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UPDATED TO 2020 SYLLABUS

IB MIDDLE YEARS PROGRAM

BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
IB MIDDLE YEARS PROGRAM BIOLOGY

Transcription and modification of RNA

First is nuclear envelope which contains nuclear pores
1. Cell Structure which send materials in and out
Then is chromatic which contains genetic matter
(blobs)
1.1. Cell Theory
Then is center which is nucleolus (the only thing that
Original Cell Theory matters)
All living organisms are composed of cells. They may Chromatin = DNA
be unicellular or multicellular Stored in chromosomes
The cell is the basic unit of life Chromosome: Long and thin, hard to see even
Cells arise from pre-existing cells with electron microscope. However, when it is
Modernized ideas developed from cell theory cut or multiplies, it becomes short and thin,
Energy flow occurs within cells this is visible with a light microscope
Hereditary information is passed from one cell to the nucleolus is inside of the nucleus and produces
another ribosomes
All cells have same basic composition
Characteristics of Life: Nutrition, Respiration, Growth,
Excretion, Homeostasis, Reproduction, Movement
Young Cell → Cell Division → Cell Growth → Cell
Specialization → Mature Cell
Programmed Cell Death

1.2. Cell organelles

Prokaryotic Cells

Cell wall
Gives cell rigid structure
Plasma membrane
Controls what gets in and out of the cell
Cytoplasm
Holds all organelles together, gives cell structure Endoplasmic Reticulum
Nucleoid Rough
Unbound clump of genetic matter Many interconnected sacs with ribosomes
Plasmid attached to its membrane (it's what makes it
Floating chunks of genetic matter rough)
Flagella synthesizes and packages proteins
Pili folds protein molecules in sacs called cisternae
transport of synthesized proteins in vesicles to the
Golgi apparatus
Smooth
contains enzymes that help synthesize lipids,
phospholipids and steroids
detoxification
contains ions that the cell may need later such as
sodium and calcium
Golgi Apparatus
transports, modifies, and packages proteins and lipids
into vesicles
takes products from rough ER (bulk flow), then the
cisternae process, sort and label the chemicals
they are then dispatched to other parts of the cell or
Eukaryotic Cell to the extracellular space
Mitochondria
Nucleus powerhouse of the cell
Control center of cell Production of energy via synthesis of ATP molecules
Replicates DNA Important in cellular respiration

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also contains strands of glycerol as reserve power Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
regulates cellular metabolism Lacks a membrane bound
Lysosomes Membrane bound nucleus
nucleus
waste treatment plants of the cell
Smaller and simpler Specialized organelles
breaks down cellular waste
transports undigested material to the cell membrane Bacteria and Archaea Larger
for removal Unicellular Endomembrane System
cell breaks down if the lysosome explodes Mitochondria
Vesicles Plants, animals, Fungi and
Transports materials in or out of cells Protists
Vacuole
isolates materials that may be harmful/waste
products 1.4. Difference between Animal and
contains water
Plant Cell
maintains turgor/hydrostatic pressure
maintains pH
Plant Cell Animal Cell
exports unwanted substances
Has a cell wall
Cell Membrane No cell walll
Semi-permeable membrane, made of proteins and
Contains chloroplasts
No chloroplasts
lipids Large vacoule
Small vacoule
Semipermeable: Allows certain substances to enter Stores carbs as starch or
Stores carbs as glycogen
All Eukaryotic Cells have a cell membrane
sucrose
Made of protein and lipids
Cytoplasm
Site for all metabolic reactions & holds organelles 1.5. Levels of Organization
Metabolism: Sum total of all bodily reactions
Nearly all water Cells
Some dissolved substances such as minerals Tissues
Ribosomes Organs
Site for protein synthesis Organ systems
Amino acids used as material, and RNA as Organism
instructions
Attached to a network called the RER or scattered 1.6. Specialized cells
freely throughout the cytoplasm
Protein is needed for repairing damage or directing Cell Function Adaption
chemical processes
Packed with
Centrosomes
chloroplasts.
give structure to the microtubule
Leaf cell Regular shaped,
assemble microtubules Absorbs light
closely packed cells
centrioles energy for
form a continuous
Cytoskeleton - gives structure photosynthesis
layer for efficient
Cell membrane
absorption of
protects the cell and encloses its contents
sunlight.
monitors what enters and exits the cell
Cell wall (plants only) Long 'finger-like'
Root hair cell
provides protection, structure and support Absorbs water and process with very
prevents water loss mineral ions from thin wall, which
protection from the environment the soil gives a large
Chloroplast (plants only) surface area.
sites of photosynthesis
contain chlorophyll (granum)

1.3. Difference between Prokaryotic and

Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

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Cell Function Adaption Cell Function Adaption

The head contains Located in the
genetic information brain and nervous
and an enzyme to system. 0.1 mm in
help penetrate the diameter. Very
Sperm cell
Fertilises an egg egg cell membrane. long. Myelin sheath
cell - female The middle section is a fatty layer that
gamete is packed with prevents the
mitochondria for electrical impulses
energy. The tail from affecting
moves the sperm other parts of the
Neurons/Nerve
to the egg. body and increases
Cells Transmit and
Thin outer the speed of
process
membrane to let conduction. Have
information by
oxygen diffuse extensions called
sending electrical
through easily. dendrites and
Contain impulses.
Shape increases axons that bring
haemoglobin to information into
Red blood cells the surface area to
carry oxygen to the and, release
allow more oxygen
cells. Remove CO2 information from
to be absorbed
from body by the cell itself. Some
efficiently. No
transporting it to also contain
nucleus, so the
the lungs. structures and
whole cell is full of
haemoglobin. carry chemicals
Made in the bone that are specialized
marrow. for electrochemical
Made in the bone communication
marrow and stored Cardiac muscle
in blood and cells comprise the Have cylindrical
lymphatic tissue. middle muscular organelles called
Lifespan varies. layer of the heart. myofibrils. Made
Battle viruses, Myocytes/Muscle Skeletal muscle up of banded
White blood cells Bone marrow is
bacteria and other Cells cells are connected fibers. Muscle cells
constantly
foreign invaders. to the skeleton and can contract and
producing WBCs.
Destroy harmful help in locomotion. this causes things
Can change shape
substances and Smooth muscle to move. Energy is
to squeeze out of
prevent illness. cells are needed for this to
blood vessels and
get to the site of responsible for happen so muscle
infection. Can involuntary cells contain lots of
change shape to movement like mitochondria.
engulf bacteria. digestion.
Undifferentiated
Unspecialized and
Stem Cells cells that can
can divide
develop into
continuously.
different types of
Could be used to
cells and have
treat diseases in
many potential
the future.
scientific uses.

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Cell Function Adaption Independent metabolic unit composed of a highly

Store fat. Help the White: contain branched polysaccharide and various proteins
body maintain large fat droplets involved in its metabolism
proper energy and only a small Microtubules - provide structure and shape to the
Adipocytes/Fat balance, store amount of cytoplasm
Cells calories, mobilize cytoplasm. Brown: Transport: act as routes for various cell organelles to
energy sources in contain fat droplets move
response to of differing size, a Also help in cell division; pull the spindle and cell
apart once chromosomes have been replicated
hormonal large amount of
stimulation and cytoplasm, Keratin fibre - structural protein
command changes numerous Very important for epithelial cells which make up the
by signal secretion. mitochondria, and skin
Cushion and round, centrally Filaments anchor to each other which stops cells from
pulling apart
insulate the body. located nuclei.
Found in extensively skin, nails and hair
Epidermis, dermis,
actin filaments - found in the cytoplasm; composed of
stratum, corneum.
actin polymers
Dead skin cells
A kind of cytoskeletal filament that is important for
Acts as a physical break away making cell shape, muscle contraction, and cell adhesion
Keratinocytes/Skin
barrier between room for new ones. Myosin filaments - prototype of a molecular motor (a
Cells
organism and 16% of your weight protein that converts chemical energy in ATP to
environment. is skin. You lose 1 mechanical energy)
Prevents excess million cells Help form myofibrils which are key in muscle cells and
water loss. Protect everyday. Contains muscle contraction
from foreign melanin which Pseudopodia - temporary finger like projections from the
invaders. gives color and cell membrane that aid in movement and ingestion; filled
protects from UV with cytoplasm
radiation. Renews Vesicles - a structure consisting of a liquid enclosed by a
itself every 30 days. lipid bilayer
Have abundant Form naturally during the processes of secretion,
Involved in
smooth ER and uptake and transport of materials within the plasma
carbohydrate, fat
rough ER for membrane
and protein
protein and lipid Microvilli - microscopic cellular membrane protrusions
Hepatocytes/Liver metabolism. Build
synthesis. Have lots that increase the surface area for diffusion, minimize any
Cells proteins. Produce
of increase in volume, and are involved in a wide variety of
bile. Process
mitochondria.They functions, including absorption,secretion, and cellular
molecules found in
are filled with all adhesion
the body like
sorts of other Flagella - a long, whip-like structure that helps some
hormones. Process
enzymes, and single celled organisms move
foreign substances
hence are the main Composed of microtubules
like medicines and
space where drugs Cilia - slender protrusion that project from the much
alcohol.
are metabolised. larger cell body
Microvilli increase Motile - found in the lungs, respiratory tract and
the surface area for middle ear
Villi Cells absorption. Thin Rhythmic waving or beating motion
epithelium = Make sure airways are clean so we can breathe
Allows for easily
increased rate of
absorption in the Primary - single appendages on surface of cells
diffusion. Extensive
small intestine. Ex: kidney tubules; cilia bend with urine flow and
blood capillary
network. Lacteals send a signal to alert the cells that there is a flow
absorb fatty acids of urine
and glycerol.

2. Biomolecules
1.7. Additional Structures in Cells
Glycogen granules (glycosomes)  - found in the cytoplasm 2.1. Diffusion

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Occurs when particles spread Can be determined by examining the line of best fit.
Move from a region where they are in high concentration Where the line intersects the X axis (X intercept) is the
to a region where they are in low concentration. solute concentration of the cell, and the solute
Occurs when the particles are free to move concentration in a isotonic solution
True in gases and for particles dissolved in solutions Isotonic Solution has equal water potential as well
Passive; no energy used Hypotonic Solution: A solution with a higher solute
Experiment: Potassium Manganate VII crystal in a jar of concentration than the cell
water Hypertonic Solution: A solution with a lower solute
It is a purple solid concentration than the cell
When placed in water, we observe the purple color An Animal Cell:
spreading through diffusion In an Hypotonic Solution
After a while, the color is consistently purple The water will move into the cell as it has less
throughout the water water potential than the solution. Due to the
water entering the cell, the cell will expand and
2.2. Osmosis eventually burst
In a Hypertonic Solution
Water can move across cell membranes because of Water will leave the cell as the solution has less
osmosis. For osmosis to happen you need: water potential. The cell will shrink and eventually
Two solutions with different concentrations shrivel up
A partially permeable membrane to separate them A Plant Cell:
Partially permeable membranes let some substances In Hypotonic Solution
pass through them, but not others. Water moves into the cell (reason stated in animal
Water moves from high to low concentration cell) and the plant cell becomes turgid, however it
Water potential: The pressure/concentration of water does not explode due to its cell wall
Water potential judged by how dilute a solution is In a Hypertonic Solution
A more dilute solution has more water potential Water moves out of the cell, and the cell moves
Eg. A solution of 10 mg of solute per 100 ml (10 away from the cell wall. This is called plasmolysis
mg/100 ml0 of water has more water potential The cell wall remains in place and doesn’t
than a solution of 20mg solute per 100 ml shrink
water (20 mg/100 ml) The solution between the cell and its cell
Water potential is inversely proportional to wall will have the same solute
amount of solute concentration as the Hypertonic solution
Experiment: Potato Cylinders in NaCl solution Plasmolysis: The shrinking of the cell membrane away
Take 9 thin potato sticks (three per solution), weigh from the cell wall, when a plant is placed in a Hypertonic
them, measure their length, and put them in solutions solution
of NaCl of varying concentrations (20%, 10%, 0%)
Leave undisturbed for 20 minutes
Take them out and gently blot with tissue paper and
then weigh them and measure them again

2.3. Active Transport

Dissolved molecules move across a cell membrane from a
lower to a higher concentration
Particles move against the concentration gradient - and
therefore require an input of energy from the cell.
2.5. Enzymes
Sometimes dissolved molecules are at a higher
concentration inside the cell than outside, but, because
Properties
the organism needs these molecules, they still have to be
Proteins which act as biocatalysts and speed up
absorbed. Carrier proteins pick up specific molecules and
metabolic reaction
take them through the cell membrane against the
Enzymes play an important role in
concentration gradient.
Metabolism, Diagnosis, and Therapeutics.
Metabolism: The sum of all biochemical reactions in our
2.4. Types of Solutions bodies’
Anabolism
Isotonic Solution: A solution with the exact same Reactions which combine smaller molecules and
concentration of solute as mass (Eg. cell)  in question create bigger molecules. Eg. Photosynthesis

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Photosynthesis Equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O —> Lipase - 12

C6H12O6 + 6O2 Higher concentration of substrates means faster rate of
Catabolism production
Reactions which break down bigger molecules. Eg.
Respiration Real-life Applications of Enzymes
Equation for Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 —>
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy Treating Disorders
All biochemical reactions are enzymes catalyzed in the Ex: dissolving internal blood clots, dissolving
living organism. hardened walls of blood vessels, etc.
Enzyme can be used therapeutically such as digestive Streptokinase, Urokinase
enzymes. Taken as medicine to help spinal or brain injury
are proteins that increase the rate of reaction by patients who are prone to life threatening blood
lowering the energy of activation clots
They catalyze nearly all the chemical reactions taking Serratiopeptidase used to treat atherosclerosis
place in the cells of the body. (hardening and thickening of blood vessel walls)
Not altered or consumed during reaction. Assist metabolism
Reusable Used for old or geriatric patients
Most enzymes end with “ase” When old, human body cannot secrete digestive
Eg. ______ ase, enzymes
The blank spot is for the substrate Instead consume enzymes in the form of medicine
Substrate is the compound to be broken down. (papain)
Each enzyme has its own specific substrate Laundry Detergent
Enzymes remain inactive/inert until they Protease dissolves proteins like blood and sweat
interact with their substrate Lipase dissolves lipids- butter, oil, grease stains
lock and key mechanism Amylase dissolves carbs - chocolate, other foods
Active site: Leather industry
To create leather, hair, fat, and protein must be
removed from cow’s hide
This is done by protease and lipase

2.6. Biomolecules
Introduction

All living things get energy that they need to function

from food in the form of biomolecules
Categories
Factors that affect rate of production Carbohydrates
Proteins
Denatured: When an enzyme has lost its shape Lipids
Enzymes have optimum temperature and PH Nucleic acids
If the optimum temp is exceeded, they start to All are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
look like their melting, and lose their definite Polymers: long molecules which are made of repeating
shape, which makes it impossible for their monomers
substrate to fit within their active site Momer: an individual piece that repeats
Bodily enzymes usually have an optimum temp
of 35-40 celsius Carbohydrates
Extremely high temperatures are very dangerous for
enzymes Are made of sugars
Can denatured active site Each part is a simple sugar
Extremely low temps lead to very low amount of kinetic The molecules is a complex carbohydrate 
energy Carbs give energy
Very few enzyme/substrate complexes found
Active sites become inactive
pH level (6-8 near neutral) is optimal 
Few enzymes prefer acidic or basic conditions
Pepsin - 2
Amylase - 7 Aka saccharides

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Monosaccharides - a single piece No T, T replaced by U

Single unit of sugars Used as instructions for creating proteins. Amino
Water soluble acids are material
Sweet
Eg. Glucose and Fructose Tests for Various Biomolecules
Disaccharides - 2 pieces
2 units together Proteins: Biuret reagent, protein turns from blue to
Sweet purple (violet to be precise)
Water Soluble Carbs: Iodine, Starch turns blue-black
Eg. Sucrose and Maltose Sugars: Benedict's Reagent, sugar end up brick red
Polysaccharides - many pieces Blue → Green → Orange → Red
Many units joined together Fats: Emulsion test, dissolve fat in alcohol, add water.
Not Sweet Milky white means presence of lipids/fats
Not Water soluble
Eg.
Starch: Stored food in Plants
3. Plant Biology
Glycogen: Stored food in animals
Cellulose: Cell wall of plant 3.1. Photosynthesis
Carbs are also used in cell walls of plants 

Proteins

 C, H, O, N and sometimes S

Proteins made of Amino acids (20 different types known)
in different combinations to form a protein
Protein mo. made of 100s of amino acids joined together
Amino acids (single units) to Peptides (chains) to
polypeptides (multiple chains
Some proteins made if 1 pp chain or more
photosynthesis - the process by which green plants and
Fat/Lipids
some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize
nutrients from carbon dioxide and water
C, H, and O
energy is stored as starch
2 types:
key events:
Unsaturated: Liquids at room temperature
absorption of light energy by chlorophyll
Saturated: Solid at room temperature
converting light energy into chemical energy
Consist of 1 Glycerol and 3 Fatty Acids
water is split into oxygen and hydrogen
Nucleic Acids reduction of CO2 into carbohydrates

DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid) Factors Affecting Rate of Photosynthesis

