the dog salivated at the sound of
Frequency determines pitch the bell
Short waves have a high frequency and pitch Neutral stimulus (NS) - the stimulus which evokes no
Long wave have a low frequency and pitch response before conditioning
Sound is measured in decibels Unconditioned response (UR) - an unlearned, naturally
occurring response
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Unconditioned stimulus (US) - the stimulus that evokes Chemically, hormones may be water soluble proteins,
response before conditioning glycoproteins and amines or lipid-soluble steroids
Conditioned response (CR) - a learned response to the Extra hormones are not stored in the body and are
previously neutral stimulus secreted out
Conditioned stimulus (CS) - an originally irrelevant Target cells - chemicals are secreted into the blood and
stimulus that after association with the US triggers the CR reach the target cell
Steps: Lock and key mechanism
Acquisition
The initial stage when one links the NS with the US 1. Pituitary - the master gland; controls other glands
in order to trigger the CR 1. Hangs from base of midbrain
US must follow the NS or nothing will happen 1. Connected to hypothalamus by
Through higher order conditioning, a new NS can pituitary stalk
become a new CS 2. Hypothalamus
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery 1. Secretes the hormone
Extinction - the diminishing of the CR somatostatin - inhibits secretion
Spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of the of growth hormone from
CR after a short extinction anterior of pituitary
Extinction suppresses the CR, it doesn’t get rid of it 2. Anterior of pituitary
Generalization 1. Growth hormone (GH)
Once a response has been conditioned, it can be 1. a.k.a. somatotropic hormone
evoked with similar stimuli (STH)
Ex: a toddler scared of cars will also be scared 1. Promotes growth of
of trucks and motorcycles whole body
Discrimination 2. Under secretion →
Ability to distinguish between a conditioned dwarfism
stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli 3. Oversecretion →
Pavlov’s legacy gigantism and
Showed us that many other stimuli can be classically acromegaly
conditioned in other organisms 2. Trophic hormones - stimulates other
Showed us how a process such as learning can be endocrine glands
objectively studied 1. Thyroid stimulating hormone
Applications (TSH)
Helping recovering drug addicts 3. Gonadotropic Hormones
Medication 3. Posterior Lobe of Pituitary
1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or
vasopressin
4.12. The Endocrine System 1. Increase absorption of water
from kidney tubes
Gland - an organ that secretes chemicals into the
2. Deficiency causes diabetes
bloodstream
insipidus
Endocrine glands
2. Oxytocin
Do not have ducts
2. Thyroid -
Ducts are tube like structures that allow the
1. Located in the front of the neck
secretions to move to the target location
2. Thyroxine
In the endocrine system, chemical secretions are sent
1. Regulates basal metabolism
to the target site directly through the bloodstream
2. Controls growth and development
Exclusive endocrine glands - pituitary, thyroid,
3. Under secretion (hypothyroidism) can
parathyroid, thymus, adrenals
lead to
Partially endocrine - pancreas, gastric and duodenal
1. Simple Goitre
epithelium, gonads, placenta
1. Swelling of the neck is
Hormones - secretions from specific cells or glands in the
seen
body that are carried by the blood
2. Iodine deficiency
Effect is produced in one or more specific parts only
3. Dwarfism, mental
Secreted from the source directly to the blood
retardation, general
Regulate physiological processes
sluggishness
Produced in very small quantities and are biologically
4. Over secretion ( hyperthyroidism) can
very active
lead to
Excess or deficiency can cause serious disorders
1. Exophthalmic goitre
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Consist of a fragment of genetic material inside a have the same antigens as the normal ones but they are
protein coat called a capsid not able to cause the disease
Sometimes have a further membrane of lipid Herd immunity - not everyone needs to be immunized
called an envelope surrounding the protein in order to stay healthy, but a majority of the
May have a tail section population does
Transmission Non specific defense
Attachment - binds to a specific receptor on the First line of defence - preventing entry
host surface Skin
Penetration - enters the cell Internal surface mouth - saliva
Synthesis of new components - Saliva contains lysozyme and stomach contains
Takes over control of the cell metabolism mucus, protein digesting enzyme and HCl
stopping the cell's normal nucleic acid and Nostrils - hairs
protein synthesis Hairs trap microbes along with other
Replicated using nucleotides from the host cell undesirables such as dust
Protein coats are manufactured using the Special cells in the respiratory tract produce
amino acids of the host cell. lysozyme rich mucus to trap and destroy
Assembly - Whole virus particles are made when foreign bodies
the nucleic acids are surrounded by the protein Mucus membranes also lines with cilia tiny
coats breathing hairs that sweep mucus up to throat
Release - Many viral particles are released when where it is
the cell bursts open (lysis) or by slow leakage Ears - wax
Parasites use the host as a source of nutrients and Eyes - tears
deprive the host of substances it needs for its own Second line of defense
survival Inflammation - a complex response involving
Ectoparasites - surface of body protein and white blood cells
Ticks, fleas
Depend on host for food and shelter
Vectors for other parasites
Endoparasites - live inside the body
Protozoans - single celled
Ex: malaria
Helminths - worms
Flukes, roundworms, tapeworms
Major health concern
Protozoa - single celled
Amoebic dysentery, malaria
Fungi
Phagocytosis - the process by which a cell—often a
Eukaryotic
phagocyte or a protist—engulfs a solid particle to
Many important for food industry and antibiotics
form an internal compartment known as a
Pathogenic fungi are responsible for the destruction
phagosome
of crops
Often happens when cell is trying to destroy
something like a virus or infected cell
5.2. Immune System Only happens when the cell is in physical
contact with the particle it wants to engulf
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covered with unique chemical markers known as When we cough or sneeze, the phlegm and mucus
antigens end up
Specialized WBCs interpret these antigens and Vomit
recognize whether they are own cells or invading Digestive system becomes more acidic→ less
materials or cells pleasant for pathogens
If a foreign invader is detected, the adaptive Actively removing pathogens
immune system can start to fight it
Immune system can also detect whether this is a 5.3. Antibodies
new pathogen or one that has been fought in the
past Antibodies - a protein molecule with a particular shape,
First infection - body starts producing rather like an enzyme molecule, this shape is just right to
antibodies and the antibodies multiply once fit into another molecule. To destroy a particular
the correct antibodies have been detected pathogen, antibody molecules must be made which are
It may take some time for the body to just right shape to fit into molecules on the outside of the
identify the correct antibody pathogen
Some antibodies remain as memory cells Antigen - pathogen molecules
If a pathogen enters the body, it is likely to meet a large
number of lymphocytes, one of these may recognize the
pathogens as being something that its antibody can
destroy. this lymphocyte well start to divide rapidly by
mitosis, making clone of lymphocytes itself. These
lymphocytes then secrete their antibody, destroying
pathogens.
First line is bacteria, second line is antibodies Memory cells - Memory cells are a type of white blood cell
Second infection that can respond quickly when it meets a microorganism
Thanks to memory cells, the antibodies are produced for the second time. They produce the right antibody for
very quickly the particular microorganism and destroy it before you
This is the concept of vaccination
feel unwell. This is described as being immune to a
disease.
After the infection has passed most b cells die, and
antibody numbers also fall off, but a small number
become memory B cells. They are ready to respond to
pathogens quickly if you meet it again
T-lymphocytes (or t cells which mature in the thymus) ex:
T killer cells which destroy bacteria that have become
coated with antibodies and helper T cells which prompt B
cells to start making antibodies
B lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow
Small curve is bacteria, large curve is antibodies Produce plasma cells that form antibodies
When we are sick, the body tries to make itself Also produce memory cells that stay in the body for a
unappealing to pathogens long time and can trigger the production of antibodies
Fever raises temp above 37 degrees if infection occurs
Chemicals from pathogens and immune cells get Antibiotics are substances that destroy, damage or kill
to hypothalamus certain types of cells
Hypothalamus detects signals Many antibiotics are found in nature
Turns up body heat Penicillin originates from mold
Mucus and phlegm trap pathogens before they can Not effective for viruses
fully enter the body
Contain antibodies 5.4. Autoimmune Disease
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Lymphocytes normally respond only to foreign cells that Hosted by human gut bacteria which are also capable
enter the body of living wild in sewers
They recognize our own cells as self cells and do not Can kill or cause paralysis
produce antibodies against them A few drops of attenuated virus are enough to protect
However, sometimes this system breaks a person for life
down,lymphocytes behave as though some of our own
cells are foreign and react to them as they would to an
invasion of pathogens 6. Reproduction
Diseases that result from this kind of malfunction of the
immune system are called autoimmune diseases 6.1. Life Cycles
Ex: type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, lung cancer
Linked to people’s lifestyle and behavior Life cycle - a series of developmental stages in a lifetime
Repeated every generation
Lifestyle and Mental Health Disorders Prereproductive vs. reproductive stage
Every species has its own stages
Some diseases like type 2 diabetes and certain types of
Time period of each stage varies
cancer can be linked to behavior
Ex: cicada spend 17 years as immature
These lifestyle diseases can result from factors such
nymphs
as obesity (from excessive calorie intake,smoking and
Also depends on environment
alcohol consumption)
Butterflies: egg → larva → pupa → adult
Not entirely linked to behavior but indulgence in
Locust: egg → nymph → adult
these behaviors can increase the chances of onset of
Not all live to adulthood
these diseases
Metamorphosis - change in form
Mental health disorders include depression, eating
Complete vs. incomplete
disorders, PTSD, and addictive disorders
Incomplete
Some are inheritable
Moulting - shedding the exoskeleton
Some result from traumatic experiences, brain
No. of times varies
damage from an accident, abuse, or stressful living
Gradual/incomplete hemimetabolous - wings
conditions
appear as protrusions on the thorax
Holometabolous/abrupt/complete
5.5. Other Types of Diseases Immature nymphs are adults that can’t reproduce
Advantages of complete metamorphosis
Ebola Adults and larvae don’t compete for the same food
Contagious and viral Have different predators
Eating “bush meat”, monkeys or apes seemed to be Different habitats
the source of infection in humans Adaptable
These hosts caught it from the fruit bat Occurs in 85% of species
Monkeys are the intermediate hosts Higher survival rate
Influenza
One strain is called bird flu and is found in many
6.2. Asexual Reproduction
migratory water birds
Sharing ponds or food with domestic fowl can lead to
Uniparent - one parent
spread of the virus
Uniform offsprings - genetically identical to parent
Domestic birds like chickens are the source of bird flu
Rare in multicellular organisms but common in
in humans
prokaryotes
Never passed from one human to another
No gametes involved
Another strain is the Spanish flu, and another is swine
Binary fission - cell division in prokaryotes that forms two
flu
genetically identical cells
Dengue fever
DNA is copied
Mosquito borne
Cell grows longer pulling the two copies apart → cell
Mosquitos transmit the virus from one human to the
membrane pinches inward → new uniform identical
next
offspring
Despite scientific advancement, there are 30x as
Unicellular organisms
many infections as there were in 1960
Ex: Bacteria, Protozoa, Amoeba, Ecoli
4 types
Budding - a new organism grows by mitosis and cell
Surviving one type means that you will suffer even
division on the body of its parent
more symptoms if you get another type later
Polio
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Bud can break off from the parent when it is large Self - transfer of pollen grains from anther to the
enough and live on its own stigma of the same flower
Offspring may remain attached to form a colony Cross - transfer of pollen grains from anther to the
Ex: Yeast, Hydra, Cactus stigma of different flowers
Regeneration - occurs when an offspring grows from a Wind - different structure
piece of its parent Lots of small and light pollen grains
Ex: Anthers are exposed to allow the pollen to be
a) New organisms: sea stars, sea urchins, sea blown away easily
cucumber, sponges and planarians Petals are small and green as there is no need to
b) New body parts: gecko, newts, tadpoles, crabs, attract insects
hydra, and zebrafish No scent or nectary
Vegetative propagation - uniform offspring grow from a Stigma are feathery to catch pollen carried on
part of the parent plant wind
Parent plants send out runners and when they touch Seeds have wing like feathery projections which
the ground, roots can grow increase surface area so that the seeds can float in
A new plant is produced even if the runner is broken air and be carried over long distances
apart Ex: sycamore, dandelion
Each plant is uniform and identical to the parent Animals
Ex: strawberries, potatoes, ivy and crabgrass Tomato
Advantages: Fleshy, bright, and scented to attract animals
Rapid populating Tough seed coat to protect seeds from being
No mates required digested in the animals’ gut
Useful in emergencies Burr grass
No true investment Stiff, hooked spines which catch onto the
Disadvantages: animals’ fur to be carried long distances before
No diversity dropping off
Prone to extinction Fertilization
Cannot adapt Transfer of pollen via wind or insects
Dangerous mutations in DNA Pollen grains land on stigma
Nucleus of pollen grain (sperm) travels through style
6.3. Sexual Reproduction to the ovule → egg and sperm fuse → zygote formed
→ grows into embryo through meiosis
A type of reproduction in which the genetic materials Germination - seed contains the future plant or embryo
from two different cells combine, producing an offspring which develops into seedling under appropriate
Sex cells - the cells that combine; egg and sperm; conditions and this is called germination
gametes Factors
Fertilization - the process in which an egg and a sperm Water: allows the seed to swell and the embryo to
fuse together start growing
New cell formed = zygote Oxygen: needed for aerobic respiration
Warmth: increases growth rate and enzyme
Plants activity
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Epididymis - site where sperm matures and develops Corpus Luteum Stage: LH and FSH drop → yellow
the ability to be motile cells occupy the place where the egg was →
Mature sperm is stored here until ejaculation corpus luteum → produce and release
Vas deferens - long tubes which conducts sperm from progesterone → maintains uterine lining to ensure
the testes to the prostate gland during ejaculation implantation
Seminal vesicle - secretes fluid containing fructose, Menstruation: if the egg is not fertilized within
mucus, and prostaglandin ( triggers uterine about 24 hours of fertilization → corpus luteum
contraction) breaks down and secretion of LH decreases →
Prostate gland - secretes an alkaline fluid to neutralise decrease in progesterone → lining breaks down →
vaginal acids to maintain sperm viability menstruation takes place
Mixture of sperm and fluid is semen Menopause - the permanent cessation of the menstrual
Urethra cycle; occurs between 45-50 years of age
Conducts sperm from prostate gland out of the
body via the penis 6.5. Fertilization
Only sperm or urine at a time not both
Penis - copulatory organ in which there is erectile Growth - increasing number of cells
tissue through which blood enters Differentiation - series of changes that transforms the
During sexual intercourse, penis is inserted into unspecialized embryonic cells into specialized cells,
the vagina to transfer sperm tissues and organs
Female reproductive system Aging - complex series of developmental changes which