Hereditary material in all living organisms
Light
Structure of DNA
Water
Double Helix
Carbon Dioxide
Consists of 2 antiparallel polynucleotide chains
Temperature (optimal is 37 degrees C)
Antiparallel: Parallel but going in the opposite
direction
Each chain consists of Nucleotides. Made of:
Experiments
Deoxyribose sugar
1. Chlorophyll
Phosphate
1. Take a plant with variegated leaves and put it
Nitrogenous base. 4 types
in a dark room for 3 days (destarching)
A - Adenine (Heavy)
2. Place it in sunlight for 6 hours
T - Thymine (Light)
3. Take a leaf and place it in boiling water and
G - Guanine (Heavy)
then immerse it into alcohol
C - Cytosine (Light
1. Take the leaf in the beaker of alcohol
A pairs with T
and place it in a bath of boiling water
G pairs with C
until the alcohol begins to boil
RNA (RiboNucleic Acid)

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2. The hot water kills the leaf, and the This creates a concentration difference of ions
alcohol kills the chlorophyll, removing it between the water and the soil, so water from the soil
from the leaf moves into the root
4. Place iodine on the leaf - the parts with From here, the water moves through the roots and
chlorophyll will turn a blue-black; other parts into the xylem tube 
will be a yellow/brown The cells in the xylem lose their cell walls so that
2. Light - repeat chlorophyll experiment but with two they can transport water more easily 
different normal plants; place one in the dark and one The water moves up the xylem through osmosis
in the light From here, water is distributed to the leaves who use
3. Carbon Dioxide it for photosynthesis
1. Destarch two plants Some water goes to the stomata where it swells the
2. Cover both plants with bell jars stoma
1. In one, place a dish containing KOH Transpiration 
(this absorbs CO2) Plants need water for photosynthesis; also helps
2. Leave the other one as it is plants cool down
3. Seal the bottom of the bell jars Water is absorbed in the roots and evaporated out of
3. Keep the plants in sunlight for two hours the leaves
4. Try starch test Water is lost through the stomata
This water is replaced by the xylem vessels in the
Light and Dark Reactions leaf, creating a suction which pulls water from
xylem cells of the roots, causing the water to move
Light Reaction upwards
Requires light Root pressure at night; transpiration during the
Occurs in the thylakoids day
When the light energy from is trapped inside the Factors affecting transpiration
thylakoid, it excites the electron moving along the Light
electron transport chain Temperature
As a result, NADP+ is converted into NADPH Humidity
Additionally, ADP is joined to another phosphate Wind
group and becomes ATP Transpiration rate can be measured using a
Water molecules are split into hydrogen and oxygen potometer
The byproducts of this reaction are ATP, NADPH and Changing the conditions around the potometer
O2 will change the rate of transpiration
Dark Reaction It is a device used for measuring the rate of water
Also known as the calvin cycle uptake of a leafy plant shoot, mainly due to
Does not require light transpiration
 In this process, ATP, NADPH, carbon dioxide and Guard cells
hydrogen are joined together to form glucose Water enters the guard cells
This is also called carbon fixation Becomes turgid
When this happens, ATP goes back to being ADP and Thin outer wall stretches more than thich inner
NADPH goes back to being NADP+ wall
ADP and NADP+ are recycled back into the light Stoma opens
reaction Water lost from guard cells
Guard cells become flaccid
3.2. Transportation in Plants Walls not stretched
Stoma closes
Vascular System Phloem - translocation takes place; movement of the
products of photosynthesis, as well as amino acids
Xylem - moves water and minerals obtained from the soil Translocation takes place in sieve tubes with the help
throughout the plant of companion cells
No cell contents or nucleus Transfer of material like sucrose using ATP
They are dead cells Increases osmotic pressure of the tissue → water
Side walls are strengthened by lignin to prevent moves in
damage Columns of sieve tubes with sieve plates at either end
Movement of water Sieve cells have thin walls; they lose their nucleus
In the roots, cells are in contact with the soil and and organelles, but retain their plasma membrane
actively take up ions Companion cells sit next to the sieve tubes; they
control the sieve tubes/cells

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They have a dense cytoplasm and a nucleus Reduces pressure in this region of the sieve
They are living cells tubes → fluid continues to move from regions
of higher pressure
Bidirectional flow - depending on stage of life and
time of year, various parts of the plant can act as a
source or a sink
In autumn, roots and stems act as sinks to store
starch, but in spring they act as sources to supply
the rest of the plant that is budding and flowering
When a plant is young, the leaves are sinks
because they aren’t completely developed yet, but
in older plants, they are sources

Ground Tissue System

Parenchyma
Alive at maturity

Storage, photosynthesis
Collenchyma - support the plant
Alive at maturity
Occur as vascular bundles
Thick walls
Sclerenchyma - support the plant
Occur as bundle cap fibres
Thick secondary walls hardened with lignin

Dermal/Epithelial Tissue System

Prevention of water loss and act as a barrier

Guard cells - regulate the exchange of water vapor,
oxygen and CO2
Epidermis - contains stomata
Periderm - nonliving + multilayered
Protects from pathogens and injury
Trichome - hairs/fine outgrowths
Reflect radiation, lower plant temperature, and
reduce water loss
They also provide defense against insects

Cross Section of  a Leaf

Movement of sugar (sucrose) from source to sink

Food is synthesized in the green parts of the plant
and deposited in the non-green 
Pressure flow model - sugar is actively transported
from the source cells to the sieve tubes
Increases concentration of solute → water flows
into the sieve tubes via osmosis → sieve tube
pressure near source cells increases → forces
solution to move to regions of lower pressure
At regions of lower pressure, sink cells remove the Cuticle - thin to allow light; waxy to prevent water loss by
sucrose by  active transport → sink cells  pull evaporation
solute out of phloem → water leaves phloem by Upper epidermis - produces cuticle; transparent + thin to
osmosis, passing to neighboring tissues with allow max light penetration
higher solute concentrations

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Palisade mesophyll layer - contains chloroplasts; rod Electrical-chemical means: no specialized tissue to
shaped communicate 
Close to surface → maximum absorption of light Cell changes shape by changing the amount of
Packed closely together to increase surface area water → swelling or shrinking
Chloroplasts found near the palisade surface reduce Tendrils - sensitive to touch
distance needed to travel by light, CO2 and O2 Part of the tendril is in contact with and part away
Spongy mesophyll layer - smaller than palisade from the object grow at different rates, causing
Fewer chloroplasts the plant to grow around the object
Lots of air space to allow for gas diffusion Receptor - the sensitive region, which is the tip of the
Vein - contains xylem and phloem shoot
Lower epidermis - protective layer; contains stomata; may Picks up the stimulus of light shining on it
be waxy in some species Effector - part of the shoot which responds to stimuli,
Stomata - pores surrounded by guard cells which is just below the tip
Effector and receptor communicate with each other by
Experiments means of chemicals called plant hormones
Phytohormones - plant hormones
1. Transpiration Produced by the plant
1. Take some plants, water them until the soil Most important one is called auxin - help in growth of
becomes spongy and then weigh the plant root and shoot tips
2. Cover them with a plastic bag and leave them Gibberellins - help in vegetative growth
outside for a few hours Cytokinins - promote cell division
3. Way them afterwards Abscisic acid - inhibit growth and caused wilting of
4. Broad leaf plants tend to lose more water than leaves
narrow leaf plants Auxins - help in growth of root and shoot tips
2. Transport of Water Produced in the tip of the shoot and diffuses
1. Pour water into a glass and add food coloring downwards
and place them by water Diffuses to shady side of the shoot → shady side
2. Place celery stalks in the colored water grows longer → plant appears to bend towards
3. Wait for a few days the light
4. Celery stalks will be dyed whatever color food It causes cell division and elongation
dye you used Response to high concentrations of auxins
5. Extension: split the stalk into three parts and Cells in stem 
stick each into a different color to create a “tie- Grow more
dye” celery stalk Bend towards the light
When light comes from one direction, the
3.3. Coordination In Plants auxins get transported to the shaded side
The shaded side elongates faster than the
Tropisms illuminated side and the shoot bends towards
the light
Tropism - a growth response of a plant to directional Cells in root
stimuli Grow less
Slow - involves cell division to see results In a root, the shaded side contains more
Positive → growth towards the stimulus auxins and grow less, causing the root to bend
Negative → growth away from the stimulus away from the light
Phototropism - stimuli is light When the tips have been removed no auxin is
Growth towards light to maximize photosynthesis produced and the stems don’t grow longer
Positive When no light reaches the tips, there is equal
Geotropism - stimuli is gravity concentration of auxin on both sides and the stems
Positive geotropism - roots grow in the direction of grow longer evenly
the force of gravity When more light reaches on side of the tips, there is a
Positive gravitropism greater concentration of the auxin on the shaded side
Negative geotropism - shoots grow against the force and the cells on the darker side of the stem grow
of gravity longer
Negative gravitropism Gibberellins - growth of the stem
Hydrotropism - stimuli is water Cytokinins - promote cell division
Thigmotropism - stimuli is tough High concentration in fruits and seeds
Some plants like the touch me not are sensitive Abscisic acid - inhibits growth
Wilting of leaves

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Uses of plant hormones  Complex series of organs and glands which break
Rooting powder contains growth hormones that make down insoluble food molecules into smaller water
stem cuttings develop more quickly soluble molecules using a number of processes
Delaying ripening of fruit Phases include:
Selective weedkillers kill some plants but not others Ingestion
Can be useful for getting rid of dandelions in a Movement
lawn without killing the grass Mechanical and chemical digestion
Absorption 
Darwin’s Phototropism Experiment Elimination 
Mechanical digestion includes
Take five shoots: control, tip removed, tip covered by Mastication (Chewing)
opaque cap, tip covered by transparent cap, and base Chew
covered by an opaque shield Tear
Grind
Mash
4. Human Physiology Mix
Rolling action of the tongue and secretion of saliva
4.1. The Digestive System creates bolus (chewed up food) which is swallowed and
transported to stomach
Nutrition is the set of processes used by an organism to Chemical digestion includes
provide itself with food and convert the food molecules Enzymes change food into smaller particles
into a form that can be used by the organism  Helps in digestion of 
Aka processes where organism gets nutrition from Carbs
food Proteins
Balanced diet lipids
Most animals need 7 types of nutrients in diet Involves hydrolysis (Addition of water)
Carbs Deficiency diseases
Proteins Protein - kwashiorkor
Fats Anaemia
Vitamins Goitre
Minerals Rickets
Fibre Night blindness
Water Scurvy
Fat, obesity and health issues Early aging
Fat found in animal food is called saturated fat
Contains cholesterol, which can lead to coronary Structures involved in digestive system
heart disease and heart attacks
People who take in more energy than needed gets Mouth - chewing/mastication
increased amount of fat, which leads to obesity Salivary glands release saliva which contains salivary
People who take in less energy than needed can amylase which breaks down starch into simple sugars
have malnutrition  Tongue + teeth → mixing and grinding
Esophagus
Tube from mouth to stomach
Also known as the food pipe
25cm long tube connecting the mouth and the
stomach
Send the food down the pipe using a wave like motion
called peristalsis
Stomach
Has strong muscular walls which churn and mix food
Mixture is known as chyme
Secretes hydrochloric acid which kills bacteria and
provides low pH level for the activation of pepsin
(which acts on proteins and breaks peptide bonds)
acidic medium is created
Goblet cells
What is digestion?  Give out the mucus that forms the mucus lining on
the stomach to stop the acid from breaking down

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the stomach walls After nutrients are absorbed into blood, it is taken
Sphincter muscle controls the exit by releasing foods to liver
in small amounts Dissolved nutrients are then sent to other parts of
Stomach stores food for a long time body where they are assimilated as part of cell
Small intestine Is responsible for the absorption of water
Divided into 2 parts: duodenum (close to stomach) Rectum - temporarily stores feces
and ileum (close to colon Anus - regulated by the anal sphincter
Several enzymes which are made in pancreas are Accessory organs: not part of path of food, but play
secreted in duodenum  critical role
Pancreatic juice and bile flow along small intestine  Liver
Contains sodium hydrogen carbonate which Directly affects digestion by producing bile  which
neutralizes acid provides the alkaline medium for trypsin to act on
Trypsin acts on proteins the proteins
Lipase acts on fats Bile helps emulsify fat
Bile digests fats via emulsification and neutralizes acid Also filters out toxins and wastes including
Bile salts break down fat into small globules drugs and alcohol
Intestinal juice - contains enzymes which convert Important role in metabolism of glucose
proteins into amino acids, carbohydrates into glucose Detoxifying of the food we eat
and fats into fatty acids and glycerol  Breaking down of larger fat molecules into smaller
Digestion is completed in small intestine  ones which is easy for digestion
Absorption: by now carbs, proteins, and lipids Gallbladder
have been broken down into simple sugars, amino Stores and concentrates bile from the liver and
acids and glycerol respectively releases it into small intestine 
These molecules are small enough to pass Fatty diets can cause gallstones 
through the walls of small intestine and into the Pancreas
bloodstream Produces digestive enzymes to digest fats, carbs,
Lining of intestine walls have small finger-like and proteins 
projections called villi which increase surface area Regulates blood sugar levels by producing insulin 
The villi is then covered in microvilli for even Secretes trypsin, a protease that works in a
more surface area alkaline medium, which is used to neutralize the
They have lots of blood vessels to absorb sugars food that was made acidic by the HCl in the
and amino acids stomach
lacteals absorb fatty acids and glycerol Also secretes other carbohydrases, proteases,
The thin epithelium allows for a high diffusion lipases and nucleases
rate  Carbohydrases - Act on carbohydrates
Lipases - Act on fats/lipids
Proteases - Act on proteins
Nucleases - Act on DNA
Also releases insulin
Insulin is a hormone that controls the levels of
sugar in the blood. If there is not enough
insulin, it can lead to diseases such as
diabetes, which happen when the blood sugar
levels go too high.
Appendix - true function is unknown
some think that it stores “good bacteria” to help
reboot the digestive system after an illness
others believe that it is a useless remnement from
our evolutionary past
Large intestine
Also called the colon
Accepts what small intestine does not absorb  4.2. The Circulatory System
Connects to rectim (short term storage which holds
feces before it is expelled) The body has its own transport system that carries
Function is to complete the absorption and substances around the body knows as the Circulatory
production of vitamins as well as the formation and System.
elimination of feces It is a network of tubes, blood vessels, blood and a
Assimilation  pump (heart) that keeps blood flowing through the
vessels.

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It is made of a special type of muscle called cardiac Aorta – largest artery

muscle. This muscle contracts and relaxes regularly. Arterioles – smallest artery
Types of blood Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart; the
Oxygen rich heart has high pressure
Travels to the body cells Elastic fibres allow the artery to stretch under
High oxygen content pressure
Low CO2 content Thick muscle and elastic fibres can contract to push
Oxygen poor blood the blood along
Travels away from the body cells Vein
Low oxygen content Vena Cava – largest vein
High CO2 content Venules – smallest vein
Blood contains plasma which is the fluid medium in Carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart
which cells are suspended Have valves which act to stop the blood from going in
Transports food, CO2 and nitrogenous waste the wrong direction and ensure unidirectional flow
The inside of the heart is divided into two sections so that Thin muscle and elastic fibre
the two types of blood (oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor) are Body muscles surround the veins so that when they
kept apart. contract to move the body, they also squeeze the
Right side of the heart = oxygen poor veins and push the blood along the vessel.
Left side = oxygen rich Capillary
Heart is divided into four chambers: They exchange materials between the blood and
The two upper chambers are atriums and the two other body cells can only occur through capillaries
lower are ventricles. The wall of the capillary is one thick cell
Atria collect blood that enters the heart Platelet cells clot blood at points of injury
Ventricles pump blood out of the heart; have Lymph - fluid
thicker walls than atria because they need to Some plasma, proteins and blood cells escape into
supply blood to different organs intercellular spaces in tissues through pores in
Left atrium - oxygen rich blood from lungs → relaxes capillary walls
while collecting Colorless
Left ventricle - pumps oxygen rich blood to the body; Drains into lymphatic capillaries → lymph vessels →
collects from the left atrium veins
Right atrium - expands to collects deoxygenated Carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and
blood from the body drains excess fluid from extracellular space back into
Right ventricle - pumps deoxygenated blood back to the blood
the lungs Flow of blood - 
The chambers are completely separated by a septum. Superior and inferior vena cava → right atrium →
Heart is a double pump, with right side pumping blood to tricuspid valve → pulmonary artery → lungs →
the lungs and left side to all other organs. pulmonary vein → left atrium → mitral valve → left
Journey ventricle → aortic valve → aorta → arteries → body
Left side of heart → body’s cells → right side of heart systems
→ lungs → left side of heart Lungs - in humans, lungs are separated to keep blood
During one complete circuit of the body, blood passes from mixing; this allows for a highly efficient supply of
through the heart twice. The heart has two jobs to do and oxygen to the body as humans have high energy needs
so the circulatory system involves a double circulation. Fish have 2 chambered hearts: blood is pumped to the
Pulmonary Circulation – blood flows from the heart to gills → oxygenated → rest of body
the lungs to get O2 supply. Amphibians and reptiles have 3 chambered hearts as
Systemic Circulation – blood flows from the heart to they can tolerate some level of blood mixing
the cells (distribute food and O2) and from the cells to Double circulation is a special feature of vertebrateS
the heart (carry wastes and to the heart CO2)
One complete sequence of contraction and relaxation is 4.3. The Respiratory System 
called a heartbeat.
The opening and closing of valves in the heart is what
creates the sound of a heartbeat
The valves between the atria and ventricles are
connected to the inner walls of the heart by tough
tendons.The tendons allow the valves to close and
hold the valve flaps in place. They prevent the valves
from flipping up and turning inside out
Artery