Ovary - oocytes mature prior to ovulation and the occur with the passage of time caused by both heredity
secretion of estrogen and progesterone and environment
Fimbria - fringe of tissue adjacent to an ovary that Death - irreversible end of all brain functions
sweep an oocyte into the oviduct When an egg is fertilized by a sperm, the egg will implant
Oviduct/fallopian tube - transports the oocyte to the into the lining of the uterus and begin to develop
uterus; also where fertilization occurs Zygote → embryo (0-8 weeks) → fetus (8 weeks to
Uterus - fertilized egg is implanted and develops into birth)
an embryo Fertilization takes place in the fallopian tube
Endometrium - the mucous membrane lining of the Fertilization - fusion of sperm nucleus with egg nucleus
uterus Zygote divides into two identical cells by mitosis → 4 cells
Thickens in preparation for implantation or is → 8 cells → 16 cells → solid ball of cells called morula
otherwise lost Zygote is a diploid cell
Cervix: lower portion of the uterus Morula - 30-50 cells (blastomeres)
Vagina - passage leading to the uterus by which the Created is around 96 hours
penis can enter No growth is seen → arise through cleavage
Each cell is half the size of the one it is derived
Menstruation from
Blastula
One egg per month s released by the ovaries 4th day after insemination → epithelial cellular layer
Inner lining of uterus becomes full of blood capillaries forms → thicker outside
and becomes soft to receive the fertilized egg Blastopore
If fertilization doesn’t take place, the egg dies and it’s also Blastocoel - fluid filled inside sphere
accompanied by other changes Vegetal plate - yolk filled end
Uterus lining breaks down → menstruation Blastocyst
Menstrual cycle Implantation - the embryo secretes enzymes that digest a
4 hormones path into the soft tissue; first phase of pregnancy
Ovary: estrogen and progesterone Gastrula - one side of the blastula pushes inward forming
Pituitary gland: FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) a second, inner layer of cells called the endoderm
and LH (luteinizing hormone) Endoderm → lining of digestive tract, lining of trachea,
Process: bronchi and lungs, liver and pancreas, thyroid,
Follicle stage: pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH parathyroid, thymus, and urinary bladder
→ follicles develop → secrete estrogen → rebuilds Outer cell layer = ectoderm
the uterine lining (10-14 days) Becomes nervous system, epidermis, sweat
Ovulation: pituitary increases FSH and LH (lots of glands, hair and nails, lining of mouth, nostrils and
LH) → LH causes the follicle and ovary to release anus
an egg (ovulation) → fertilization is most likely to Third layer called mesoderm forms between the
be successful (day 14) endoderm and the ectoderm
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Becomes bones and muscles, blood and blood For the first 6 weeks of development, male and female
vessels, heart, reproductive system, excretory embryos are identical
system, inner layer of skin 7th week - primary reproductive organs begin to
Actual beginning of pregnancy (phase 2) develop
Ectopic pregnancy - when an embryo implants Testosterone in males and estrogen in females
somewhere other than the uterus develop secondary characteristics
Embryonic period Progesterone prepares uterus for arrival of
Primary organ differentiation developing embryo
Ends at 8th week Multiple births
Phase 3 Identical: 1 egg is fertilized and splits during the first
Fetal periods (last phase) division
Rapid growth, changes in body parts and final prep Fraternal: 2 eggs are fertilized at the same time
for birth
End of week three - nervous and digestive systems 6.6. Birth Control Methods and STDs
begin to form
Chorion has grown into the uterine tissue to form the Contraception - method of avoiding conception
placenta Safe period - sexual intercourse is avoided during the
Placenta acts as a barrier for microorganisms period of ovulation as well as a few days before and
AIDS, German Measles, chicken pox and after
encephalitis can still pass through Barrier method (condoms) - physical barrier is created
Gestation period of humans is 9 months between the sperms and the ovum
Control of development Also prevent STDs
Nucleus → DNA contains hereditary information, No tears in condom, must not be expired, must be
controls cellular activity and encodes for the put on the penis correctly
production of cellular proteins Oral contraception (the pill) - manipulation of
Cytoplasm receives instructions from the DNA in the hormones → prevents ovulation
nucleus Cannot prevent STDs
Development Lots of side effects
External in water - nourishment →supplied by the Chemical contraception - creams and gels applied in
yolk stored in egg; no parental care the vagina
External on land - production of egg and shell; some Melts into a viscous mass as a result of body heat
parental care → creates barrier
4 extra membranes outside the embryo Acidic environment in unfavorable for sperms
chorion - outermost; aids in gas exchange STDs
Allantois - exchange of O2 and CO2; stores Also known as Sexually Transmitted Infections
waste until egg hatches Chlamydia - caused by bacteria
Amnion fluid sac that surrounds the embryo Causes a burning pain when urinating and forms a
cushion; shock absorber thick yellow or green discharge from an infected
Yolk sac - surrounds the yolk; source of food penis or vagina
for embryo Can cause bleeding in between periods or swollen
Shell prevents bacteria from entering, porous testicles in men
enough for O2 and CO2 exchange, slow rate of Can result in infertility
evaporation Treated with antibiotics
Internal HIV - human immunodeficiency virus
Placental mammals - blood vessels of embryo are Transmitted through sexual intercourse as well as
in close contact with mother’s blood unsterilized needles or cuts
Placenta - structure produced by the uterus of the Mild flu-like symptoms
mother which supplies nutrients to the embryo Many people don’t even know that they are
and removes waste from the embryo affected
Diffusion and active transport; no direct blood AIDS - acquired immune deficiency syndrome
link between mother and fetus Months or years after HIV, the virus may attack
Umbilical cord - attaches the embryo to the the immune system at which point HIV results in
placenta of the mother in the uterus AIDS
Non placental mammals Antiviral drugs can slow the development of AIDS
Egg laying mammals/monotremes - duckbill and HIV even though there is no cure
platypus, spiny anteater Gonorrhoea - caused by the bacteria called Neisseria
Marsupials - kangaroo, opossum gonorrhoeae or gonococcus
Yellow/green discharge
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Anticodon - three template bases on tRNA dominant allele and r (wrinkled) is the recessive
tRNA decodes and brings the amino acids from the gene.
cytoplasm and sequences them according to the Breeding experiment between P generation
mRNA codons (parent generation).
Polypeptide chain forms → protein P generation parent are homozygous with
tRNA leaves different alleles for the same trait.
The possible gametes for the first parental
7.8. Mutations generation are R and r (homozygous dominant
parent will have R, R and homozygous recessive
Mutation - a change in the DNA base sequence parent will have r, r).
Substitution - one replaced by another The first filial generation or F1 will all be daughters
Insertion - addition of an extra base that will be Heterozygous Dominant with gametes
Deletion - removal R, r.
Inversion - change in sequence After this, the first generation are all self-
Duplication - one segment is repeated pollinated. Here the possible gametes are (R. r) (R,
When a mutation occurs, the type of protein formed r). To find the exact ratios we use the Punnett
changes Square. From the Punnett Square we can see that
Point mutation - change occurs for one base pair only the Phenotypic Ratio is 3: 1. While the genotypic
Substitution ratio is 1:2:1.
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Thus, the first generation filial offspring are all R r If all offsprings are found to be of one type, then the
y Y. dominant parent is homozygous
We then self-pollinate the F1 generation. If the offspring produced are both types in 1:1 ratio,
Here the possible gametes for one of the parents- the the dominant parent is heterozygous
RY, Ry, rY, ry. If some are dwarf, then the parent plant is
And the same for the second parent. heterozygous
We make a Punnett Square grid again and the Back cross - individual is crossed with either of the
following are the ratios- phenotypic ratio is 9:3:3:1 parents
:: Round Yellow: Round Green: Wrinkled Yellow: Incomplete dominance
Wrinkled Green. Ex: Andalusian fowl
Recombinants that are formed after the crossing Black and white chickens exist
like Round Green and Wrinkled Yellow.