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Intercostal muscles are relax to reduce the space

in the chest cavity
Types of lung volumes
Tidal volume - the amount of air breather in with each
normal breath (avg is 0.5 l)
Inspiratory reverse volume - max amount of
additional air that can be taken into the lungs after a
normal breath
Expiratory reverse volume - max amount of additional
air that can be forced out of the lungs after a normal
breath
Residual volume - amount of air left in lungs after a
maximal out breath
Helps keep lungs partially inflated to protect
microscopic structures from damage
Lungs are part of breathing system adapted for two Measuring lung volume
functions Take a measuring cylinder and pour 250 cm3 of water
Ventilation: movement of air in and out of lungs into a plastic container/bottle
Gas exchange: ‘swapping’ of gas between alveoli and Mark the water level
blood Repeat this until the container is full
Lungs are located in upper part of body known as thorax Half-fill a tub with water, put the lid on the container
Surrounded by rib cage and intercostal muscles which and turn the container upside down and put the neck
help lungs inhale and exhale under water; take the lid off
Beneath lungs in diaphragm Hold one end of the tubing under the mouth of the
Journey of air container
You inhale, and air in warmed, moistened and filtered Blow through the tube after a deep breath to
as it goes through mouth and/or naval passages measure lung capacity by taking water level readings
Nostrils have fine hairs and mucus to stop germs before and after
The throat has a ring of cartilage to prevent the air Respiratory disorders
passage from collapsing Bronchitis
Then goes through larynx, trachea and into one of the Pneumonia
two bronchi and enters the lung Cold
Then goes through one of the many bronchial tubes, Asthma
bronchioles and into the alveoli, which has specialized Cancer
surfaces for gas exchange Annelids breathe through their skin
Alveoli are found in the alveolar sacs Insects directly exchange gas with body cells
Gas diffuses with the extensive network of blood Fish use gills - water moves in through mouth and then
vessels and capillaries goes to the gills
O2 from inhaled air enters the bloodstream and The oxygen is diffused into the blood
combined with the hemoglobin Fish have a high breathing rate
Fun fact: low amounts of hemoglobin = low
amount of oxygen Lung Problems
CO2 from bloodstream enters alveoli
There is a residual volume of air which allows for Asthma - causes inflammation of the bronchioles →
buffer time constriction makes it difficult for air to pass through
Carbon dioxide leaves the body Excessive amounts of mucus secretion also blocks the
Haemoglobin transports oxygen bronchioles
CO2 is mostly transported through diffusion Wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, chest
Diaphragm  tightness
Inhalation - diaphragm contracts and moves Exposure to dust, allergens, smoke, some foods, etc…
downwards; increases space in chest cavity → lungs can cause an attack
expand → higher intake of air Effects of smoking
Intercostal muscles between ribs also help enlarge Smoke irritates the bronchi, causing bronchitis
the chest cavity Build up of mucus and smoker’s cough
Exhalation - diaphragm expands and relaxes, moving Damages the walls of the alveoli → alveoli wall breaks
upwards; decreases space in chest cavity → air is down → join together → large air spaces
pushed out Reduces efficiency of gas exchange

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CO combines with haemoglobin → reduces oxygen In cellular respiration, glucose and other organic
carrying capacity → strain on circulatory system molecules are broken down in a series of steps
Increased risk of coronary heart disease and Electrons from organic compounds are usually first
stroke transferred to NAD+, a coenzyme
Carcinogens may lead to lung cancer As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an
oxidizing agent during cellular respiration
4.4. Cellular Respiration Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD+) represents
stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP
Respiration is series of oxidation reactions taking place in NADH passes the electrons to the electron transport
all living cells. It results in the release of energy from chain
organic compounds such as glucose Unlike an uncontrolled reaction, the electron
Gas exchange ≠ respiration transport chain passes electrons in a series of steps
Gas exchange - oxygen into cell and carbon dioxide instead of one explosive reaction
out of cell O2 pulls electrons down the chain in an energy-
Why do living organisms need energy? yielding tumble
To drive metabolic reactions that take place inside The energy yielded is used to regenerate ATP
your body such as:
Movement 1. Glycolysis: breaking up of glucose - divides it
Muscle contraction from c-c-c-c-c-c to c-c-c and c-c-c
Movement of chromosomes in cell division Needs 2 ATPs to create 4 ATPs
Maintaining constant body temperature in mammals Creates 2 molecules of Pyruvic acid
and birds Anaerobic
Anabolic process
Process in which large complex molecules are built 2. Kreb’s Cycle
from smaller, simpler molecules The 2 c-c-c are converted into Acetyl CoA
Involves input of energy Generates 2 ATPs
Ex: sugars from polysaccharides Aerobic
Proteins from amino acids NAD+ turns into NADH (Each create 3 ATPS)
Catabolic process - complex molecules are broken down FAD turns into FADH2
to form smaller, simpler molecules
Aerobic respiration: consumes organic molecules and 3. Electron Transport Chain
oxygen to yield ATP Creates 34 ATPs
Anaerobic respiration: similar to aerobic but consumes Aerobic
other compounds instead of oxygen
Glucose = lactic acid + energy
Or in more simple terms…
Ex: alcohol fermentation
For all types of respiration - glucose (a 6 carbon
Pyruvate is converted into ethanol and CO2
molecule)is broken down into pyruvate (3 carbon
Anaerobic respiration is respiration in the absence of
molecule)
oxygen. Some organisms carry out aerobic respiration
This takes place in the cytoplasm
in the presence of oxygen, but are able to change to
Fermentation - anaerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration in its absence. Some bacteria
Takes place in things like yeast
can thrive only in the absence of oxygen.
Pyruvate → ethanol + CO2
In the absence of oxygen glycolysis can operate, as a
Aerobic respiration - presence of oxygen; takes place in
result energy yield in anaerobic respiration is low and
the mitochondria
the pyruvate is converted into waste products.
Pyruvate → CO2 + H2O
Lactic Acid fermentation
Lots of energy
Pyruvate is reduced to NADH
Lack of oxygen in muscle cells
Forms lactate, no CO2 produced
Pyruvate → lactic acid
Human muscles do this when O2 is scarce
Aka when u are running for so long, intake of O2 is
not enough
Buildup of lactic acid created the burning
sensation in muscles
Cellular respiration includes both but mostly refers to
aerobic
Controlled by the breakdown of organic molecules
C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + H2O + 38 ATPs + Heat

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4. Observe the differences in heart rate,

breathing rate, peak flow and blood oxygen
saturation in the three states
5. Controls: age, sex, fitness level, body
size/structure
6. Caution: don’t do this on people that are sick,
or have lung problems; allow ample time
between sessions to allow heart rate to return
to normal

Experiments 4.5. Homeostasis

1. Yeast in sugar Homeostasis - the maintenance of a constant
1. Dissolve sugar in previously boiled water and environment in the body
add yeast
2. Add a layer of vegetable oil (prevents air from Body Temperature
entering while also allowing CO2 to escape
3. Connect a delivery tube system to either a Thermoregulation
Cells in the region of the hypothalamus detect
tube of lime water (Ca(OH)2), water setup or
balloon to measure CO2 produced changes in core body temperature and effect different
4. This can be used to either test the impacts of responses depending on whether the core body
temperature or concentration of sugar temperature is above or below the set point
2. Measuring energy content (calories) in a seed All mammals maintain a constant body temperature
1. Measure a mass of water and add it to a Human beings have a body temperature of about 37
boiling tube clamped to a retort stand degrees C
2. Record the starting temperature of the water Animals with a large surface area compared to their
3. Place a food sample on a mounted needle and volume will lose heat faster than animals with a small
ignite it using a bunsen burner surface area
4. Hold it under the boiling tube until it is The bigger the volume:surface area ratio, the faster
completely burned heat will be lost
5. Record the final temperature of the water Sweating
6. Calculate results in table and repeat for When your body is hot, sweat glands are stimulated to
accuracy → take average release sweat
The liquid swea turns into a gas if it evaporates
1. E = mass*4.2 (J/g*C)*change in
temperature To do this, it needs heat
7. Not completely accurate as some energy is lost It gets heat from your skin
to surroundings, to heat the glass and the As your skin loses heat, it cools down
Vasodilation
entire food sample may not be burned
8. Controls: mass of food and water, starting Your blood carries most of the heat energy around
temperature of the water, distance of flame your body
from boiling tube There are capillaries underneath your skin that can be
3. Effects of exercise on ventilation (breathing and filled with blood if you get to hot
This brings the blood closer to the surface of the skin
respiration)
1. Measure the person’s resting heart rate by so more heat can be lost
taking the pulse at their carotid artery This is why you look red when you are hot
1. Breaths per minute can be measured Vasoconstriction
using a spirometer Opposite of vasodilation
2. BLood oxygen saturation can be Capillaries underneath your skin get constricted
Ths takes blood away from the surface of the skin so
measured using a pulse oximeter
3. Peak flow meter measures the rate of less heat can be lost
airflow that can be blown out of the Piloerection
lungs in litres per minute This is when the hairs on your skin stand up
AKA goosebumps or chicken skin
2. Perform exercise such as brisk walking for five
minutes and take measurements again Hairs trap a layer of ai next to the skin which is then
3. Run for 5 minutes and take measurements warmed by the body heat
again The air becomes an insulating layer
Too hot
Sweating

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Vasoconstriction Blood enters the tubule area  in a capillary vie

Hairs relax renal artery → arterioles → Bowman’s capsules
Too cold The capillary forms a small knot near the tubule
Hypothalamus receives information from the The blood is filtered so all the small particles go
thermoreceptors in your skin and begins to activate into the tubule
warming mechanisms The capillary then carries on to run next to the
Skin arterioles constrict so blood is diverted to deeper tubule
organs and tissues and less heat is lost by radiation The kidney tubule now contains lots of blood
Stimulates skeletal muscles to start shivering → components including
generation of body heat Glucose
Piloerection Ions
Vasodilation Water
Fat Urea
Capillary cluster + tube = nephron
Glucose Reabsorb sugar
The body needs to have sugar in the blood for
Your cells need an exact level of glucose in the blood cells to use in respiration
Excess glucose gets turned into glycogen in the liver All the sugar is reabsorbed into the capillary
This is regulated by 2 hormones from the pancreas Reabsorb water
Insulin Water and ions are the next to be absorbed
Glucagon It depends on how much is needed by the body
High Blood Glucose If you have too little water in your blood, you will
Islets of Langerhans in pancreas stimulated produce very concentrated urine
Insulin is secreted by pancreas which is transported If you have too much water in your blood, you will
by blood to the liver and muscles produce very dilute urine
Liver cells lose some glucose in respiration. Some Excrete the waste
glucose is stored as glycogen Everything that is left in the kidney tubule is waste
The blood glucose concentration falls All the urea
Normal level of blood glucose Excess water
Type B diabetes This waste is called urine
Low Blood Glucose It is excreted via the ureter and is stored in the
Islets of Langerhans in pancreas stimulated bladder
Glucagon is secreted by pancreas which is Pressure builds until there is urge to urinate
transported by blood to the liver and muscles Nervous control
The liver breaks down glycogen into glucose The clean blood leaves the kidney in the renal vein
Glucose is released from the liver into the blood and Or in more complex terms…
blood glucose concentration rises Osmoregulation
Normal level of blood glucose When the solute concentration of the blood is too
Type A diabetes high, the hypothalamus detects this and causes the
pituitary gland to secrete the ADH hormone
Controlling Water Levels This hormone causes the walls of the distal
convoluted tubule and collecting duct to become
Process is initiated when there is a high blood solute much more permeable to water and most of the
level, which signals the hypothalamus to release the ADH water in the filtrate is reabsorbed
(antidiuretic hormone) hormone This is helped by the solute concentration gradient of
ADH increases absorption of water from the urine the medulla
Carried out by the kidneys
As the filtrate passes down the collecting duct, it flows
The kidneys clean the blood of waste products and deep into the medulla, where the solute
control how much water is kept in the body concentration of the intestinal fluid is high
The waste products and water make up the urine Water continues to be reabsorbed along the whole of
which is excreted via the ureter
the collecting duct and the kidney produces a small
Dirty blood enters the kidney through the renal artery
amount of concentrated urine
Closely linked to the excretion of urea The solute concentration of the water is reduced
Ureas is a waste product made when the liver breaks
down proteins that are not needed in the body
Contains the element nitrogen 4.6. The Muscular System
Process
Responsible for the movement of the human body
Filtration

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Visceral muscles (smooth muscles) - found inside organs Ex: bicep curl - biceps contract while the triceps relax

like the stomach

Weakest of all the muscles
Makes organs contract to move substances
Controlled unconsciously
Has a smooth uniform appearance under a
microscope
Cardiac muscles - found in the heart; responsible for
pumping blood throughout the body
Involuntary muscle
Hormones from brain adjust rate of contraction
Cells appear to have light and dark stripes under a
microscope
Caused by arrangement of protein fibers
X or Y cells are connected by junctions called
intercalated disks
Skeletal muscles -
Only voluntary muscles
Contract to move parts of the body closer to the bone
that the muscle is attached to
Most are attached to two bones across a joint →
muscle moves parts of those bones closer
together
Progenitor cells lump together to form long, straight,
multinucleated fibers Fixators - supporting muscles
Tendons - tough bands of connective tissue
Synergist - a fixator muscle that assist the agonist
Strong collagen fibers firmly attach muscles to Cardiac muscles
bones
Is striated and has the same banding organization as
Very strong and woven into the coverings of both
skeletal muscles
muscles and bones
Shorter than muscle fibre cells and usually only
contain one nucleus which is located at the central
Structures of Various Muscles region of the cell
Many mitochondria and myoglobin
Skeletal muscles

Connected to each other at their ends by intercalated

discs
Allows the cells to contract in a wave-like pattern
so the heart can work as a pump

Antagonistic muscles - one muscle of the pair contracts to

move the body part, and the other muscle then contracts
to return the body part back to the original position
As one muscle contracts, the other muscle relaxes or
lengths
Contracting muscle = agonist
4.7. The Nervous System
Relaxing muscle = antagonist
Change may occur around us or inside of our body

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Organisms can detect changes in the environment Types of neurons

and respond to the changes in certain ways Sensory neuron - carries impulses from the receptors
External environment - physical and chemical to the spinal cord
condition outside and organism These tell the rest of the brain about the external
Internal environment - physical and chemical and internal environments by processing
conditions of the tissue fluid surrounding the tissues information taken from one of these five senses
of an organism They take information from the sense organ and
To regulate internal environment pass it on to the brain/spinal cord
Obtain and use resources, grow, reproduce, and Relay neuron - carries impulses from the spinal cord
maintain stable internal conditions while living in a and brain
constantly changing external environment Only found in the visual system, brain and spinal
Response to stimuli cord
Stimulus - changes in the external and internal Receive messages from sensory neurons and pass
environment messages to other relay neurons or motor
Receptor - detect the stimulus neurons
Afferent neuron - carries the nerve impulse to the Motor neurons - carries impulses from the brain to
integrating centre (CNS) in the brain the effector
Efferent neuron - carries the nerve impulse to the SNS motor neurons connect skeletal muscles and
effector involves voluntary actions
Effector - reacts to cause a response (muscles/glands) ANS motor neurons control glands and organs
Stimulus → receptor → CNS → response → effector Synapses - a gap between axon of one cell and dendrite
of next cell
Internal stimuli are detected by receptors sensitive to Structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical
changes within the body or chemical signal to another neuron or to the target
cell
The endocrine and nervous system control and
coordinate functions in the body to maintain a constant
internal environment through a negative feedback
mechanism
Eyes, ears, tongue, nose and skin are receptors

Neurons

Neurons - nerve cells

Parts
Cell body/ soma - contains the nucleus
Dendrites - bushy branching extensions that
receive messages and conduct impulses toward
the cell body
Axon - the neuron extension that passes
messages through its branches to other neurons,
muscles, or glands
Myelin sheath - a fatty tissue layer segmentally
encasing the axons of some neurons for greater
transmission speed
Action potential - a neural impulse; a brief electrical Neurotransmitters - signals passed as chemicals
charge that travels down an axon Diffuse across the synapse and bind to the proteins of
the dendrite of the next neuron
Binding of neurotransmitters to the receptor triggers
the generation of a new action potential/nerve
impulse

The Nervous System

Nerves are bundles of axons

Nervous System 
Central Nervous System (CNS) - processes sensory
information, makes decision and initiates response
Brain 

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Spinal cord Experiment: voluntary response/reaction time can be

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) measured by catching a dropping ruler
Afferent pathway - sensory nerves; brings Materials: meter stick, volunteer, table, chair
information to CNS Sit straight in the chair and place forearm on table so
Efferent pathways - motor nerves; sends th that extends over the  edge
information from CNS to other parts Place index and thumb on either side of the ruler
Somatic pathway - convey messages to 1 cm on bottom, 30 cm on top
voluntary nerves Hold ruler 2 cm over the volunteers fingers, drop it
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) - innervates without telling them and she will catch it as soon as
involuntary effectors she senses it dropping
Sympathetic - Stimulatory Record the number over the thumb; lower
Parasympathetic - Calming  number = faster reaction time
Role of the nervous system Repeat the trial several times
Detect changes by receptors → process received There may be slight improvements after each trial due
sensory information and initiates responses to muscle memory
Helps us think and act consciously Iris/Pupil reflex action
Stores information and allows us to learn from past The way the iris adjusts the size of the pupil in
experiences response to bright or dim light, and thus the amount
Adapts the body to changes in the environment of light reaching the retina is also a reflex action
Controls and coordinates the activities of all other
systems in the body In Bright Light In Dim Light
Radial muscles of the iris Radial muscles of the iris
Reflex Arc relaxCircular muscles of the contractCircular muscles of
iris contractLess light enters the iris relaxMore light enters
It is a special nerve pathway for simple, automatic the eye through the the eye through the dilated
responses contracted pupil pupil
All nerve pathways involve the CNS, but reflex arc does
not involve the brain It is advantageous since it prevents damage of the retina
When your body needs to react to something very that could be caused by bright light
quickly, it uses a reflex arc (spinal reflex)
Receptor → spinal cord → effector
Receptor → sensory neuron → relay neuron → motor
4.8. Sensory Receptors
neuron → effector
Baroreceptors - sensitive to pressure
The sensory, motor and relay neurons constitute the
Chemoreceptors - taste
reflex arc
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami
Reflex actions are useful because the messages get from
Taste protects us from danger
the receptor the the effector as quickly as possible
We won’t end up eating bad tasting poisonous
Reflex actions are examples of involuntary actions which
plants
are not under conscious control
Repeated ingestion of disliked foods can lead to
the food tasting not as bad
Taste buds have receptor cells that have hairs that
sense food molecules
Taste receptors reproduce every 1-2 weeks
No. of taste receptors decreases with age but
sensitivity increases
This is why adults have a stronger sense of
taste
Expectations influence taste
Sensory interaction - one sense may influence
another
Smell influences taste
Can also influence hearing and seeing
Embodied cognition - the influence of bodily
sensations on cognitive preferences
Chemoreceptors - smell
Muscle cells have special proteins that change their shape
Molecules of a substance reach receptor cells in the
and arrangement in the cell in response to electrical
nasal cavity then the axon fibres alert the brain
impulses

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These receptor cells come in different shapes for Placebos can also reduce pain
different odors They mimic drugs
Receptors proteins are attached to the nasal cavity As a result, the brain releases opiates
neurons People also complain of the fake side
Odor molecules slip into these receptors effects of the placebo
There isn’t a receptor for each odor Osmoreceptors - a sensory receptor primarily found in
Combinations of receptors are triggered in the hypothalamus of most homeothermic organisms that
patterns that are interpreted by the olfactory detects changes in osmotic pressure
cortex Thermoreceptors - detect changes in temperature
Women have a better sense of smell than men Advantages of having major sense organs in the head
People with alzheimer’s, parkinson’s and alcohol Cephalization - evolutionary trend toward
dependence have a diminished sense of smell concentrating nervous tissue, the mouth and sense
Sense of smell peaks in early adulthood and gradually organs towards the front end of an animal
declines Fully cephalized animals have a head and brain
We have our own chemical signatures that dogs and It allows for the development of a brain, complex
cats can sense neural system and intelligence
We prefer smells based on association Clustering of sense to help and animal rapidly sense
Smells that invoke pleasant memories are food and threats
prefered Superior analysis of food sources - mouth is closer to
Hotline runs from area of the brain that receives the brain
information about smell and the limbic system
Smell is primitive and kept us safe Body Position and Movement
Photoreceptors - look at eyes
Mechanoreceptors kinesthesis - sense of position of body parts
Touch is vital for social connections light touch is important
4 parts also interacts with vision
Pressure without it, we would feel disembodied
Warmth vestibular sense - sense of body movement
Cold fluids in the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs,
Pain move when your head moves
Tells you that something has gone wrong movement stimulates hair like receptors which send
Without pain, we would be in great danger messages to the cerebellum enabling you to sense
as we wouldn’t know when we broke a movement of body
bone or other serious injuries
Chronic pain - unable to stop the feeling of 4.9. Vision
pain
Pain is a top- down process Stimulus: Light Energy
Women are more sensitive to pain than men
Nociceptors - receptors that detect hurtful Humans can see the visible light part of the
temperatures, pressures or chemicals electromagnetic spectrum
Gate control theory
Pain impulse → nociceptor → nerve cell → Physical properties wavelength determines hue which is the
spinal cord → brain dimension of color intensity is determined by amplitude and
Spinal cord contains a neurological gate affects brightness
When you are injured, small fibres activate
and open this gate The Eye cornea
Large fiber activity closes the gate
Endorphins reduce pain Allows light to enter and bends it to focus
Phantom limb sensation Pupil - Small opening
Brain only registers pain in memory at the Iris - controls how much light enters
peak moment, and end pain Lens - focuses light rays onto retina
Ex: if you feel sudden, sharp pain, and then
Accommodation - the process by which the eye’s lens
less sharp pain, your overall experience of
changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
the pain will decrease
When we see other in pain, our perception of
Retina
our own pain increases
Medication, acupuncture, hypnosis, etc… can
reduce pain

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The light sensitive inner surface of the eye containing 0 decibels is the absolute threshold for hearing
rods and cones and layers of neurons that begin the Every 10 decibel intensity corresponds to a 10x
processing of visual information increase in sound
Rods - detect black and white
Share bipolar cells with other rods The Ear
Cones - detect bright colors
Each cone is connected to its own bipolar cell Outer ear channels waves into the ear canal and then the
which transmits info to the visual cortex eardrum
Steps: The eardrum is a tight membrane that vibrates
Light entering the eye triggers photochemical reaction Middle ear - chamber between eardrum and the cochlea
in rods and cones at back of retina containing three tiny bones called the hammer, anvil and
Chemical Reaction activates bipolar cells stirrup, that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on
Bipolar cells activate ganglion cells whose axons the cochlea oval window 
converge into the optic nerve Picks up vibrations from eardrum and sends them to
Optic nerve transmits information to the visual cortex cochlea
Blind spot - the spot where the optic nerve leaves the eye; Cochlea - snail shaped tube in the inner ear, filled with
there are no receptor cells here fluid
Sound waves travelling through the fluid trigger
Fovea - central focal point in the retina around which the neural impulses
eye’s cones cluster Inner ear - the innermost part of the ear that contains the
cochlea, semicircular canals and vestibular canals
Visual Information Processing Motion in the fluid causes ripples on the basilar
membrane, bending the hair cells lining the surface 
Begins in retina Hair cells bending causes impulses to trigger in the
The layers help encode and analyze sensory adjacent nerve cells
information Cilia - tiny tips at top of the hair cells
Retinal cells are pressure sensitive Axons of the cells converge to form the auditory nerve
Bipolar cells → ganglion cells → optic nerve → brain Neural message is sent to the auditory cortex via the
thalamus
Any given retinal area has a corresponding area in the visual
Sensorineural hearing loss - hearing loss caused by
cortex
damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory
Feature Detection nerves
Also called nerve deafness
Feature detectors - nerve cells in the brain that respond Caused by aging, disease, hereditary, and prolonged
to specific features of the stimulus such as shape, angle exposure to loud noise
or movement Conduction hearing loss - hearing loss caused by damage
Located in the occipital lobe to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to
Receive info from individual ganglion cells the cochlea
Pass info on to other cortical areas Listening to loud noise over an extended period of time,
One temporal lobe area by right ear allows for facial can cause damage to the hair cells
recognition Cochlear implant - a device for converting sounds into
Can know angle, posture, gaze, body movement, etc… electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve
through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
parallel processing - the processing of many aspects Can help restore hearing 
of a problem stimulus simultaneously Do not work if the person has always been deaf as the
brain hasn’t been trained to interpret sound

4.10. Hearing
4.11. Pavlov’s Experiment
The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves
Ivan Pavlov’s Experiments
Ears detect brief pressure changes of air Noticed that dog salivated at the sight of food
Physical characteristics of the wavs Paired the food with a neutral stimulus such as a bell
Amplitude determines loudness After several trials, the dog salivated at the sound of
Frequency determines pitch the bell
Short waves have a high frequency and pitch Neutral stimulus (NS) - the stimulus which evokes no
Long wave have a low frequency and pitch response before conditioning
Sound is measured in decibels Unconditioned response (UR) - an unlearned, naturally
occurring response

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Unconditioned stimulus (US) - the stimulus that evokes Chemically, hormones may be water soluble proteins,
response before conditioning glycoproteins and amines or lipid-soluble steroids
Conditioned response (CR) - a learned response to the Extra hormones are not stored in the body and are
previously neutral stimulus secreted out
Conditioned stimulus (CS) - an originally irrelevant Target cells - chemicals are secreted into the blood and
stimulus that after association with the US triggers the CR reach the target cell
Steps: Lock and key mechanism
Acquisition 
The initial stage when one links the NS with the US 1. Pituitary - the master gland; controls other glands
in order to trigger the CR 1. Hangs from base of midbrain
US must follow the NS or nothing will happen 1. Connected to hypothalamus by
Through higher order conditioning, a new NS can pituitary stalk
become a new CS 2. Hypothalamus
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery 1. Secretes the hormone
Extinction - the diminishing of the CR somatostatin - inhibits secretion
Spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of the of growth hormone from
CR after a short extinction anterior of pituitary
Extinction suppresses the CR, it doesn’t get rid of it 2. Anterior of pituitary
Generalization 1. Growth hormone (GH)
Once a response has been conditioned, it can be 1. a.k.a. somatotropic hormone
evoked with similar stimuli (STH)
Ex: a toddler scared of cars will also be scared 1. Promotes growth of
of trucks and motorcycles whole body
Discrimination 2. Under secretion →
Ability to distinguish between a conditioned dwarfism
stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli 3. Oversecretion →
Pavlov’s legacy gigantism and
Showed us that many other stimuli can be classically acromegaly
conditioned in other organisms 2. Trophic hormones - stimulates other
Showed us how a process such as learning can be endocrine glands
objectively studied 1. Thyroid stimulating hormone
Applications (TSH)
Helping recovering drug addicts 3. Gonadotropic Hormones
Medication 3. Posterior Lobe of Pituitary
1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or
vasopressin
4.12. The Endocrine System 1. Increase absorption of water
from kidney tubes
Gland - an organ that secretes chemicals into the
2. Deficiency causes diabetes
bloodstream
insipidus
Endocrine glands
2. Oxytocin
Do not have ducts
2. Thyroid -
Ducts are tube like structures that allow the
1. Located in the front of the neck
secretions to move to the target location
2. Thyroxine
In the endocrine system, chemical secretions are sent
1. Regulates basal metabolism
to the target site directly through the bloodstream
2. Controls growth and development
Exclusive endocrine glands - pituitary, thyroid,
3. Under secretion (hypothyroidism) can
parathyroid, thymus, adrenals
lead to
Partially endocrine - pancreas, gastric and duodenal
1. Simple Goitre
epithelium, gonads, placenta
1. Swelling of the neck is
Hormones - secretions from specific cells or glands in the
seen
body that are carried by the blood
2. Iodine deficiency
Effect is produced in one or more specific parts only
3. Dwarfism, mental
Secreted from the source directly to the blood
retardation, general
Regulate physiological processes
sluggishness
Produced in very small quantities and are biologically
4. Over secretion ( hyperthyroidism) can
very active
lead to
Excess or deficiency can cause serious disorders
1. Exophthalmic goitre

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1. Increase in the metabolic premature sexual

rate, rapid heartbeat, development
shortness of breath and 2. Cortisol
the eyes protrude out 1. Mental stimulation
together with goitre in 2. Breaks down fat and
the neck protein into glucose; anti-
3. Calcitonin inflammation
1. Regulates calcium and phosphate levels 3. a.k.a stress hormone
in the blood 1. Involved in
2. High calcium → more calcitonin is response to stress
secreted and anxiety
1. Calcium ions are moved from 2. Mineralocorticoids
blood to the bones making them 1. Ex: aldosterone
harder 2. Concerned with water retention
2. Reverse happens when the 3. Increases reabsorption of
calcium level in the blood is low sodium and chloride ions in
making the bones soft kidneys
3. Parathyroids 6. Pancreas
1. Two small pairs of of glands embedded in the 1. Endocrine and exocrine gland
thyroid gland 2. Islets of Langerhans - three kinds of cells
2. Secrete parathormone 1. Alpha cells → glucagon
1. Raises calcium level by stimulating the 2. Beta cells → insulin
release of calcium from bones 3. Gamma cells → somatostatin
4. Thymus 3. Glucagon
1. Base of neck 1. Stimulates breakdown of glycogen to
2. Produces hormones involved in the glucose in the liver → rise in the blood
maturation of T lymphocytes sugar level
5. Adrenals 4. Insulin
1. Situated like caps, one above each kidney 1. Promotes glucose utilization by the
2. Adrenal medulla body
1. Secretes adrenaline 2. Stimulates deposition of extra glucose
1. Fight or flight hormone in the blood as glycogen in the liver
2. Released in response to high 3. Disorders
stress conditions 1. Under secretion → diabetes
3. Increases heartbeat and blood mellitus (hyperglycemia)
pressure 1. Higher than normal
4. Increases blood supply to the blood sugar
visceral organs 2. Excretes lots of urine
5. Releases more glucose into the loaded with sugar →
blood and the liver feels thirsty
3. Adrenal cortex 3. Weight loss/ becomes
1. Glucocorticoids weak
1. Ex: cortisone 4. Patient may lose eyesight
1. Raises blood glucose 2. Over secretion →
through action of liver in hypoglycaemia
response to stress 1. Low blood sugar levels
1. Deamination of 2. Brain may enter state of
amino acids come
2. Glucose is provided 5. Somatostatin
through this hormone 1. Growth inhibiting hormone
during starvation 2. Inhibits secretion of insulin as well as
3. Adapts body to extreme glucagon
heat, cold, burns or 7. Gonads
infections 1. Testes
4. Some act like sex 1. Germinal cells
hormones and 1. Produce sperm
overgrowth of adrenal 2. Interstitial cells
cortex can lead to 1. Produce hormones

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1. Androgen; ex: Nervous System Endocrine System

testosterone Chemical
2. Testosterone stimulates Electrical impulsesVery
messagesSlowerLonger
development of male fastShort lastingEx: moving
lastingEx: insulin and blood
characteristics muscle
sugar levels
1. Used as a steroid
for athletes to
improve athletic 5. Pathogens
performance (this
is very dangerous)
Pathogen - a disease causing organism
2. Ovaries
Human body is the perfect environment
1. Estrogen
Body temp - 36 to 37 degrees
1. Secreted from follicles of the Dissolved substances in body
ovary
Reproduce very quickly and circulate through the
2. Stimulates development of
body along with the blood and other bodily fluids
breasts and fat deposition
Transmissible disease - diseases that are caused by
2. Progesterone
pathogens can usually be passed from one person to
1. Prepares the wall wall if the
another
uterus for having egg fertilized
Water
2. One of the components in birth
Air
control pills
Direct contact
8. Hormones secreted from the stomach and intestine
Food
1. Gastrin Vector - an organism that transmits a disease or parasite
1. Secreted by the mucous membrane of
from one animal or plant to another
the pyloric end of the stomach
Ex: mosquito for malaria caused by plasmodium
2. Stimulates gastric glands to secrete
Dogs for rabies
gastric juice
The vector is not affected by the disease or parasite
2. Secretin Bacteria -
1. Secreted by inner lining of the
Microscopic organisms
duodenum
Largest are 10 micrometers long
2. Stimulates the production of pancreatic
Living cells
juice
Release poisonous toxins that make us feel sick once
3. Cholecystokinin
they are inside the body
1. Stimulates release of bile from
Food poisoning, cholera, typhoid, whooping
gallbladder
cough, gonorrhoea
Negative feedback mechanism - when the gland secretes Structure
certain hormones into the bloodstream, the target cells Have a flexible cell wall
detect the hormone and the function is done, then a No nucleus
message is sent to the gland to stop the secretion Chromosomal DNA carries most of the genetic
Disease is usually a positive feedback problem info
When normal functions lose their negative feedback Plasmid DNA forms small loops and carries
control, many times, disease is the result extra information
If a gland doesn’t get negative feedback, it keeps Flagellum
producing the hormone and as a result, there is Flagella
excess of the hormone Viruses
The hypothalamus links the nervous system to the Smaller than bacteria
endocrine system Only reproduce inside host cells
Uses of animal hormones Damage a cell when they do this
Bovine somatotropin (BST) - naturally produced in Take over and make hundreds of thousands of
animals copies of themselves
Given specifically to produce more milk Virus fills whole host cell and busts it open
Then passed in the bloodstream, airways or other
Nervous System vs. Endocrine System routes
Influenza, colds, measles, mumps, rubella, chicken
Nervous System Endocrine System pox, AIDS
Structure

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Consist of a fragment of genetic material inside a have the same antigens as the normal ones but they are
protein coat called a capsid not able to cause the disease
Sometimes have a further membrane of lipid Herd immunity - not everyone needs to be immunized
called an envelope surrounding the protein in order to stay healthy, but a majority of the
May have a tail section population does
Transmission Non specific defense
Attachment - binds to a specific receptor on the First line of defence - preventing entry
host surface Skin
Penetration - enters the cell Internal surface mouth - saliva
Synthesis of new components - Saliva contains lysozyme and stomach contains
Takes over control of the cell metabolism mucus, protein digesting enzyme and HCl
stopping the cell's normal nucleic acid and Nostrils - hairs
protein synthesis Hairs trap microbes along with other
Replicated using nucleotides from the host cell undesirables such as dust
Protein coats are manufactured using the Special cells in the respiratory tract produce
amino acids of the host cell. lysozyme rich mucus to trap and destroy
Assembly - Whole virus particles are made when foreign bodies
the nucleic acids are surrounded by the protein Mucus membranes also lines with cilia tiny
coats breathing hairs that sweep mucus up to throat
Release - Many viral particles are released when where it is
the cell bursts open (lysis) or by slow leakage Ears - wax
Parasites use the host as a source of nutrients and Eyes - tears
deprive the host of substances it needs for its own Second line of defense
survival Inflammation - a complex response involving
Ectoparasites - surface of body protein and white blood cells