If a white chicken breeds with a black chicken, you
get a gray chicken
WW + BB → WB = gray
Ex: Mirabilis Jalapa (4 o’clock plant)
Red flower and white flower = pink flower
RR + WW → RW = pink
Codominance - both are equally dominant
Ex: blood groups
A is dominant over O → IaIa or IaIo
B is dominant over O → IbIb or IbIo
A and B are equally dominant → IaIb
Chromosomes are either autosomes or allosomes Ex: IaIa + IbIb → IaIb (codominance)
Allosomes are the sex chromosomes. O → IoIo
There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of Sex-linked inheritance - gene is linked to the 23rd
allosomes. chromosome
Genes of autosomes are autosomal genes and genes More likely to affect maleS
of allosomes are sex-linked genes.
Genes of Y-chromosome are Y-linked genes 7.10. Pedigree Charts
Y-linked are inherited from male to male only.
In females, the 23rd pair of the sex-linked pair is XX A pedigree chart is a flow chart that shows the
and in males it is XY. relationship within a family over several generations.
Therefore, the sex determining is the Y chromosome Offspring are shown in order of birth from left to right.
and whether the males pass it on. Generations are labelled with Roman Numerals
Key terms: A person that is not affected but passes it onto their
Allele - different versions of a gene offspring are called carriers only applicable in recessive
Gene - a segment of DNA which defines a certain trait disorders.
Homozygotes - same alleles for the same trait Autosomal Dominant - there is an altered autosomal
Heterozygotes - different alleles (identical gene on one of the 22 autosomes and someone who
Dominant - whichever trait is more carriers this gene is affected by the disorder
possible/expressive If the person has offspring there is a ½ chance that
Represented by the capital letter of the trait they pass on the disorder even if they are female or
Recessive - whichever trait is less likely to occur male.
Represented by the lower case letter of the trait If both parents are affected but the offspring is
Phenotype - external/visible characteristics unaffected, the trait must be dominant
Genotype - genetic constitution/composition You will be affected if you have a A allele.
Possibilities/gene combinations Those that are affected can be homozygous or
Law of dominance - the phenotype is that of the heterozygous.
dominant gene/allele
If a plant self-pollinates and you get the same traits, it is
homozygous
If a plant self-pollinates and you get varying traits, it is
heterozygous
Test cross - cross tall plants with dwarf plants to see the
nature of the offsprings; it is used to find out whether the
parent if homozygous or heterozygous
Determine the genotype of the dominant parent
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Extra genetic material → alters course of Urine turns dark brown or black when exposed to
development air
Low muscle tone, small stature, upward slant to the Black earwax
eyes, single deep crease across the palm Dark sweats stains
Types Blue speckled discoloration of skin particularly
Trisomy 21 (nondisjunction) - results in an embryo around sweat glands
with three copies of chromosome 21 instead of Arthritis
the usual two Autosomal recessive
Accounts for 95% of cases Color blindness
Extra chromosome is replicated in every cell of X-linked recessive
the body
Translocation
4% of cases 8. Evolution
Total number of chromosomes is still 46
An additional full or partial copy of It is the change in the characteristics of a species over
chromosome 21 attaches to another several generations and relies on the process of natural
chromosome, usually chromosome 14 selection.
Mosaicism The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all
1% of cases species are related and gradually change over time.
Mixture of two types of cells - some containing Evolution relies on genetic variation in a population which
46 chromosomes and some containing 47 affects the physical characteristics (phenotype) of an
Ones with 47 contain one extra organism.
chromosome 21 Some of these individuals may have characteristic
Sickle Cell Anemia advantage over other individuals which they can pass on
An inherited form of anemia to their offspring.
Red blood cells become rigid and stockey and are
shaped like crescent moons 8.2. Theories of Evolution
Irregularly shaped cells get stuck in blood vessels
Slow blood and oxygen flow throughout body Thales - water origin theory - all life originated in the sea
Sickle cells usually die in 10 to 20 days rather than the and arose out of the sea
usual 120 days Greek philosopher
Leads to shortage of RBCs → fatigue due to lack of 640-546 BC
oxygen Aristotle - there has been a natural progression from
Block of blood flow and lead to body pains plants to plant-animals to animals to humans
Painful swelling of hands and feet Greek philosopher
Sickle cells can damage an organ that fights infection Classified animals based on anatomy
and leave the person more vulnerable to infection Purpose: to achieve “The Divine”
Delayed growth due to lack of oxygen and nutrient Ladder of life
supply Carl Linnaeus - organisms can be grouped together
Vision problems if the blood vessels that supply the according to their degree of similarity
eyes are plugged with sickle cells → retina damage Swedish botanist
Caused by mutations in the HBB gene Developed a system for classifying all living things in
Abnormal haemoglobin called haemoglobin S “Systema Naturae”
Causes rigid, non-liquid protein strands to form Based on physical appearance and method of
within the red blood cell reproduction
Distorts RBCs into a sickle shape Georges Louis Leclerc and Comte de Buffon - similar
Autosomal recessive organisms may have a common ancestor, and living
Alkaptonuria things do change over time
HGD (homogentisic dioxygenase) gene provides James Hutton - the natural forces that currently shape the
instructions for making an enzyme called Earth’s surface were operating in the past in much the
homogentisate oxidase same way as they do today
Breaks down homogentisic acid Theory of uniformitarianism
Faulty HGD gene → body can’t produce enough of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck - for a species to survive it must be
homogentisate oxidase → build up of able to adapt to changing environmental conditions
homogentisic acid Evolutionary changes as a result of this
Build up causes bones and cartilage to become Acquired adaptation can be passed from one
discolored and brittle → osteoarthritis generation to the next so species are not static
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First to fully state a theory that involved descent by adaptation to the local environment and available food
modification that is stimulated by the environment.
He was an early proponent of evolution and the fact
that it proceeded in accordance to natural laws. 8.4. Industrial Melanism: The Peppered
Lamarckism is the idea that an organism can pass on
characteristics that it acquired during its lifetime to its Moth
offspring.
This is also known as the heritability of acquired The Peppered moth was commonly a pale whitish colour
characteristics or soft inheritance. with black spots.
His theory is called the Theory of inheritance of The colouring enabled them to hide from the potential
acquired characters. predators on trees with pale coloured barks
The use and disuse of organs: The organs of the body The rarer dark coloured peppered moths were easily
that are used more and more get well developed seen against the pale bark of trees more easily by
while the organs that are not used, get weakened, predators
smaller and gradually disappear. Due to industrial evolution, air became full of soot. This
Inheritance of acquired characteristics- the characters stained trees and the buildings darker
acquired during the life time of an individual are The lichen died
transmitted to the next generation. Due to this, the lighter moths were seen easily by
Disproved by the rat experiment. They cut off tails for predators.
20 generations and it still appeared The darker were able to camouflage.
Dr.Erasmus Darwin - all warm blooded animals have a As the lighter moths would keep getting eaten the darker
common origin moths grew in population.
Charles Darwin - species evolve and change by a process In the end, the darker moths were more common.
of natural selection
More offspring are produced than can survive 8.5. Adaptive Radiation:
Survival of the fittest
Alfred Wallace - independently proposed a theory of It is also known as the Darwin-Wallace of Natural
natural selection at the same time as Darwin Selection.