Ticks, fleas
Depend on host for food and shelter
Vectors for other parasites
Endoparasites - live inside the body
Protozoans - single celled
Ex: malaria
Helminths - worms
Flukes, roundworms, tapeworms
Major health concern
Protozoa - single celled
Amoebic dysentery, malaria
Fungi
Phagocytosis - the process by which a cell—often a
Eukaryotic
phagocyte or a protist—engulfs a solid particle to
Many important for food industry and antibiotics
form an internal compartment known as a
Pathogenic fungi are responsible for the destruction
phagosome
of crops
Often happens when cell is trying to destroy
something like a virus or infected cell
5.2. Immune System Only happens when the cell is in physical
contact with the particle it wants to engulf

Immune response - the way in which lymphocytes

respond to pathogens, producing antibodies
Active immunity - defence against a pathogen by antibody
production to the body
Natural immunity - lymphocytes
Artificial immunity - vaccines
Passive immunity - short-term defence against a
pathogen by antibodies acquired from another individual
such as from mother to infant
Natural - passed to fetus through a placenta
Third line of Defense: the adaptive immune system
Artificial - medicine
Your body cells as well as all organisms and
Vaccine - a vaccine contains weakened or dead viruses or
substances that may enter your body that are
bacteria that normally causes disease. These pathogens

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covered with unique chemical markers known as When we cough or sneeze, the phlegm and mucus
antigens end up
Specialized WBCs interpret these antigens and Vomit
recognize whether they are own cells or invading Digestive system becomes more acidic→ less
materials or cells pleasant for pathogens
If a foreign invader is detected, the adaptive Actively removing pathogens
immune system can start to fight it
Immune system can also detect whether this is a 5.3. Antibodies
new pathogen or one that has been fought in the
past Antibodies - a protein molecule with a particular shape,
First infection - body starts producing rather like an enzyme molecule, this shape is just right to
antibodies and the antibodies multiply once fit into another molecule. To destroy a particular
the correct antibodies have been detected pathogen, antibody molecules must be made which are
It may take some time for the body to just right shape to fit into molecules on the outside of the
identify the correct antibody pathogen
Some antibodies remain as memory cells Antigen - pathogen molecules
If a pathogen enters the body, it is likely to meet a large
number of lymphocytes, one of these may recognize the
pathogens as  being something that its antibody can
destroy. this lymphocyte well start to divide rapidly by
mitosis,  making clone of lymphocytes itself. These
lymphocytes then secrete their antibody, destroying
pathogens.

First line is bacteria, second line is antibodies Memory cells - Memory cells are a type of white blood cell
Second infection that can respond quickly when it meets a microorganism
Thanks to memory cells, the antibodies are produced for the second time. They produce the right antibody for
very quickly the particular microorganism and destroy it before you
This is the concept of vaccination
feel unwell. This is described as being immune to a
disease.
After the infection has passed most b cells die, and
antibody numbers also fall off, but a small number
become memory B cells. They are ready to respond to
pathogens quickly if you meet it again
T-lymphocytes (or t cells which mature in the thymus) ex:
T killer cells which destroy bacteria that have become
coated with antibodies and helper T cells which prompt B
cells to start making antibodies
B lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow
Small curve is bacteria, large curve is antibodies Produce plasma cells that form antibodies
When we are sick, the body tries to make itself Also produce memory cells that stay in the body for a
unappealing to pathogens long time and can trigger the production of antibodies
Fever raises temp above 37 degrees if infection occurs
Chemicals from pathogens and immune cells get Antibiotics are substances that destroy, damage or kill
to hypothalamus certain types of cells
Hypothalamus detects signals Many antibiotics are found in nature
Turns up body heat Penicillin originates from mold
Mucus and phlegm trap pathogens before they can Not effective for viruses
fully enter the body
Contain antibodies 5.4. Autoimmune Disease

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Lymphocytes normally respond only to foreign cells that Hosted by human gut bacteria which are also capable
enter the body of living wild in sewers
They recognize our own cells as self cells and do not Can kill or cause paralysis
produce antibodies against them A few drops of attenuated virus are enough to protect
However, sometimes this system breaks a person for life
down,lymphocytes behave as though some of our own
cells are foreign and react to them as they would to an
invasion of pathogens 6. Reproduction
Diseases that result from this kind of malfunction of the
immune system are called autoimmune diseases 6.1. Life Cycles
Ex: type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, lung cancer
Linked to people’s lifestyle and behavior Life cycle - a series of developmental stages in a lifetime 
Repeated every generation
Lifestyle and Mental Health Disorders Prereproductive vs. reproductive stage
Every species has its own stages
Some diseases like type 2 diabetes and certain types of
Time period of each stage varies
cancer can be linked to behavior
Ex: cicada spend 17 years as immature
These lifestyle diseases can result from factors such
nymphs
as obesity (from excessive calorie intake,smoking and
Also depends on environment
alcohol consumption)
Butterflies: egg → larva → pupa → adult
Not entirely linked to behavior but indulgence in
Locust: egg → nymph → adult
these behaviors can increase the chances of onset of
Not all live to adulthood
these diseases
Metamorphosis - change in form
Mental health disorders include depression, eating
Complete vs. incomplete
disorders, PTSD, and addictive disorders
Incomplete
Some are inheritable
Moulting - shedding the exoskeleton
Some result from traumatic experiences, brain
No. of times varies
damage from an accident, abuse, or stressful living
Gradual/incomplete hemimetabolous - wings
conditions
appear as protrusions on the thorax
Holometabolous/abrupt/complete
5.5. Other Types of Diseases Immature nymphs are adults that can’t reproduce
Advantages of complete metamorphosis
Ebola Adults and larvae don’t compete for the same food
Contagious and viral Have different predators
Eating “bush meat”, monkeys or apes seemed to be Different habitats
the source of infection in humans  Adaptable
These hosts caught it from the fruit bat Occurs in 85% of species
Monkeys are the intermediate hosts Higher survival rate
Influenza
One strain is called bird flu and is found in many
6.2. Asexual Reproduction
migratory water birds
Sharing ponds or food with domestic fowl can lead to
Uniparent - one parent
spread of the virus
Uniform offsprings - genetically identical to parent
Domestic birds like chickens are the source of bird flu
Rare in multicellular organisms but common in
in humans
prokaryotes
Never passed from one human to another
No gametes involved
Another strain is the Spanish flu, and another is swine
Binary fission - cell division in prokaryotes that forms two
flu
genetically identical cells
Dengue fever
DNA is copied
Mosquito borne
Cell grows longer pulling the two copies apart → cell
Mosquitos transmit the virus from one human to the
membrane pinches inward → new uniform identical
next
offspring
Despite scientific advancement, there are 30x as
Unicellular organisms
many infections as there were in 1960
Ex: Bacteria, Protozoa, Amoeba, Ecoli
4 types
Budding - a new organism grows by mitosis and cell
Surviving one type means that you will suffer even
division on the body of its parent
more symptoms if you get another type later
Polio

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Bud can break off from the parent when it is large Self - transfer of pollen grains from anther to the
enough and live on its own stigma of the same flower
Offspring may remain attached to form a colony Cross - transfer of pollen grains from anther to the
Ex: Yeast, Hydra, Cactus stigma of different flowers
Regeneration - occurs when an offspring grows from a Wind - different structure
piece of its parent Lots of small and light pollen grains
Ex:  Anthers are exposed to allow the pollen to be
a) New organisms: sea stars, sea urchins, sea blown away easily
cucumber, sponges and planarians Petals are small and green as there is no need to
b) New body parts: gecko, newts, tadpoles, crabs, attract insects
hydra, and zebrafish No scent or nectary
Vegetative propagation - uniform offspring grow from a Stigma are feathery to catch pollen carried on
part of the parent plant wind
Parent plants send out runners and when they touch Seeds have wing like feathery projections which
the ground, roots can grow increase surface area so that the seeds can float in
A new plant is produced even if the runner is broken air and be carried over long distances
apart Ex: sycamore, dandelion
Each plant is uniform and identical to the parent Animals
Ex: strawberries, potatoes, ivy and crabgrass Tomato
Advantages: Fleshy, bright, and scented to attract animals
Rapid populating Tough seed coat to protect seeds from being
No mates required digested in the animals’ gut
Useful in emergencies Burr grass
No true investment Stiff, hooked spines which catch onto the
Disadvantages: animals’ fur to be carried long distances before
No diversity dropping off
Prone to extinction Fertilization
Cannot adapt Transfer of pollen via wind or insects
Dangerous mutations in DNA Pollen grains land on stigma
Nucleus of pollen grain (sperm) travels through style
6.3. Sexual Reproduction to the ovule → egg and sperm fuse → zygote formed
→ grows into embryo through meiosis
A type of reproduction in which the genetic materials Germination - seed contains the future plant or embryo
from two different cells combine, producing an offspring which develops into seedling under appropriate
Sex cells - the cells that combine; egg and sperm; conditions and this is called germination
gametes Factors
Fertilization - the process in which an egg and a sperm Water: allows the seed to swell and the embryo to
fuse together start growing
New cell formed = zygote Oxygen: needed for aerobic respiration
Warmth: increases growth rate and enzyme
Plants activity

Reproductive organs are found in the flowers 6.4. Humans

Most plants have male and female organs in their
flowers Growth - result of asexual cell divisions; body proportions
Carpel/pistil (female): and shape changes throughout life
Stigma - surface for pollen to stick Puberty - physical changes in which the body of a girl or
Style - long tube which connects stigma and ovary boy matures and becomes able to reproduce
Ovary - contains the ovules; becomes the fruit Males: growth of facial and body hair, more muscle
Ovules - contains the egg; become the seed mass, deeper voices
Stamen (male): Females: breasts, wider hips, growth of body hair
Anther - produces pollen enclosed by pollen grains Male reproductive system
by meiosis Testis (testes)
Filament - holds up the anther Production of sperm and testosterone
Pollen grain - male gametophyte which consist of Located in scrotum which is a sac like structure
male gametes which maintains temperature
Pollination Contains seminiferous tubules

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Epididymis - site where sperm matures and develops Corpus Luteum Stage: LH and FSH drop → yellow
the ability to be motile cells occupy the place where the egg was →
Mature sperm is stored here until ejaculation corpus luteum → produce and release
Vas deferens - long tubes which conducts sperm from progesterone → maintains uterine lining to ensure
the testes to the prostate gland during ejaculation implantation
Seminal vesicle - secretes fluid containing fructose, Menstruation: if the egg is not fertilized within
mucus, and prostaglandin ( triggers uterine about 24 hours of fertilization → corpus luteum
contraction) breaks down and secretion of LH decreases →
Prostate gland - secretes an alkaline fluid to neutralise decrease in progesterone → lining breaks down →
vaginal acids to maintain sperm viability menstruation takes place
Mixture of sperm and fluid is semen Menopause - the permanent cessation of the menstrual
Urethra cycle; occurs between 45-50 years of age
Conducts sperm from prostate gland out of the
body via the penis 6.5. Fertilization
Only sperm or urine at a time not both
Penis - copulatory organ in which there is erectile Growth - increasing number of cells
tissue through which blood enters Differentiation - series of changes that transforms the
During sexual intercourse, penis is inserted into unspecialized embryonic cells into specialized cells,
the vagina to transfer sperm tissues and organs
Female reproductive system Aging - complex series of developmental changes which
Ovary - oocytes mature prior to ovulation and the occur with the passage of time caused by both heredity
secretion of estrogen and progesterone and environment
Fimbria - fringe of tissue adjacent to an ovary that Death - irreversible end of all brain functions
sweep an oocyte into the oviduct When an egg is fertilized by a sperm, the egg will implant
Oviduct/fallopian tube - transports the oocyte to the into the lining of the uterus and begin to develop
uterus; also where fertilization occurs Zygote → embryo (0-8 weeks) → fetus (8 weeks to
Uterus - fertilized egg is implanted and develops into birth)
an embryo Fertilization takes place in the fallopian tube
Endometrium - the mucous membrane lining of the Fertilization - fusion of sperm nucleus with egg nucleus
uterus Zygote divides into two identical cells by mitosis → 4 cells
Thickens in preparation for implantation or is → 8 cells → 16 cells → solid ball of cells called morula
otherwise lost Zygote is a diploid cell
Cervix: lower portion of the uterus Morula - 30-50 cells (blastomeres)
Vagina - passage leading to the uterus by which the Created is around 96 hours
penis can enter No growth is seen → arise through cleavage
Each cell is half the size of the one it is derived
Menstruation from
Blastula
One egg per month s released by the ovaries 4th day after insemination → epithelial cellular layer
Inner lining of uterus becomes full of blood capillaries forms → thicker outside
and becomes soft to receive the fertilized egg Blastopore
If fertilization doesn’t take place, the egg dies and it’s also Blastocoel - fluid filled inside sphere
accompanied by other changes Vegetal plate - yolk filled end
Uterus lining breaks down → menstruation Blastocyst
Menstrual cycle Implantation - the embryo secretes enzymes that digest a
4 hormones path into the soft tissue; first phase of pregnancy
Ovary: estrogen and progesterone Gastrula - one side of the blastula pushes inward forming
Pituitary gland: FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) a second, inner layer of cells called the endoderm
and LH (luteinizing hormone) Endoderm → lining of digestive tract, lining of trachea,
Process: bronchi and lungs, liver and pancreas, thyroid,
Follicle stage: pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH parathyroid, thymus, and urinary bladder
→ follicles develop → secrete estrogen → rebuilds Outer cell layer = ectoderm
the uterine lining  (10-14 days) Becomes nervous system, epidermis, sweat
Ovulation: pituitary increases FSH and LH (lots of glands, hair and nails, lining of mouth, nostrils and
LH) → LH causes the follicle and ovary to release anus
an egg (ovulation) → fertilization is most likely to Third layer called mesoderm forms between the
be successful (day 14) endoderm and the ectoderm

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Becomes bones and muscles, blood and blood For the first 6 weeks of development, male and female
vessels, heart, reproductive system, excretory embryos are identical
system, inner layer of skin 7th week - primary reproductive organs begin to
Actual beginning of pregnancy (phase 2) develop
Ectopic pregnancy - when an embryo implants Testosterone in males and estrogen in females
somewhere other than the uterus develop secondary characteristics
Embryonic period Progesterone prepares uterus for arrival of
Primary organ differentiation developing embryo
Ends at 8th week Multiple births
Phase 3 Identical: 1 egg is fertilized and splits during the first
Fetal periods (last phase) division
Rapid growth, changes in body parts and final prep Fraternal: 2 eggs are fertilized at the same time
for birth
End of week three - nervous and digestive systems 6.6. Birth Control Methods and STDs
begin to form
Chorion has grown into the uterine tissue to form the Contraception - method of avoiding conception
placenta Safe period - sexual intercourse is avoided during the
Placenta acts as a barrier for microorganisms period of ovulation as well as a few days before and
AIDS, German Measles, chicken pox and after
encephalitis can still pass through Barrier method (condoms) - physical barrier is created
Gestation period of humans is 9 months between the sperms and the ovum
Control of development Also prevent STDs
Nucleus → DNA contains hereditary information, No tears in condom, must not be expired, must be
controls cellular activity and encodes for the put on the penis correctly
production of cellular proteins Oral contraception (the pill) - manipulation of
Cytoplasm receives instructions from the DNA in the hormones → prevents ovulation
nucleus Cannot prevent STDs
Development Lots of side effects
External in water - nourishment →supplied by the Chemical contraception - creams and gels applied in
yolk  stored in egg; no parental care the vagina
External on land - production of egg and shell; some Melts into a viscous mass as a result of body heat
parental care → creates barrier
4 extra membranes outside the embryo Acidic environment in unfavorable for sperms
chorion - outermost; aids in gas exchange STDs
Allantois - exchange of O2 and CO2; stores Also known as Sexually Transmitted Infections
waste until egg hatches Chlamydia - caused by bacteria
Amnion fluid sac that surrounds the embryo Causes a burning pain when urinating and forms a
cushion; shock absorber thick yellow or green discharge from an infected
Yolk sac - surrounds the yolk; source of food penis or vagina
for embryo Can cause bleeding in between periods or swollen
Shell prevents bacteria from entering, porous testicles in men
enough for O2 and CO2 exchange, slow rate of Can result in infertility
evaporation Treated with antibiotics
Internal HIV - human immunodeficiency virus
Placental mammals - blood vessels of embryo are Transmitted through sexual intercourse as well as
in close contact with mother’s blood unsterilized needles or cuts
Placenta - structure produced by the uterus of the Mild flu-like symptoms
mother which supplies nutrients to the embryo Many people don’t even know that they are
and removes waste from the embryo affected
Diffusion and active transport; no direct blood AIDS - acquired immune deficiency syndrome
link between mother and fetus Months or years after HIV, the virus may attack
Umbilical cord - attaches the embryo to the the immune system at which point HIV results in
placenta of the mother in the uterus AIDS
Non placental mammals Antiviral drugs can slow the development of AIDS
Egg laying mammals/monotremes - duckbill and HIV even though there is no cure
platypus, spiny anteater Gonorrhoea - caused by the bacteria called Neisseria
Marsupials - kangaroo, opossum gonorrhoeae or gonococcus
Yellow/green discharge

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Pain while urinating, bleeding between periods Chromatin - a network of DNA