Darwin-Wallace theory of natural selection Proposed that populations living in different places could
Gregor Mendel - research into genetic inheritance evolve to different species over time.
provides an insight into the patterns in which heritable For example, the birds on the Galapagos Islands
traits are passed from one generation to the next, developed different shapes of beaks due to the different
including the mixing of maternal and paternal trait prey.
For example, there is environmental isolation, this
8.3. Darwin: Theory of natural selection isolation leads to two different gene pools of the two
populations so they can never interbreed and exchange
There is a struggle for existence because since every genes so they become reproductively isolated. Over time,
organism can reproduce then there is over-population the gene pools become so different structurally even if
and there is a limited quantity for food, thus there is a they meet they can’t reproduce, thus a new species was
struggle for basic necessities and therefore a struggle to born.
exist. This is also called Speciation.
Variations exist within population- The offspring from Homologous Organs: Similar origin and structure but
same parents also differ and show variation. different function. It explains divergent evolution. This
One species can split into two if the two populations means common ancestor but different species.
are living in different places Analogous Organs: Different origin but same function.
Survival of the fittest and Natural selection- of the Explains convergent evolution. This means different
offspring that are produced as a result of the struggle for ancestors but form similar species with similar functions.
existence the offspring with the favourable variations will Vestigial Organs- Organs which had a use but not
survive, this is called selection and since this occurs anymore.
naturally it is called Natural selection. Embryological evidence
Evolution occurs by natural selection acting on chance Early stages: common characteristics
variations present in each population Later stages: more differences
over many generation the species become more and
more different 8.6. Speciation
Physiology and behavior
Eventually become two different species the formation of new and distinct species in the course of
He also proved Adaptive Radiation- this is when a certain evolution
species evolves into many different species due to the
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double stranded DNA Fossils of similar plants and animals and mountains
Both cells have double stranded plasmids with similar rocks were found in South America and
If these strands are antibiotic resistant, Africa
both cells are antibiotic resistant Mid-atlantic ridge patterns
Indiscriminate usage of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic Convection currents in the mantle of the Earth
resistance could be responsible for the movement of
This is an example of natural selection and survival of the continents
fittest Submarine mountain ridge with volcanoes runs
down the center of the Atlantic ocean
8.9. Evidences for the Theories of Similar patterns of humps and ridges on either
side
Evolution Found that every half million years, the Earth’s
magnetic field flips
Sedimentary rocks Seafloor spreading - when two adjacent plates are
Horizontal layers called beds being pulled in opposite directions, magma keeps
Sediments are created by weathering and erosion oozing up through the gaps between them causing
and are layered on top of each other the plates to move further apart
Sedimentary basin forms Magma adds to the size of the plate
Oldest rock is at the bottom of the pile of sediments Spreading center
If you dig through the strata (layers) you can see a Mid-Atlantic ridge - pushing Africa and Europe
timeline of the past away from the Americas
Fossils Subduction - plates being pushed beneath one
Any preserved remains of an organism or trace of an another
organism and its activity As one plate sinks and is reabsorbed, the other is
Dead organisms must be covered quickly and must pushed up → mountain ranges
remain relatively undisturbed Convection currents → cause semi molten magma to
Paleontologists - scientists who study fossils move → drag plates along with it
Can be found in sedimentary rocks, peat bogs, amber,
permanently frozen or tar pits
Fossil record - a comprehensive catalogue of all the
8.11. How Old is the Earth
fossils that have been discovered
Lord William Kelvin - used the fact of molten rock beneath
250,000 species
the surface the calculate the age of the earth to be 15-20
Microfossils such as those of pollen grains are
million years
most common
Now we have evidence that the Earth is around 4.5
Dating fossils and rocks
billion years old
Carbon-14 can be used to find the age of relatively
Nuclear reactor in core
young fossils
Radioactive isotopes in Earth’s core
Depends on the concentration of C-14 left
Half lives are billions of years long
When an organism is alive, the C-12 to C-14 ratio is
Used to be kept hot by the radioactive decay of
the same in both its body and the environment
isotopes with shorter half lives
When it dies, the carbon-14 decays
Faults - evidence that rocks aren’t strong enough to
However C-14 is only useful up to 50,000 years
withstand all forces
To get around this problem
Massive blocks of rock pushed together → lots of
Potassium-argon: half life = 100,000 years
friction → high pressure → rocks snap apart
Uranium-lead: half life = 1,000,000-4,500,000
Energy release causes solid rock to vibrate →
million years
earthquake
Vibrations = seismic waves → transmitted rapidly
8.10. Wegener's Ideas through rocks
Shockwave travels in all directions from the focus
1915 - Alfred Wegener Max disturbance at epicenter
Theory: over time, continents have drifted apart Tectonic plates - earth’s crust is broken up into plates
creating the continents we have today Over 90% of earthquakes occur at these boundaries
Pangaea = supercontinent Float on the mantle which consists of magma
Continental drift - the slow movement of continents Convection currents cause the plates to move
Wegener’s Evidence - Tsunami - violent push of water
Continents looked like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle that Caused when huge block of seafloor is thrust upwards
could fit together near or around subduction zones
South America and Africa Lighter plate is pushed up by heavier plate
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Huge forces Tissue cloning - getting a few cells from a desirable plant
Brittle rocks fracture to make a big mass of identical cells, each of which can
Pliable, ductile rocks fold produce a tiny identical plant
When brittle and ductile rocks occur in the same area, Grown in vitro (in glass tubes/petri dishes) using
the ductile rocks may bend or fold over the fault sterile agar jelly that contains plant hormones and
Anticlines = upwards fold nutrients
Synclines = downwards folds More expensive than cuttings
Monoclines = broad step like folds Used to preserve rare plant species or grow
commercially larger nurseries
9. Biotechnology
9.1. Definition
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Selective Breeding
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Economically beneficial and higher quality food Restriction enzymes are used to isolate the required
Animals can be bred to cause no harm; ex: cattle gene leaving it with sticky ends. Sticky ends are a
without horns short section of unpaired bases
Cons A vector, which is usually a bacterial plasmid or a
Reduced genetic variation → attack of disease/insect virus, is cut by the same restriction enzyme leaving it
→ extreme destruction with corresponding sticky ends
Rare disease genes may be selected as a part of a The vector and the isolated gene are joined together
desired trait → problems with specific organisms by ligase enzyme
May create physical problems in specific organisms; The vector inserts the gene into required cells
ex: overbred dogs The genes are transferred to animal, plant or
microorganism cells, during early development, which
9.3. Genetic Engineering allows them to develop with the desired
characteristics
Genetic engineering/genetic modification - DNA is
modified so a unique set of genes is produced
Genes can be swapped across species
Direct manipulation/modification of DNA so that unique
set of genes is produce
Faster way to modify species by directly transplanting
genes for a desired trait into an organism
Now, we can genetically modify many organisms such as
bacteria or even cows
Major part of Genetic engineering includes moving a
piece of DNA from one genome to the other
To chance the DNA of an organism, the desirable gene
must be located, isolated, copied, and introduced to the
new genome
Big different between genetic engineering and selective
breeding is that with genetic engineering scientists can * reproduction occurs in an incubated fermenter
introduce genes from a completely different species into
the genome of an organism Benefits
These organisms are called transgenics Agriculture - see GMOs
Create insulin which can be used to treat diabetes
Recombinant DNA Technology Sterile insects could be created, such as mosquitoes.