Anal itching and discharge Turns into chromosomes when cell division is about
Reduced fertility to take place
Antibiotic injection and tablet is a simple cure DNA has to duplicate 
Herpes - Chromosomes - condensed chromatin
Cold sores in reproductive regions Chromatids and centromeres
Aching, gland swelling, tiredness, and flu Sister chromatids 
symptoms
No treatment
Syphilis - bacteria called treponema pallidum
Small sores
Blotchy red skin rashes
White patches in mouth
Headache, fever, swelling, hair-loss, etc…
Brain, joint, bone, eye, heart and nerve damage
Can be treated with antibiotics**

6.7. Sexual vs. Asexual Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction
ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES
Diverse offspring/genetic
No waste of time or energy
variation:
Slight differences amongst
No true investment
individuals
Resistance to disease No mate required
Traits can develop to resist
harsh environments that Rapidly reproduce a large
allows an organism +to number of uniform offspring
survive
Cell division - when a single cell divides into two identical
Selective breeding: In case of emergency cells 
Develop organisms with Cell cycle
DISADVANTAGES
desirable traits
Agriculture No genetic variation 1. Interphase - rest phase
Pets Chances of survival decrease G1 = growth
S = growth and DNA synthesis
G2 = growth and final preparation for division
Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction
DISADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES 2. Mitotic Phase - division takes place; PMAT; aka
Whole species can be wiped Karyokinesis 
Time and energy:
out from a disease Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase 
Have to grow and develop cell doesn’t change shape during mitosis 
until they are old enough to Prone to extinction → Cytokinesis
produce sex cells 2 daughter cells 
Finding a mate exposes the Back to interphase
organism to threats Dangerous mutations are
(predators, disease, always passed on 7.2. Mitosis (equational division)
environment)
Asexual 
Fertilization can’t take place Phase in which the nucleus divides to form two nuclei,
Cannot adapt
during pregnancy each containing a complete set of the cell’s
chromosomes 

7. Cell Division Prophase - chromosomes become visible and spindles

form; nuclear envelope breaks 
Metaphase - chromosomes line up along the equator
7.1. Introduction and spindles connect to the centromere

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Anaphase - sister chromatids separate at the

centromere and are pulled to opposite poles;
microtubules contract
Mitotic spindles 
Telophase - nuclear envelope forms, chromosomes
uncoil and spindles dissolved 

Cytokinesis - process where the cytoplasm divides into

two 
One original cell and one exact copy
Plant cell - cell plate appears in center 
In animal cells, it starts at the periphery and ends at the
center Mitosis Interphase 
In plant cells, it starts at the center and moves to the Embryonic Cell growthDNA
periphery developmentGrowthTissue synthesisResting but
repairAsexual reproduction activeOrganelles duplicate 
7.3. Meiosis (reductional division)

Meiosis I - PI, MI, AI, TI 7.4. History and Discovery of the

Meiosis II - PII, MII, AII, TII
Structure and Role of DNA
homologous - a pair of chromosomes
similar shapes, size and arrangement of genes  1869 - Friedrich Miescher was a Swiss chemist and the
maternal and paternal chromosomes  first to identify DNA as a unique molecule
crossing over - mutual exchange of genes takes place 
1914 - Robert Feulgen (German chemist); staining
genetic variation occurs  technique
More DNA = more staining
All cells in an organism have the same amount of DNA
except gametes
Fred Griffith - demonstrated that bacteria could be
transformed from one strain to another by transferring
genetic factor from one organism to another
Living S (smooth) cells = mouse is dead(strain is
protected by a capsule from the mouse’s defenses)
Living R cells = alive
Heat killed S cells = alive
Heat killed S cells + Living R cells = dead
occurs in prophase I of meiosis 
conclusion was that the bacteria had incorporated
chiasmata - point where the chromosomes attach
heredity factor from a source and in doing so
recombinant chromosomes 
expressed a new smooth trait
haploid cells cannot undergo meiosis but diploid cell can
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty examined various
both haploid and diploid can undergo mitosis 
molecules found in S-strain Pneumococcus cells to prove
that DNA was responsible for the transformation of the
bacterial cells
When various isolated chemical components of the S-
strain pneumococcus cells were mixed with the R-
strain pneumococcus cells, it was shown that the DNA
from the S-strain cells that caused transformation
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
Demonstrated that genetic material is DNA by using
viruses that infect bacteria

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Phage used in experiment = DNA molecule DNA-DNA hybridization

surrounded by a protein coat The closer the two species are, the fewer mispairings
Part 1 there are in hybridization 
Phages grown with sulfur (S 35) labeled amino Human Genome Project - only 5% of DNA is actually
acids → radioactive protein coat useful 
No radioactive DNA Lynn Margulis - extracted and compared DNA from
Phages infected bacteria organelles and confirm its similarity to the DNA in groups
Phages produced in these cells contained no of wild, free-living bacteria and cyanobacteria
radioactivity Ideas of eukaryotic cells gained acceptance as a result
Separate phages outside the bacteria from the of DNA analysis
cells using a blender
Centrifuge the mixture so bacteria form a pellet at 7.6. DNA Replication 
the bottom of the test tube
Part 2 Helicase - enzyme that breaks hydrogen bonds
Phages grown with phosphorus (P 32) radioactive Replication fork - where replication begins
deoxyribonucleotides → radioactive DNA Leading strand - continuous synthesis
Radioactive DNA present in bacteria  Lagging strand - not continuous; okazaki
This demonstrated that the DNA not protein carries fragments 
the genetic information 5’ → 3’
Chargaff’s rule SSBP - single stranded binding protein; binds to both
Found the percentage of various nucleotides in strands to keep them apart
genome RNA primase - synthesizes primer for replication to start 
Rules DNA polymerase - adds nucleotides to the parent DNA
A+G = C+T = 50% strand 
Percentages of nucleotide vary for different A-T and G-C
species  Complementary base pairings 
Rosalind Franklin - used x-ray crystallography to Strands are antiparallel 
determine that DNA was double stranded, a helix, DNA ligase - joins the two DNA strands together by
phosphates were on the outside and three distances (2 forming a phosphodiester bond
nm, 0.34 nm and 3.4 nm) showed up in a pattern over
and over again in the diffraction pattern
James Watson and Francis Crick
7.7. Protein Synthesis
Determined that the sugar and phosphates were on
Essential amino acids - our body can’t synthesize them
the outside
Non essential = can synthesize 
Determined that the nitrogenous bases were forming
20 amino acids build up proteins 
the rungs of the ladder
Transcription - happens in the nucleus
Two purines are too wide to overlap and two
Transcription unit - length of DNA to be copied 
pyrimidines are too far apart to form the hydrogen
Transcribe DNA 
bonds
Only one strand is formed at a time from a template
A purine and a pyrimidine is just right
to avoid complication
Copied strand = antisense strand 
7.5. Structure of DNA Not copied strand = sense strand 
If both strands are used, various proteins will form at
Double helix - two chains of atoms twisted around each the same time (hypothetically) 
other  RNA polymerase - binds to DNA at the TATA box to
Atoms are held together with covalent bonds  unzip the double helix 
Two strands in the spiral are held together with Read the DNA bases and helps the RNA versions
hydrogen bonds find a match
Hydrogen bonds are weaker → important when RNA polymerase adds on in the 3’ → 5’ to create a
unzipping strand that is 5’ → 3’ 
DNA is a polynucleotide  mRNA - messenger RNA 
Each nucleotide is made of a nitrogen base, a sugar Leaves nucleus through nuclear pores and moves
and a phosphate group to the cytoplasm and attaches to a ribosome 
Sugar = deoxyribose Uracil instead of Thymine 
Base pairs - A+T or G+C rRNA is the ribosome 
Held together with hydrogen bonds Translation - happens in the cytoplasm/ribosome 
Codon - thee template bases on mRNA
The Power of DNA

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Anticodon - three template bases on tRNA  dominant allele and r (wrinkled) is the recessive
tRNA decodes and brings the amino acids from the gene.
cytoplasm and sequences them according to the Breeding experiment between P generation
mRNA codons (parent generation).
Polypeptide chain forms → protein  P generation parent are homozygous with
tRNA leaves different alleles for the same trait.
The possible gametes for the first parental
7.8. Mutations generation are R and r (homozygous dominant
parent will have R, R and homozygous recessive
Mutation - a change in the DNA base sequence parent will have r, r).
Substitution - one replaced by another The first filial generation or F1 will all be daughters
Insertion - addition of an extra base  that will be Heterozygous Dominant with gametes
Deletion - removal R, r.
Inversion - change in sequence  After this, the first generation are all self-
Duplication - one segment is repeated  pollinated. Here the possible gametes are (R. r) (R,
When a mutation occurs, the type of protein formed r). To find the exact ratios we use the Punnett
changes Square. From the Punnett Square we can see that
Point mutation - change occurs for one base pair only the Phenotypic Ratio is 3: 1. While the genotypic
Substitution  ratio is 1:2:1.  

Frameshift mutation - protein changes from the point of

insertion, deletion, duplication or inversion 
Entire frame shifts from that point
Silent mutations - changes in the bases that don’t cause
mutation in phenotype/mutation/amino acid
This happens when there are multiple ways to code
the same amino acid ** \n **

7.9. Mendel’s Laws

Test cross is the crossing of an individual with a
Somatic cells - non-reproductive cells recessive individual in order to build the genotype
Diploids - 2  sets of chromosomes of the dominant individual.
Reproductive cells are haploids In a heterozygous individual the dominance is
Gregor Johann Mendel - first to explain inheritance called Complete Dominance as recessive allele is
patterns completely suppressed by the dominant allele.
Pea plant (pisum sativum) complete dominance Incomplete dominance is when two homozygous
experiments plant with two dominant genes are crossed and a
Identified 7 different visible characteristics that are of new allele is formed that is a mix of the two
contrasting strains dominant.
Self and cross pollinated the plants All F2 generations of incomplete dominance have
Plant is bisexual so both self and cross pollination genotypic and phenotypic ratio.
can take place Mendel could only explain complete dominance
This can occur in a short period of time and not incomplete dominance.
Parental (P)  and filial (F1 and F2) generations Co-dominance is two homozygous individuals with
Self pollinate plants for a few generations to ensure dominant alleles have an offspring with alleles
purity of plants being equally dominant without interference.
Cross pollinate a tall plant and a short plant Di-hybrid cross:
Remove the anthers from the plant to be It is a cross with two different traits.
pollinated In this example, we are taking the seed colour and
Tall x Dwarf \n TT x tt \n Tt → F1 generation = tall seed shape. That is either yellow/round and either
Self pollinate F1 generation green/wrinkled. In this Round and Yellow are the
Tt x Tt dominant alleles.
Punnett Square →  TT, Tt, Tt, tt Again, both the parents in the parent generation
Phenotype and genotype ratios are either homozygous dominant or homozygous
Monohybrid Cross: recessive. That is YY RR and yy rr.
In this case, we are taking the alleles for the seed The possible gametes for the first parent in the
shape of the pea plant, where R (round) is the first generation are (Y R) and (r y)

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Thus, the first generation filial offspring are all R r If all offsprings are found to be of one type, then the
y Y. dominant parent is homozygous
We then self-pollinate the F1 generation. If the offspring produced are both types in 1:1 ratio,
Here the possible gametes for one of the parents- the the dominant parent is heterozygous
RY, Ry, rY, ry. If some are dwarf, then the parent plant is
And the same for the second parent. heterozygous
We make a Punnett Square grid again and the Back cross - individual is crossed with either of the
following are the ratios- phenotypic ratio is 9:3:3:1 parents
:: Round Yellow: Round Green: Wrinkled Yellow: Incomplete dominance
Wrinkled Green. Ex: Andalusian fowl
Recombinants that are formed after the crossing Black and white chickens exist
like Round Green and Wrinkled Yellow.
If a white chicken breeds with a black chicken, you
get a gray chicken
WW + BB → WB = gray
Ex: Mirabilis Jalapa (4 o’clock plant)
Red flower and white flower = pink flower
RR + WW → RW = pink
Codominance - both are equally dominant
Ex: blood groups
A is dominant over O → IaIa or IaIo
B is dominant over O → IbIb or IbIo
A and B are equally dominant → IaIb
Chromosomes are either autosomes or allosomes Ex: IaIa + IbIb → IaIb (codominance)
Allosomes are the sex chromosomes. O → IoIo
There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of Sex-linked inheritance - gene is linked to the 23rd
allosomes. chromosome
Genes of autosomes are autosomal genes and genes More likely to affect maleS
of allosomes are sex-linked genes.
Genes of Y-chromosome are Y-linked genes 7.10. Pedigree Charts
Y-linked are inherited from male to male only.
In females, the 23rd pair of the sex-linked pair is XX A pedigree chart is a flow chart that shows the
and in males it is XY. relationship within a family over several generations.
Therefore, the sex determining is the Y chromosome Offspring are shown in order of birth from left to right.
and whether the males pass it on. Generations are labelled with Roman Numerals 
Key terms: A person that is not affected but passes it onto their
Allele - different versions of a gene offspring are called carriers only applicable in recessive
Gene - a segment of DNA which defines a certain trait disorders.
Homozygotes - same alleles for the same trait Autosomal Dominant - there is an altered autosomal
Heterozygotes - different alleles (identical gene on one of the 22 autosomes and someone who
Dominant - whichever trait is more carriers this gene is affected by the disorder
possible/expressive If the person has offspring there is a ½ chance that
Represented by the capital letter of the trait they pass on the disorder even if they are female or
Recessive - whichever trait is less likely to occur male.
Represented by the lower case letter of the trait If both parents are affected but the offspring is
Phenotype - external/visible characteristics unaffected, the trait must be dominant
Genotype - genetic constitution/composition You will be affected if you have a A allele.
Possibilities/gene combinations Those that are affected can be homozygous or
Law of dominance - the phenotype is that of the heterozygous.
dominant gene/allele
If a plant self-pollinates and you get the same traits, it is
homozygous
If a plant self-pollinates and you get varying traits, it is
heterozygous
Test cross - cross tall plants with dwarf plants to see the
nature of the offsprings; it is used to find out whether the
parent if homozygous or heterozygous
Determine the genotype of the dominant parent

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Autosomal Recessive Caused by the passing down and inheritance of defective

In this the person is darkened if he/she is recessive genes
gene. Mutation - a change in the sequence of bases in DNA
They have to be homozygous or AA Cystic fibrosis 
Excess secretion of mucus
Protein channels are dysfunctional and don’t allow
substances to pass through
CFTR gene codes for a protein which balances the salt
levels in either side of cells in lungs 
If a defective variation of the gene is present →
blockages in some parts of the body
Trouble in breathing
Blockage in parts of digestive food that can’t be
absorbed
X-linked Dominant Blockage in vas deferens → infertility
Affected female- XAXA or XAXa Life expectancy = 30-40 years
Unaffected female- XaXa Huntington’s disease
Affected Male- XAY Progressive brain disorder
Unaffected Male- XaY., Causes uncontrolled movements, emotional problems
An affected father will have all affected daughters. and loss of cognition
To find the genotype of the mother look at the sons. Involuntary jerking, muscle problems, slow eye
movement, impaired gait, difficulty with speech
production
Difficulty organizing, lack of impulse controls, lack
of awareness, slow processing, difficulty learning
new information
Sadness and irritability, insomnia, fatigue, and
frequent thoughts of death
Usually develops between the ages of 30 and 50
Caused by the huntingtin gene which is attached to
the 4th chromosome 
Produces an important brain protein called
X-linked Recessive huntingtin which is needed by neurons in the
Affected mother all sons should be affected. ‘ brain and for the body’s development before birth
Affected female- XaXa When faulty → repeats genetic sequences too
Unaffected female- XAXA or XAXa , in the latter case many times → damages neurons in certain areas
the female is a carrier of the brain
Affected Male- XaY Haemophilia (bleeder’s disease)
Unaffected Male- XAY Inherited bleeding disorders where blood doesn’t clot
To find the genotype of father look at the females and properly 
to find mother look at the males Very rare in females
Bleeding episodes may occur spontaneously
Lots of internal bleeding
Nosebleeds take long time to stop, bleeding gums,
skin bruises easily,  pain and stiffness around
joints
Haemophilia A - reduced clotting factor VIII
Haemophilia B - reduced clotting factor IX
X-linked recessive pattern
Mutations of the F8 or F9 gene lead to the production
of an abnormal amount of coagulation factor VIII or IX
or reduce the amount of one of these proteins
The altered or missing protein cannot effectively
participate in the blood clotting process → proper
blood clots cannot form
7.11. Genetic Disorders Down Syndrome
Individual has an extra copy of the 21st chromosome
(3 copies instead of 2)