They would breed with fertile mosquitos, but be
Tool kit unable to reproduce. This would reduce the number
Restriction enzyme - found in bacteria and used to of offspring and may help with spread of diseases,
destroy viruses; cut DNA at a particular sequences such as malaria, dengue fever and the Zika virus.
leaving “sticky ends” Risks
Sticky ends - when a staggered cut is made in DNA A gene that benefits one organism may harm another
by a restriction enzyme, the exposed unpaired Not ethical
bases can pair with complementary bases on Genetically engineered crop seeds are usually more
another strand of DNA which has been cut with expensive so people in developing countries can’t
the same restriction enzyme afford them
Exposed ends = sticky ends
DNA ligase - connects pieces of DNA together; can be Genetically Modified Foods
used to “stick” a gene into a vector such as a plasmid
Plasmid - independently replicating circle of DNA GMO - genetically modified organisms
containing a few genes In some countries, vitamin deficiencies are common
Found in bacteria and can be used to carry genes Insert genes that add nutrients into plants such as
into a suitable host bacterium rice so that they have vitamin A, iron, etc…
Vector - something which can carry DNA from one Golden rice - gene produced beta carotene
organism to another (needed in humans to make vitamin A)
Host bacterium - a bacterium which can be modified Can help reduce the occurrence of deficiency diseases
by adding genes using a vector Include those that are resistant to insect attack or are
Allowed to multiply to produce multiple copies herbicide resistant → increased yields
Steps Herbicide resistant crops can tolerate herbicide, but
the weeds can’t so they’re killed
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'11 In situ skin bioprinting for burn wound was done Mutations in these genes account for
'15 partnership between organovo and l'oreal for approximately 10% of all inherited breast cancer
commercial production of artificial skin by using cases detected
bioprinting technology Scientists detected BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes by
Why don’t the organs work? studying families where breast cancer was known
Difficult to create blood vessels between tissue layers to have been inherited between individuals
Organs have many specialized functions difficult to They were able to create a pedigree analysis that
replicate showed the close relationship of those affected
Advantages and unaffected within the family
Artificial organ personalized using patient's own cells Illustrates the inheritance pattern of the
No DNA rejection disease to be determined
Eliminate need for immunosuppressant drugs after a This enabled scientists to test DNA from the
regular organ transplant affected and unaffected individuals to identify
Eliminate organ donation differences
No waiting period Now possible to detect the presence of the genes
Disadvantages by having a simple blood test
Printers cost hundreds of thousands of dollars
Possibly more expensive than regular organ DNA Fingerprinting
transplant
Use of stem cells is still controversial Developed by Alec jeffreys in 1984
Cost of using stem cells Method that identifies and individual based on patterns
No success yet formed from variations in genetic coded
Also known as dna profiling, genetic fingerprinting, dna
typing
9.6. Genome Mapping
Minisatellites are short sequences (10-60 base pairs long)
of repetitive DNA that show greater variation from one
Genome - the entire genetic material of an organism
person to the next than other parts of the genome. This
Each diploid cell has one copy of your entire genome
variation is exhibited in the number of repeated units or
Finding exact location of specific gene on a chromosome
‘stutters’ in the minisatellite sequence.
Human Genome Project: mapped out entire sequence of
Humans share about 99.9% of DNA
human dna
Remaining percentage contains around 3 million base
Began in 1990 and completed in 2003
pairs
13 year effort coordinated by
These differences can be compared and used to
Department of Energy (DOE)
help distinguish you from someone else
National Institute of Health (NIH)
Procedure
Human genome consists of 24 chromosomes
Extract DNA from a sample of human material,
Human genome contains over 3 billion nucleotide
usually blood
pairs
Restriction enzymes used to cut the DNA →
Average gene consists of 3000 bases
thousands of pieces of DNA of varying lengths
Sizes of genes vary greatly, with largest known human
Separated according to size by gel electrophoresis
gene encoding dystrophic containing 2.5 million base
DNA was loaded into wells at one end of a porous
pairs
gel, which acted a bit like a sieve
3% of genome encodes amino acid sequences and the
Electric current was applied which pulled the
rest of the genome is junk
negatively-charged DNA through the gel
Functions are unknown for over 50% of the
Shorter pieces move easier and faster; longer
discovered genes
pieces travel slower
Opened up ways which genetic disease can be
Electric current is switched off → DNA pieces are
identified
separated according to size
Ex- CF is on chromosome 7
Smallest DNA molecules were farthest away
Importance
from where the original sample was loaded
Enables us to search for genes linked to different
onto the gel
types of disease
DNA were transferred or ‘blotted’ out of the fragile gel
Opened up new ways in which genetic diseases could
on to a robust piece of nylon membrane and then
be identified and treated
‘unzipped’ to produce single strands of DNA
Understand inherited disorders and their treatment
Nylon membrane was incubated with radioactive
Trace human migration patterns from the past
probes
Ex: Two examples of these are genes that can
Probes are small fragments of minisatellite DNA
contribute to breast cancer, which are known as
tagged with radioactive phosphorus
BRCA1 and BRCA2
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Usually human-induced
With human population on the rise, natural resources
Uses are being put on pressure
Way of telling individuals of same species apart More humans= more needs = more destruction for
DNA sequences are variable and can be used as these items such as wood/water/etc
identifying characteristics If large amount of habitat is destroyed, species may go
DNA fingerprinting has advantages over other sources extinct
of evidence such as fingerprints, blood type, etc Case study: Southeast Asian Rainforests
Much more accurate Indonesian and Malaysian rainforests are being
Good for paternity testing: In the example, first male cleared to create palm oil plantations and harvest
is father since the offspring shares half the genes with wood resources
him Threatens native animals such as orangutan, tiger,
and Asian elephant
European wetlands: over 60% destroyed before 1990, but
still continuing
Ethical issue: since most threatened animals which
are from these wetlands are reptiles/amphibians
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which aren't 'cuddly' or 'cute,' they do not get as much Conversion of land to agricultural land has led to further
support loss of habitat
Smaller amount of people are inclined to protect 40% of Earth’s land surface is used for agriculture
them Deforestation - cutting down of trees for either land
These wetlands have been converted by being clearance or plant based products leads to a loss of
drained for farming, or reclaimed by private owners habitat
Success story: Giant Panda Pollution - can damage ecosystems; landfills, ocean
Giant Pandas have always been threatened by habitat pollution, air pollution, etc…
loss, almost to extinction at one point Additionally, overhunting can reduce the size of a species’
China took initiative and bought every single Giant population
Panda in the world in efforts to help restore their Animals are hunted for food, medicines, souvenirs,
numbers fashion, etc…
Recovered habitats and helped species come from Exotic pet trade has become rampant cause rich
endangered classification to vulnerable people can’t seem to have basic common sense
Over hunting of North Atlantic cod in the 60s and 70s
10.2. Biodiversity led to a collapse in fish numbers
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Large continental ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere Destroy ozone molecules → depletion of the
have grown and retreated many times in the past ozone layer
Times with large ice sheets = glacial periods (ice ages) Ozone holes let harmful UV radiation in → add
Times without large ice sheets = interglacial periods to the problems of the greenhouse effect and
Most recent glacial period occurred between about 120k global warming
and 11k years ago CO2 → rising temperatures
Since then, Earth has been in an interglacial period knows Deforestation → fewer trees to absorb carbon dioxide
an Holocene Forests and bushland act as carbon sinks
Glacial periods are colder, dustier, and generally drier Clearing vegetation for farming, urban