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Extra genetic material → alters course of Urine turns dark brown or black when exposed to
development air
Low muscle tone, small stature, upward slant to the Black earwax
eyes, single deep crease across the palm Dark sweats stains
Types Blue speckled discoloration of skin particularly
Trisomy 21 (nondisjunction) - results in an embryo around sweat glands
with three copies of chromosome 21 instead of Arthritis
the usual two Autosomal recessive
Accounts for 95% of cases Color blindness
Extra chromosome is replicated in every cell of X-linked recessive
the body
Translocation
4% of cases 8. Evolution
Total number of chromosomes is still 46
An additional full or partial copy of It is the change in the characteristics of a species over
chromosome 21 attaches to another several generations and relies on the process of natural
chromosome, usually chromosome 14 selection.
Mosaicism The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all
1% of cases species are related and gradually change over time.
Mixture of two types of cells - some containing Evolution relies on genetic variation in a population which
46 chromosomes and some containing 47 affects the physical characteristics (phenotype) of an
Ones with 47 contain one extra organism.
chromosome 21 Some of these individuals may have characteristic
Sickle Cell Anemia advantage over other individuals which they can pass on
An inherited form of anemia to their offspring.
Red blood cells become rigid and stockey and are
shaped like crescent moons 8.2. Theories of Evolution
Irregularly shaped cells get stuck in blood vessels 
Slow blood and oxygen flow throughout body Thales - water origin theory - all life originated in the sea
Sickle cells usually die in 10 to 20 days rather than the and arose out of the sea
usual 120 days Greek philosopher
Leads to shortage of RBCs → fatigue due to lack of 640-546 BC
oxygen Aristotle - there has been a natural progression from
Block of blood flow and lead to body pains plants to plant-animals to animals to humans
Painful swelling of hands and feet Greek philosopher
Sickle cells can damage an organ that fights infection Classified animals based on anatomy
and leave the person more vulnerable to infection Purpose: to achieve “The Divine”
Delayed growth due to lack of oxygen and nutrient Ladder of life
supply Carl Linnaeus - organisms can be grouped together
Vision problems if the blood vessels that supply the according to their degree of similarity
eyes are plugged with sickle cells → retina damage Swedish botanist
Caused by mutations in the HBB gene Developed a system for classifying all living things in
Abnormal haemoglobin called haemoglobin S “Systema Naturae”
Causes rigid, non-liquid protein strands to form Based on physical appearance and method of
within the red blood cell reproduction
Distorts RBCs into a sickle shape Georges Louis Leclerc and Comte de Buffon - similar
Autosomal recessive organisms may have a common ancestor, and living
Alkaptonuria things do change over time
HGD (homogentisic dioxygenase) gene provides James Hutton - the natural forces that currently shape the
instructions for making an enzyme called Earth’s surface were operating in the past in much the
homogentisate oxidase same way as they do today
Breaks down homogentisic acid Theory of uniformitarianism
Faulty HGD gene → body can’t produce enough of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck - for a species to survive it must be
homogentisate oxidase → build up of able to adapt to changing environmental conditions
homogentisic acid Evolutionary changes as a result of this
Build up causes bones and cartilage to become Acquired adaptation can be passed from one
discolored and brittle → osteoarthritis generation to the next so species are not static

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First to fully state a theory that involved descent by adaptation to the local environment and available food
modification that is stimulated by the environment.
He was an early proponent of evolution and the fact
that it proceeded in accordance to natural laws. 8.4. Industrial Melanism: The Peppered
Lamarckism is the idea that an organism can pass on
characteristics that it acquired during its lifetime to its Moth 
offspring.
This is also known as the heritability of acquired The Peppered moth was commonly a pale whitish colour
characteristics or soft inheritance. with black spots.
His theory is called the Theory of inheritance of The colouring enabled them to hide from the potential
acquired characters. predators on trees with pale coloured barks
The use and disuse of organs: The organs of the body The rarer dark coloured peppered moths were easily
that are used more and more get well developed seen against the pale bark of trees more easily by
while the organs that are not used, get weakened, predators
smaller and gradually disappear. Due to industrial evolution, air became full of soot. This
Inheritance of acquired characteristics- the characters stained trees and the buildings darker
acquired during the life time of an individual are The lichen died
transmitted to the next generation. Due to this, the lighter moths were seen easily by
Disproved by the rat experiment. They cut off tails for predators.
20 generations and it still appeared The darker were able to camouflage.
Dr.Erasmus Darwin - all warm blooded animals have a As the lighter moths would keep getting eaten the darker
common origin moths grew in population.
Charles Darwin - species evolve and change by a process In the end, the darker moths were more common.
of natural selection
More offspring are produced than can survive 8.5. Adaptive Radiation:
Survival of the fittest
Alfred Wallace - independently proposed a theory of It is also known as the Darwin-Wallace of Natural
natural selection at the same time as Darwin Selection.
Darwin-Wallace theory of natural selection Proposed that populations living in different places could
Gregor Mendel - research into genetic inheritance evolve to different species over time.
provides an insight into the patterns in which heritable For example, the birds on the Galapagos Islands
traits are passed from one generation to the next, developed different shapes of beaks due to the different
including the mixing of maternal and paternal trait prey.
For example, there is environmental isolation, this
8.3. Darwin: Theory of natural selection isolation leads to two different gene pools of the two
populations so they can never interbreed and exchange
There is a struggle for existence because since every genes so they become reproductively isolated. Over time,
organism can reproduce then there is over-population the gene pools become so different structurally even if
and there is a limited quantity for food, thus there is a they meet they can’t reproduce, thus a new species was
struggle for basic necessities and therefore a struggle to born.
exist. This is also called Speciation.
Variations exist within population- The offspring from Homologous Organs: Similar origin and structure but
same parents also differ and show variation. different function. It explains divergent evolution. This
One species can split into two if the two populations means common ancestor but different species.
are living in different places Analogous Organs: Different origin but same function.
Survival of the fittest and Natural selection- of the Explains convergent evolution. This means different
offspring that are produced as a result of the struggle for ancestors but form similar species with similar functions.
existence the offspring with the favourable variations will Vestigial Organs- Organs which had a use but not
survive, this is called selection and since this occurs anymore.
naturally it is called Natural selection. Embryological evidence
Evolution occurs by natural selection acting on chance Early stages: common characteristics
variations present in each population Later stages: more differences
over many generation the species become more and
more different 8.6. Speciation
Physiology and behavior
Eventually become two different species the formation of new and distinct species in the course of
He also proved Adaptive Radiation- this is when a certain evolution 
species evolves into many different species due to the

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It involves reproductive isolation. Natural selection

It is of two types- Allopatric and Sympatric Genetic drift - drastic change in the frequency of
Allopatric is when two groups that have different particular genes and prevention of gene flow between
lands/environment. populations
Sympatric is when two groups have the same Mutations
land/environment. Reproductive isolation - incompatible for
In Allopatric is when you have barrier that is formed, for reproduction
example, on an iceberg there are a species living, if the
iceberg cracks along the middle and the two species are 8.7. Extinction
separated and become reproductively isolated and then
when the iceberg joins again they can’t interbreed and Extinction - when a species stops existing
two new species are formed. Sometimes individuals of a species show a range of
Sympatric is when there is a mutation in the same area variations
and the new organism can’t interbreed and the new Species that are better suited to the environment
species is formed. reproduce a lot
reproductive isolation  Others that aren’t as well suited die
polyploidy is the most common - Where a normal If an entire species fails to adapt to the environment,
individual has two copies of each chromosome if it can’t compete with other species, or if it has a low
(diploidy), these offspring may have four copies birth rate lower than the death rate, it will become
(tetraploidy). A tetraploid individual cannot mate with extinct
a diploid individual, creating reproductive isolation Most species become extinct after 10,000,000 years
Parapatric - populations are separated by an extreme Living fossils - when a species remains genetically
change in habitat unchanged for millions of years
populations may develop very distinct Mass extinction
characteristics/lifestyles Devastating change in the number of species alive
ex; plants that live on boundaries between very [K-T] extinction event - 65 million years ago
distinct climates may flower at different times in Dinosaurs
response to their different environments, making [P-Tr] - 251 million years ago
them unable to interbreed Eradicated 96% of all known species
Peripatric - similar to allopatric but smaller population Comet or asteroid impact
size and genetic drift acts more quickly in small
populations 
Prezygotic Barriers: Temporal, Behaviour and Mechanical.
8.8. Antibiotic Resistance
Temporal: They can live in the same spring but the
During a bacterial infection, the bacteria disrupts the host
breeding takes place in different times. So even if two
cell to multiply → bacterial colony is formed
groups have the ability to interbreed, they can’t.
Mechanical: They live in the same area and they are Antibiotics inhibit growth and kills bacteria/microbes
very similar but can’t interbreed but because their Bactericidal = kills bacteria
sexual parts are in the wrong orientation. Bacteriostatic = inhibits growth of bacteria
behaviour: There are two gene pools that were Antibiotic resistance
separated for a very long time but then are brought Gene mutation
back together, however their mating behaviours have Occurs when the bacteria are no longer affected by
changed so they can’t mate. the antibiotics
Post-Zygote: Zygote mortality, Hybrid Sterility. Flourish
Zygote Mortality is when even though interbreed May confer resistance to plasmids
happens the offspring can’t survive for long time, it Horizontal gene transfer
will die in infancy Competence - taking up extracellular DNA
Hybrid Sterility- When the offspring of the interbreed from its environment
is sterile. Transduction - phage contains DNA that can be
Species can be impacted by more than one type of incorporated into bacteria
isolation Virus latches onto the bacteria and
Isolation itself is not a mechanism for change over time transfers DNA
just reduces gene flow If the virus was antibiotic resistant, the
Genetic drift or natural selection are mechanisms bacteria also becomes antibiotic resistant
Due to mutations, Polyploidy- when the 4n can’t Conjugation 
interbreed with 2n thus new species. Two bacteria have make contact
Factors Plasmid DNA is transferred from one to the
Geographical isolation other → becomes a template to form a

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double stranded DNA Fossils of similar plants and animals and mountains
Both cells have double stranded plasmids with similar rocks were found in South America and
If these strands are antibiotic resistant, Africa
both cells are antibiotic resistant  Mid-atlantic ridge patterns
Indiscriminate usage of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic Convection currents in the mantle of the Earth
resistance  could be responsible for the movement of
This is an example of natural selection and survival of the continents 
fittest Submarine mountain ridge with volcanoes runs
down the center of the Atlantic ocean 
8.9. Evidences for the Theories of Similar patterns of humps and ridges on either
side 
Evolution Found that every half million years, the Earth’s
magnetic field flips 
Sedimentary rocks Seafloor spreading - when two adjacent plates are
Horizontal layers called beds being pulled in opposite directions, magma keeps
Sediments are created by weathering and erosion oozing up through the gaps between them causing
and are layered on top of each other the plates to move further apart
Sedimentary basin forms Magma adds to the size of the plate
Oldest rock is at the bottom of the pile of sediments Spreading center
If you dig through the strata (layers) you can see a Mid-Atlantic ridge - pushing Africa and Europe
timeline of the past away from the Americas
Fossils  Subduction - plates being pushed beneath one
Any preserved remains of an organism or trace of an another
organism and its activity As one plate sinks and is reabsorbed, the other is
Dead organisms must be covered quickly and must pushed up → mountain ranges 
remain relatively undisturbed Convection currents → cause semi molten magma to
Paleontologists - scientists who study fossils move → drag plates along with it
Can be found in sedimentary rocks, peat bogs, amber,
permanently frozen or tar pits
Fossil record - a comprehensive catalogue of all the
8.11. How Old is the Earth
fossils that have been discovered
Lord William Kelvin - used the fact of molten rock beneath
250,000 species
the surface the calculate the age of the earth to be 15-20
Microfossils such as those of pollen grains are
million years
most common  
Now we have evidence that the Earth is around 4.5
Dating fossils and rocks
billion years old
Carbon-14 can be used to find the age of relatively
Nuclear reactor in core
young fossils
Radioactive isotopes in Earth’s core
Depends on the concentration of C-14 left
Half lives are billions of years long
When an organism is alive, the C-12 to C-14 ratio is
Used to be kept hot by the radioactive decay of
the same in both its body and the environment
isotopes with shorter half lives
When it dies, the carbon-14 decays 
Faults - evidence that rocks aren’t strong enough to
However C-14 is only useful up to 50,000 years
withstand all forces
To get around this problem 
Massive blocks of rock pushed together → lots of
Potassium-argon: half life = 100,000 years 
friction → high pressure → rocks snap apart
Uranium-lead: half life = 1,000,000-4,500,000
Energy release causes solid rock to vibrate →
million years
earthquake
Vibrations = seismic waves → transmitted rapidly
8.10. Wegener's Ideas through rocks
Shockwave travels in all directions from the focus
1915 - Alfred Wegener  Max disturbance at epicenter
Theory: over time, continents have drifted apart Tectonic plates - earth’s crust is broken up into plates
creating the continents we have today Over 90% of earthquakes occur at these boundaries
Pangaea = supercontinent  Float on the mantle which consists of magma
Continental drift - the slow movement of continents  Convection currents cause the plates to move
Wegener’s Evidence -  Tsunami - violent push of water
Continents looked like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle that Caused when huge block of seafloor is thrust upwards
could fit together  near or around subduction zones
South America and Africa Lighter plate is pushed up by heavier plate

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Huge forces Tissue cloning - getting a few cells from a desirable plant
Brittle rocks fracture to make a big mass of identical cells, each of which can
Pliable, ductile rocks fold produce a tiny identical plant
When brittle and ductile rocks occur in the same area, Grown in vitro (in glass tubes/petri dishes) using
the ductile rocks may bend or fold over the fault sterile agar jelly that contains plant hormones and
Anticlines = upwards fold nutrients 
Synclines = downwards folds More expensive than cuttings
Monoclines = broad step like folds Used to preserve rare plant species or grow
commercially larger nurseries

9. Biotechnology
9.1. Definition

Use of living systems and organisms to develop/make

useful products Any technological application that uses
biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives
thereof to make/modify products or processes for
specific use

9.2. Cloning Clones are also naturally produce via asexual

reproduction
Cloning - the DNA of one organism is copied exactly into Dolly the Sheep
another organism 1996
Genes are copied within the same species Cell nucleus was removed from an egg cell from a
Types of cloning Scottish Blackface ewe
Embryo cloning/embryo splitting - splitting cells apart Adult cell from the udder of a 6-year old Finn Dorset
from a developing embryo, before they become was cultured and was injected into the egg cell
specialized to produce several embryos Spark of electricity fused the udder cell with the egg
Identical twins are natural clones cytoplasm and stimulated the egg to grow into an
embryo in the womb of a surrogate sheep

Nuclear transfer - transferring a body  cell into an egg and

then stimulating cell division to produce an embryo
Cuttings - taking a small piece of stem or leaf and growing
it in the right conditions to produce anew plant
Cut a branch off and plant it in damp compost
Plant hormones are often used to encourage new
roots to develop
Cutting is covered in a clear plastic bag to keep it
moist and warm

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characteristics in organisms and then cross-breeding

them with similar individuals

Desirable characteristics: disease resistant food crops,

wheat plants that produce a lot of grain, large or unusual
flowers
New varieties may be economically beneficial, provide
more or better quality food, and allow farmers to feed
more people
Takes many generations
Steps
Decide which characteristics to select
Pros of cloning Choose parents that show these characteristics and
Producing new babies for infertile couples breed together
Organ transplants won’t be rejected Choose best offspring with desired characteristics to
Ensure survival of endangered species and bringing
produce the next generation
back extinct animals Repeat the process over many generations
Producing useful proteins in milk to treat diseases
Producing medically useful animals
Producing prize agricultural animals
Pet cloning
Cons of cloning
Many embryos miscarried before Dolly
High embryo wastage
Religious/ethical beliefs that it is wrong to interfere
with nature
Wrong to destroy/tamper with embryos
Reduce genetic variation

Selective Breeding

Selective breeding - modifying gene pools by selecting

favorable characteristics, providing us with improved
crops and livestock
Desirable traits: animals that produce a lot of milk or
Ex: disease resistance or improved milk yield
meat, chickens that lay large eggs, domestic dogs that
Humans have created hundreds of varieties of different
have a gentle nature
species, generally used for food, by selecting desirable
Pros

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Economically beneficial and higher quality food Restriction enzymes are used to isolate the required
Animals can be bred to cause no harm; ex: cattle gene leaving it with sticky ends. Sticky ends are a
without horns short section of unpaired bases
Cons A vector, which is usually a bacterial plasmid or a
Reduced genetic variation → attack of disease/insect virus, is cut by the same restriction enzyme leaving it
→ extreme destruction with corresponding sticky ends
Rare disease genes may be selected as a part of a The vector and the isolated gene are joined together
desired trait → problems with specific organisms by ligase enzyme
May create physical problems in specific organisms; The vector inserts the gene into required cells
ex: overbred dogs The genes are transferred to animal, plant or
microorganism cells, during early development, which
9.3. Genetic Engineering allows them to develop with the desired
characteristics
Genetic engineering/genetic modification - DNA is
modified so a unique set of genes is produced
Genes can be swapped across species
Direct manipulation/modification of DNA so that unique
set of genes is produce
Faster way to modify species by directly transplanting
genes for a desired trait into an organism
Now, we can genetically modify many organisms such as
bacteria or even cows
Major part of Genetic engineering includes moving a
piece of DNA from one genome to the other
To chance the DNA of an organism, the desirable gene
must be located, isolated, copied, and introduced to the
new genome
Big different between genetic engineering and selective
breeding is that with genetic engineering scientists can * reproduction occurs in an incubated fermenter
introduce genes from a completely different species into
the genome of an organism Benefits
These organisms are called transgenics Agriculture - see GMOs
Create insulin which can be used to treat diabetes
Recombinant DNA Technology Sterile insects could be created, such as mosquitoes.
They would breed with fertile mosquitos, but be
Tool kit unable to reproduce. This would reduce the number
Restriction enzyme - found in bacteria and used to of offspring and may help with spread of diseases,
destroy viruses; cut DNA at a particular sequences such as malaria, dengue fever and the Zika virus.
leaving “sticky ends” Risks
Sticky ends - when a staggered cut is made in DNA A gene that benefits one organism may harm another
by a restriction enzyme, the exposed unpaired Not ethical
bases can pair with complementary bases on Genetically engineered crop seeds are usually more
another strand of DNA which has been cut with expensive so people in developing countries can’t
the same restriction enzyme afford them
Exposed ends = sticky ends
DNA ligase - connects pieces of DNA together; can be Genetically Modified Foods
used to “stick” a gene into a vector such as a plasmid
Plasmid - independently replicating circle of DNA GMO - genetically modified organisms
containing a few genes In some countries, vitamin deficiencies are common
Found in bacteria and can be used to carry genes Insert genes that add nutrients into plants such as
into a suitable host bacterium rice so that they have vitamin A, iron, etc…
Vector - something which can carry DNA from one Golden rice - gene produced beta carotene
organism to another (needed in humans to make vitamin A)
Host bacterium - a bacterium which can be modified Can help reduce the occurrence of deficiency diseases
by adding genes using a vector Include those that are resistant to insect attack or are
Allowed to multiply to produce multiple copies herbicide resistant → increased yields
Steps Herbicide resistant crops can tolerate herbicide, but
the weeds can’t so they’re killed 