than interglacial periods development, infrastructure, timber and tree
These glacial/interglacial cycles are apparent in many products, etc…
marine and terrestrial paleoclimate records from around When vegetation is burnt, the stored carbon in
the world released back into the atmosphere
The ultimate pacing of these glacial cycles is statistically Atom bomb testing
linked to cyclic changes in the orbital parameters of Earth, Natural
which characteristic frequencies of roughly 100, 41, and Solar irradiance
23 thousand years Little ice age between 1650 and 1850 - Greenland
was largely cut off by ice from 1410 to the 1720s
Carbon Footprint and glaciers advanced in the Alps
However, there is limited evidence because it has
Defined as total set of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions been seen that the upper layers of the
caused by an organization, event, product, or person atmosphere are actually cooling while the lower
Extremely powerful tool to understand the impact of layers are warming
personal behavior on global warming Volcanic eruptions
Main effects Gas and dust particles during eruptions
Climate change: effect of large carbon footprint- from These particles can block sunlight and cool
1990-2004, carbon emissions increased by 31%; by parts of the earth
2008, emissions had contributed to a 35% increase in Sulphur dioxide - haze of tiny droplets → reflects
radiative warming (or a shift in Earth's energy balance incoming solar radiation → cooling of surface
towards warming) Greenhouse gases - water vapor and CO2
Depletion of resources: Large carbon footprints When there was intense volcanism in history,
deplete resource on large and small scales, from a the amount of CO2 was enough to cause
country's deforestation activities to one's home's significant global warming
increased use of air conditioning Milankovitch Cycles - variations in the earth’s
eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession
10.6. Causes of Climate Change Create alterations in seasonality of solar radiation
reaching the Earth’s surface
Human causes Directly influence climate system → impact the
The greenhouse effect advance and retreat of Earth’s glaciers
Greenhouses gases are produced naturally and Eccentricity - the shape of the Earth’s orbit around
trap heat in the atmosphere like a blanket the Sun
Water vapor accounts for 98% of the natural Ranges more or less elliptically (0-5%) every
greenhouse effect 100,000 years
Enhanced greenhouse effect → global warming Changes the distance of short wave radiation
CO2, methane, fluorocarbons from the Sun
Burning of fossil fuels (industry, cars, homes) Prominent changes in the Earth’s climate and
Nitrous oxide - produced by soil cultivation glacial regimes
practices like commercial and organic fertilizers, Axial tilt - inclination of Earth’s axis in relation to its plane
fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production and of orbit around the Sun
biomass burning Periodicity of 41,000 years from 21.5 to 24.5 degrees
Methane - decomposition of waste in landfills, Precession - Earth’s slow wobble as it spins on its axis
agriculture, manure, livestock Wobbles from pointing at Polaris to Vega
More solar radiation is absorbed by the Periodicity of 23,000 years
greenhouse gases → heat is trapped Significant alterations → seasonal contrasts
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) El Nino Southern Oscillation Cycle (ENSO)
Found in aerosols, hairspray, fridges and foam a climate cycle in the Pacific Ocean with a global
plastics impact on weather patterns
Ozone layer keeps harmful UV rays out
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ocean temperatures and rainfall from storms veer to Crops such as oranges, grapes and peaches can be grown
the east in the UK
La Nina - waters of the tropical eastern pacific are Food insecurity
colder than normal and trade winds blow more Changes in rainfall patterns → impact on global water
strongly than usual supplies
During an El Nino → trade winds weaken → oceans → Impact of food production → food insecurity
warm → warm waters release a lot of energy into Random weather events and disasters wipe out crops
atmosphere → weather changes all over the planet Unsuitable climate
Melting permafrost → releasing large quantities of Unpredictable climate
methane Cropping seasons
Migration
10.7. Impacts of Climate Change Areas suffering drought
In 2015, 19 million people were internally displaced
Global Warming because of natural disaster
The Greenhouse Effect Bangladesh
Greenhouse gases absorb more solar radiation that is 35 million live in the coastal region
reflected back from the surface, keeping heat trapped Prone to natural disasters
in the atmosphere A sea level rise of 1 m could endanger the
More frequent and severe weather conditions and mangroves in the region
changes in weather patterns 15 million would lose homes and be forced to
High temp → disasters migrate
Storms, heat waves, floods, droughts, etc… Flooding from sea → increase salinity of soil and
2015 - 10 climatic disasters in the US that caused groundwater
$1 billion in losses Spring 2016: Cyclone Roanu
Average annually for 1980 to 2015 was $5.2 Entire villages were destroyed and people left
billion for all disasters combined in the US without access to food or water
Jeopardize access to clean drinking water, out of August and September 2014: flooding of the
control wildfires, and result in dust storms, extreme Brahmaputra
heat and flash flood, hazardous material spills, Displaced 325,000
property damage Rice harvest was destroyed
More warmth + wetness → more waterborne illnesses Agricultural employment declined
Higher death rates and health risks due to diseases Food insecurity
Heat exhaustion, waterborne illness, heat stroke, Migration to urban areas due to struggle to
cardiovascular disease, etc… maintain livelihood
Extreme heat in areas where people aren’t used to it East Coast US
Polluted, dirtier air Sea levels on the east coast are rising more than
Warm temp → more ground level ozone world average
Created when pollution from cars and factories Flood hazards
reacts with sunlight and heat 0.9 meter rise by 2100 could expose 4.2 million
More airborne pollen → more allergies and people to flooding and 1.8 meters could affect
hayfever 13.1 million
Loss of habitat and more wildlife extinction More flooding in general
Land, freshwater, and ocean species are shifting to People are moving towards the inland to avoid
cooler climates or higher altitudes in attempt to hurricanes, flooding and general unfavorable
escape global warming climatic conditions
Still face increased extinction risk Deficit in workforce
Vertebrae species are disappearing 114 times faster
than they should be 10.8. Controlling Climate Change
More acidic oceans
Absorption of excess emissions Sustainability - avoidance of the depletion of natural
Threat to aquatic life → CaCO3 shells or skeletons like resources in order to maintain ecological balance
mollusks, crabs and corals Meeting present needs without compromising the
Impact on shellfisheries → economic risks ability of future generations to meet their needs
Higher sea levels Mitigation - reducing climate change
Glaciers and ice sheets Adaptation - adapting to life in a changing climate
Threatening coastal systems and low lying areas Management
NYC, LA, Miami, Mumbai, Sydney and Rio International agreements, carbon tax and trading,
Changes in precipitation patterns alternative energy
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Change lifestyle: food, clothing, energy… Results from these FACE experiments provide best
Mitigation estimate about how plants and ecosystems will respond
Carbon tax - pay a fee for every ton of greenhouse in a future high CO2 world
gases emitted Duke Forest FACE Experiment - 8 years; examine the
Carbon credits and trading response of a temperate coniferous forest to high, future
London Congestion Charge level of atmospheric CO2
Cap and trade - permits to pollute above certain level Photosynthetic rates by canopy foliage increased up
are sold on the free market, any organization that is to 50% over controls
under allocation can make profit by selling the extra Biomass increment increased by 27% over that in
permits control plots
Individual lifestyle changes Higher growth and respiration of roots
Geoengineering and reducing emissions Increase of forest floor accumulation and literfall
CO2 reduction by extracting GHGs from the
atmosphere El Nino
Carbon capture - removal of CO2 from waste gases
from power stations and storing it in old oil and gas Means little boy/ Christ Child in Spanish
fields or coal mines underground Originally recognized by fisherman off the coast of South
Reduced intensive livestock farming America in the 1600s, with appearance of unusually warm
Reduce chemical fertilizer use water in Pacific Ocean
Adaptation Name was chosen based on time of year (around
Improved air circulation methods and building design December) during which these warm waters events
Reduce use of fuels for the heating of homes to tended to occur
minimum levels by economical designs of housing El Nino refers to the large scale ocean atmosphere
and reduce use of fuels in more efficient transport climate interaction linked to a periodic warming in sea
systems surface temperatures across the central and east central
Monitoring control and spread of disease Equatorial Pacific
Improved sea defenses or managed retreat from low El Nino Southern Oscillation Cycle (ENSO)
lying coastal areas A climate cycle in the Pacific Ocean with a global
Protecting carbon sinks and fuel-stocks impact on weather patterns
Using biomass and other alternative sources of energy Ocean temperatures and rainfall from storms veer to
such as nuclear power the east
Wave energy, wind power La Nina - waters of the tropical eastern pacific are
Afforestation and stopping deforestation colder than normal and trade winds blow more
strongly than usual
10.9. FACE - Free-air Carbon dioxide Enrichment - During an El Nino → trade winds weaken → oceans
Trials warm → warm waters release a lot of energy into
atmosphere → weather changes all over the planet
A FACE plot is circular and surrounded by a ring of pipes El Nino presents process of upwelling -movement of cold-
that release carbon dioxide enriched air, at vertical nutrient rich water to the surface- off the coast of Peru,
intervals just above the ground to just above the top of Ecuador, and Chile
the plant canopy. Forces fish that normal thrive in that region to
Wind direction, velocity and CO2 are measured at the relocate somewhere to find food
center of each plot Birds that feed on these fish die off
This information is used by computer-controlled system Can have devastating impact on local economies
to adjust CO2 flow rate and maintain the target amount Can also cause far-reaching weather events as well
of CO2 Drought and heat waves across Australia, Indonesia,
Only pipes on upwind side release CO2, unless wind and Philippines
velocity is very low, at that time CO2 is released Reduction in annual monsoons in India
alternately from adjacent release points Torrential rainfall in central/south America
For vegetation of low stature only 1 or 2 vertical release Heavy winter snows and floods in southern USA
points are necessary, whereas for tall vegetation several All of these affect water resources and food supply
vertical release points are needed to enrich the whole Occurs every 3 - 8 years and usually lasts around a year
canopy Scientists do not know why the pressure changes causing
FACE was developed as a means to grow plants in the winds to shift
field at controlled elevation of CO2 under fully open air Warm water arrives at south America around Christmas-
conditions, as opposed to greenhouses where the hence the name El Nino
atmosphere is completely controlled
10.10. Overexploitation
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3 Rs
Regulating and reducing pollutants
Setting and imposing standards
Introducing measures for extracting the pollutant
from waste emissions
Cleaning up pollutants and restoring ecosystems
Extracting and removing pollutants from the
ecosystem
Replanting and restocking with animal populations
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Prevent hunting and other human disturbance Heterotrophs - dependent for food
Cons (secondary/tertiary/quaternary consumers)
Can be extremely expensive Note that quaternary consumer is considered apex
Difficult to manage predator
Subject to outside forces that are difficult to control Producers/Autotrophs - produce own food by harnessing
Difficult to establish in the first place due to political energy from surroundings
issues/vested interests Saprotrophs - feeds on decaying matter
(decomposer/scavengers/detritivores/me)
Ex-situ Conservation Producers and prey provide a source of food and energy,
whereas predators keep population size in balance
Preservation of species outside of their habitats This interaction makes up a food chain or a food web
Usually takes place in zoos which carry out captive
breeding and reintroduction programs
Botanic gardens also come under Ex-situ conservation
where both living collections and seed banks are used to
store genetic diversity
Pros
Allow controlled breeding and maintenance of genetic
diversity
Allows research
Allows chance to educate others
Effective for protection for individuals/species
More useful for extremely endangered species which
have populations in the 100s
Cons
Have historically preferred popular animals, many of
them which aren't even at risk
Reintroduction to wild can be very tough
Ex-situ conservation does not preserve natural habitat Food Chains
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Chemosynthesis - chemosynthetic microbes convert
inorganic molecules and heat energy from geothermal
11. Interactions Between vents that consumers cannot use into forms of energy
that consumers can use
Organisms and the Happens deep below the surface of the ocean where
photosynthesis cannot take place
Environment Who eats what
Usually around 4 levels
11.1. Energy Transfer Biological magnification - humans are at the top level of
the food chain, hence the maximum concentration of
chemicals get accumulated in out bodies
Vocabulary
Producers - produce food and are the start of the web
Species - a group of closely related organisms that are Primary consumers - animals that eat the plants
very similar to each other and are usually capable of Control population size of producers
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring Ensures that producers have sufficient access to
Habitat - a place where an organism or a community of sunlight, water, space and other resources
organisms lives, including all living and nonliving factors Ensures that all producers can survive, not just the
or conditions of the surrounding environment ones that can grow very tall
Allows for a variety of food options for primary
Ecosystem - a system that includes all living organisms
consumers
(biotic factors) in an area as well as its physical
environment (abiotic factors) functioning together as a Secondary consumers - animals that eat the primary
unit consumers
Interdependence - the mutual dependence between Tertiary consumers - animals that eat the secondary
consumers
entities
Quaternary consumers - animals that eat the tertiary
Trophic Levels consumers
All levels of consumers keep the level below them in
check to maintain balance and a diverse ecosystem
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Evaporation:
Water from oceans and other water bodies
evaporates
Changes to a gaseous state as part of the atmosphere
Condensation
The water vapor within the atmosphere condenses
into clouds under the right conditions
Precipitation
The clouds gather more and more water molecules
until it finally falls down to the earth
Either the liquid or solid state (rain, snow, or hail)
Transpiration
The water gets absorbed by the soil and taken in by
plants
They release water vapor through transpiration
Carbon Cycle
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Phosphorus Cycle
Weathering
Phosphorus found in rocks is extracted through
weathering by air or water
Eventually becomes a part of the soil
Absorption
Plants, fungi, and microorganisms absorb phosphorus
from the soil
Animals also absorb the phosphorus by eating these
plants
Decomposition
All organisms which have absorbed phosphorus die
Through decomposition return back to the soil 11.4. Keystone Species/ Paine
Experiment
Species which is necessary for food chain - the health,
balance, and diversity of an ecosystem depend on the
keystone species
they are not always top predators
ex: beavers in wetlands, prairie dogs in grasslands,
grey wolves in Yellowstone
Chain would self destruct without it
Case study: Pisaster Ochraceus (a type of starfish) in
rocky shoreline water ecosystem
When pisaster is gone, its prey snails, mussels, and
barnacles increase in population
in the area of the shoreline next to the removal
site, he left the ecosystem in its original state as a
control group, with the Piaster still present
kept the shoreline Piaster free for 10 years
Now these prey feed on more phytoplankton algae
Nitrogen Cycle The phytoplankton and algae are unable to grow and
are eliminated from ecosystem
Nitrogen fixation
Now mussels, snails and barnacles have no food and
Atmospheric N2 is taken into the soil by precipitation
they die too
After it is in soil/ surface water, it changes into NH4
Paine did all this to understand the role of different
thanks to microorganisms such as anaerobic bacteria
species within a food chain, and like that, discovered the
and algae (rhizobian)
concept of keystone species
Nitrification
Showed that the removal of a top predator can lead
Bacteria converts NH4 into NO2 and then NO3
to the imbalance and destruction of an ecosystem
Assimilation
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Biology