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Ethics healthy pancreatic cells which can secrete insulin

Health risks
May contain substances which cause allergic 9.5. Organ Printing
reaction in some people
Higher levels of toxins may be found in the food Process where artificial organ can be created using 3d
Long term effects are not known printer/bio printer by utilizing stem cells
Some think it is ethically wrong to create new life Use ink jet needles to deliver cells
forms or to move genes between different species Sticky polymer to form support structure
Pollen produced by the plants could be toxic and Pressurized air
harm insects that transfer it between plants Small electric field is applied that converts the mixture
However, it may help reduce hunger around the into superfine threads with cells trapped inside
world by increasing crop yields Challenges
It’s also faster than selective breeding Selection of correct cells
Transgenic plants Materials to project these onto
Crops are added with herbicide/pesticide resistant Use of factors that help stem cells grow and
gene differentiate in the correct way
98% of soybeans in Argentina are genetically modified Technical challenges related to sensitivities of living
cells
9.4. Stem Cell Research Proper construction of tissue
Method usually utilizes the layer-by-layer method to
Stem cells are the cells of the early embryo from which all create tissue like structures that are later used in medical
the cells in the adult body will develop (ESCs) and tissue engineering fields
They are totipotent (Can differentiate into any specific Steps
cell type) Stem cells from the patient are put in a growth
Other types of stem cells in body: bone medium so that they can multiply
marrow/certain blood cells (ASCs) When enough cells are available, they are put into
Used to replace worn out or faulty cells bioprinter cartridges
These are pluripotent and can only differentiate into Stem cells form “bioink” which, once loaded into
only one type of specialized cell cartridges, can be used in the bioprinting process
Bone marrow transplants - have been in use for over 20 Cartridge is made from a chamber attached to a
years long extrusion nozzle fitted with a syringe
Patient’s bone marrow cells are replaced with those Bioprinter is driven by software that lays down the
from a health, matching donor stem cells in precise patterns
If successful, cells migrate into the patient’s bone Cells can be put down in layers, interspersed with
marrow and produce nex, healthy blood cells to a water-based material called hydrogel, which
replace the old faulty cells forms a temporary mould around the cells
Applications Sticky polymers can also be used to scaffold the
Replacing damaged tissue cells
Screening toxins Scaffolding material is laid down by separate
Development of treatment that allows people nozzles on the bioprinter
paralyzed because of spinal injuries to walk again These sticky polymers are printed through fine
Possibility of growing replacement organs that are inkjet nozzles
matched to the patient Printed tissue is left to grow
Genetic disorders to be studied and new drugs to Printed tissue can be used in transplants or in medical
treat them can be tested research
EMCs are highly controversial View Hodder pg. 293 for diagram
People think it is unethical to use embryonic stem Lab-grown tissues and organs can be made by creating
cells since they can turn into baby artificial scaffolds in the shape of the desired organ and
They think it’s “meddling with nature” then by adding living cells to the scaffold
Others say its unethical to ignore EMCs since research Problem in creating tissue: vascular system - needed to
can help save lives - remove paralysis, regrow provide cells with oxygen and nutrients
amputated limb, etc Recent situations
Heart disease: Adult bone marrow stem cells can First patent related to this technology was filed in '03
be injected into heart arteries and may improve and granted in '06
cardiac function in victims of heart failure/heart '06- world's first artificial bladder was built and
attack transplantation done on 7 patients
Type I diabetes: pancreatic cells do not produce '09- artificial liver was made
insulin, so stem cells may be able to reproduce '11 world's first artificial trachea

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'11 In situ skin bioprinting for burn wound was done Mutations in these genes account for
'15 partnership between organovo and l'oreal for approximately 10% of all inherited breast cancer
commercial production of artificial skin by using cases detected
bioprinting technology Scientists detected BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes by
Why don’t the organs work? studying families where breast cancer was known
Difficult to create blood vessels between tissue layers to have been inherited between individuals
Organs have many specialized functions difficult to They were able to create a pedigree analysis that
replicate showed the close relationship of those affected
Advantages and unaffected within the family
Artificial organ personalized using patient's own cells Illustrates the inheritance pattern of the
No DNA rejection disease to be determined
Eliminate need for immunosuppressant drugs after a This enabled scientists to test DNA from the
regular organ transplant affected and unaffected individuals to identify
Eliminate organ donation differences
No waiting period Now possible to detect the presence of the genes
Disadvantages by having a simple blood test
Printers cost hundreds of thousands of dollars
Possibly more expensive than regular organ DNA Fingerprinting
transplant
Use of stem cells is still controversial Developed by Alec jeffreys in 1984
Cost of using stem cells Method that identifies and individual based on patterns
No success yet formed from variations in genetic coded
Also known as dna profiling, genetic fingerprinting, dna
typing
9.6. Genome Mapping
Minisatellites are short sequences (10-60 base pairs long)
of repetitive DNA that show greater variation from one
Genome - the entire genetic material of an organism
person to the next than other parts of the genome. This
Each diploid cell has one copy of your entire genome
variation is exhibited in the number of repeated units or
Finding exact location of specific gene on a chromosome
‘stutters’ in the minisatellite sequence.
Human Genome Project: mapped out entire sequence of
Humans share about 99.9% of DNA
human dna
Remaining percentage contains around 3 million base
Began in 1990 and completed in 2003
pairs
13 year effort coordinated by
These differences can be compared and used to
Department of Energy (DOE)
help distinguish you from someone else
National Institute of Health (NIH)
Procedure
Human genome consists of 24 chromosomes
Extract DNA from a sample of human material,
Human genome contains over 3 billion nucleotide
usually blood
pairs
Restriction enzymes used to cut the DNA →
Average gene consists of 3000 bases
thousands of pieces of DNA of varying lengths
Sizes of genes vary greatly, with largest known human
Separated according to size by gel electrophoresis
gene encoding dystrophic containing 2.5 million base
DNA was loaded into wells at one end of a porous
pairs
gel, which acted a bit like a sieve
3% of genome encodes amino acid sequences and the
Electric current was applied which pulled the
rest of the genome is junk
negatively-charged DNA through the gel
Functions are unknown for over 50% of the
Shorter pieces move easier and faster; longer
discovered genes
pieces travel slower
Opened up ways which genetic disease can be
Electric current is switched off → DNA pieces are
identified
separated according to size
Ex- CF is on chromosome 7
Smallest DNA molecules were farthest away
Importance
from where the original sample was loaded
Enables us  to search for genes linked to different
onto the gel
types of disease
DNA were transferred or ‘blotted’ out of the fragile gel
Opened up new ways in which genetic diseases could
on to a robust piece of nylon membrane and then
be identified and treated
‘unzipped’ to produce single strands of DNA
Understand inherited disorders and their treatment
Nylon membrane was incubated with radioactive
Trace human migration patterns from the past
probes
Ex: Two examples of these are genes that can
Probes are small fragments of minisatellite DNA
contribute to breast cancer, which are known as
tagged with radioactive phosphorus
BRCA1 and BRCA2

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Probes only attach to the pieces of DNA that they

are complementary to – in this case they attach to
the minisatellites in the genome
Minisatellites that the probes have attached to were
then visualised by exposing the nylon membrane to X-
ray film
When exposed to radioactivity a pattern of more
than 30 dark bands appeared on the film where
the labelled DNA was
This was the DNA fingerprint
To compare two or more different DNA fingerprints
the different DNA samples were run side-by-side on
the same electrophoresis gel

Criminal cases: eliminating suspects

Identifying corpse
Food testing (champagne, horse meat, etc)
Genetics matching for organ or bone marrow donation

10. Habitat Alteration

A HIPPO - Agriculture, Habitat Loss, Invasive Species,
Pollution, Human Population, Overhunting/Over-exploitation

Usually human-induced
With human population on the rise, natural resources
Uses are being put on pressure
Way of telling individuals of same species apart More humans= more needs = more destruction for
DNA sequences are variable and can be used as these items such as wood/water/etc
identifying characteristics If large amount of habitat is destroyed, species may go
DNA fingerprinting has advantages over other sources extinct
of evidence such as fingerprints, blood type, etc Case study: Southeast Asian Rainforests
Much more accurate Indonesian and Malaysian rainforests are being
Good for paternity testing: In the example, first male cleared to create palm oil plantations and harvest
is father since the offspring shares half the genes with wood resources
him Threatens native animals such as orangutan, tiger,
and Asian elephant
European wetlands: over 60% destroyed before 1990, but
still continuing
Ethical issue: since most threatened animals which
are from these wetlands are reptiles/amphibians

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which aren't 'cuddly' or 'cute,' they do not get as much Conversion of land to agricultural land has led to further
support loss of habitat
Smaller amount of people are inclined to protect 40% of Earth’s land surface is used for agriculture
them Deforestation - cutting down of trees for either land
These wetlands have been converted by being clearance or plant based products leads to a loss of
drained for farming, or reclaimed by private owners habitat
Success story: Giant Panda Pollution - can damage ecosystems; landfills, ocean
Giant Pandas have always been threatened by habitat pollution, air pollution, etc… 
loss, almost to extinction at one point Additionally, overhunting can reduce the size of a species’
China took initiative and bought every single Giant population
Panda in the world in efforts to help restore their Animals are hunted for food, medicines, souvenirs,
numbers fashion, etc…
Recovered habitats and helped species come from Exotic pet trade has become rampant cause rich
endangered classification to vulnerable people can’t seem to have basic common sense 
Over hunting of North Atlantic cod in the 60s and 70s
10.2. Biodiversity led to a collapse in fish numbers

The variety of species found in an ecosystem

10.4. Invasive/ Introduced Species
Extinction - when a group of organisms fail to adapt to
the environment and therefore cannot survive
Invasive species is any alien species introduced to a new
Usually a natural process
area (usually because of humans),
The destruction of natural habitats by humans is
Adapted to grow rapidly and take resources from
causing the current rate of species extinction to be
native species
much higher than the natural rate
Often leads to a reduction of the population of the
Measuring biodiversity
endemic species
Genetic biodiversity - relates to the genetic variation
Usually threatens resources and causes damage
of the number and frequency of alleles in a specific
Effects can be drastic
gene
Native plants and animal population decreases
If one population of a species dies out, then the
Other species may flourish to extremely high population
species may lose some genetic diversity
levels thanks to the new species (new species can
Species diversity - number of different species in an
become prey, etc)
ecosystem and the proportion of each species in the
All these things disrupt the whole entire food chain
ecosystem
Case study- dogs
Richness and abundance of species
Introduced to minimize number of rats
Ecosystem diversity - number of distinct ecosystems
Now have taken over the world and have started
in a defined area
world domination are now in excess everywhere
Threats to biodiversity
Zebra mussel
Overexploitation
Introduced accidentally through ballast water of
Overfishing
ocean-going ships
Overharvesting
Now invasive in:
Bottleneck effect - population has been almost wiped
N. America
out by a natural disaster
Great Britain
Surviving population is very small and has lost lots
Italy
of genetic info
Attach themselves to pipes and clog them
Habitat fragmentation - habitat is broken up into
Females reproduce merely 6 weeks after settling
smaller sections
Produce nearly 30k eggs
Can lead to habitat loss, and increased
This means each female produces 1 million eggs every
competition in species as fragments become
year
smaller
Grey squirrel - introduced into the UK from North
Invasive species
America
Competes with native red squirrels
10.3. Habitat Change and Destruction
Has led to such a reduction in red squirrel numbers
that the native red squirrel is now rare
Population growth → need for more resources → habitat
loss
Deforestation, mining, land clearance for housing and 10.5. Pollution
infrastructure

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Introduction of contaminants into a natural environment Greenhouse Effect

that causes:
Instability Process by which atmosphere gases absorb heat energy
Disorder from the sun and prevent heat from leaving our
Harm atmosphere
Discomfort to the ecosystem Greenhouse gases trap heat energy and keep it close to
Takes the form of: earth
Chemical substances 3 main greenhouse gases
Noise CO2
Heat Methane
Light Water vapor
3 actors determine the severity  of a pollutant Process
Its chemical nature Sun's heat energy passes through atmosphere
Concentration 26% is reflected/scattered
Persistence 19% is absorbed by clouds/gases/ particles
Water pollution 4% reflected to space
The presence of pollutants in water 51% reaches surface
Sewage Possible Causes
Dissolved metals Deforestation/agriculture
Waste from farms/factories Trees play an important role in maintaining CO2
Crude oil spilled from shipwrecked tankers levels on earth, and without them CO2 levels rise
3 main substances that pollute water are Deforestation means earth is losing trees= more
Nitrites from fertilizers CO2
Sewage Agricultural growth of farm animals (mostly cows)
Detergents means more methane on Earth
Pollution causes harm to biotic factors such as plants Burning of fossil fuels/gasoline/oils
and animals, and in turn- humans Releases greenhouse gases into the air
Can cause health issues such as cancer CFCs
Main sources of water pollution is from: CFCs are used for our plastic bags and other
Sewage plastic materials which we produce in millions
Farms every day
Factories When we throw them away we burn these plastics,
100k marine animals and 2 million seabirds die every releasing CFCs into the air
year after ingesting or getting trapped by plastic Population growth
debris More population = more needs = more
Case Study: Laysan Island deforestation/burning of fossil fuels/ more
Large bird rookery and guano mining agriculture
In 1857, reported 800k birds Greenhouse effect is good, as it keeps Earth at a good
Thanks to pollution, plastic and other debris is temperature for us to survive, but in excess, it is leading
everywhere, threatening native wildlife, especially to global warming and thus, climate change
seabirds
Air pollution Global Warming
Harmful gases and tiny particles (like carbon
monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and Sulphur dioxide) Increase in average global temperatures
pollute the air, causing its quality to decrease and Caused by increase in amount of greenhouse gases in
become harmful, especially to humans atmosphere
Causes funny cough, asthma, and burning eyes Consequences
Big 6 Air Pollutants Melting ice caps: losing glaciers and ice caps- meaning
Carbon dioxide loss of habitat for native species such as polar
Carbon monoxide bears/penguins
Sulfur oxide Many species adapted to a certain temperature are
Hydrocarbons (benzene, terpene, etc) unable to survive in new, warmer temperature
Particulates On the other hand some species are flourishing in the
Noise Pollution new temperature, disrupting the food chain as there
Harmful- often human caused- noise in environment, is now an excess of one species
directly affecting animals and sometimes older
humans Glacial/Interglacial Cycles
Ex. fireworks can be extremely traumatizing for dogs

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Large continental ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere Destroy ozone molecules → depletion of the
have grown and retreated many times in the past ozone layer
Times with large ice sheets = glacial periods (ice ages) Ozone holes let harmful UV radiation in → add
Times without large ice sheets = interglacial periods to the problems of the greenhouse effect and
Most recent glacial period occurred between about 120k global warming
and 11k years ago CO2 → rising temperatures
Since then, Earth has been in an interglacial period knows Deforestation → fewer trees to absorb carbon dioxide
an Holocene Forests and bushland act as carbon sinks
Glacial periods are colder, dustier, and generally drier Clearing vegetation for farming, urban
than interglacial periods development, infrastructure, timber and tree
These glacial/interglacial cycles are apparent in many products, etc…
marine and terrestrial paleoclimate records from around When vegetation is burnt, the stored carbon in
the world released back into the atmosphere
The ultimate pacing of these glacial cycles is statistically Atom bomb testing
linked to cyclic changes in the orbital parameters of Earth, Natural
which characteristic frequencies of roughly 100, 41, and Solar irradiance
23 thousand years Little ice age between 1650 and 1850 - Greenland
was largely cut off by ice from 1410 to the 1720s
Carbon Footprint and glaciers advanced in the Alps
However, there is limited evidence because it has
Defined as total set of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions been seen that the upper layers of the
caused by an organization, event, product, or person atmosphere are actually cooling while the lower
Extremely powerful tool to understand the impact of layers are warming
personal behavior on global warming Volcanic eruptions
Main effects Gas and dust particles during eruptions
Climate change: effect of large carbon footprint- from These particles can block sunlight and cool
1990-2004, carbon emissions increased by 31%; by parts of the earth
2008, emissions had contributed to a 35% increase in Sulphur dioxide - haze of tiny droplets → reflects
radiative warming (or a shift in Earth's energy balance incoming solar radiation → cooling of surface
towards warming) Greenhouse gases - water vapor and CO2
Depletion of resources: Large carbon footprints When there was intense volcanism in history,
deplete resource on large and small scales, from a the amount of CO2 was enough to cause
country's deforestation activities to one's home's significant global warming
increased use of air conditioning Milankovitch Cycles - variations in the earth’s
eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession
10.6. Causes of Climate Change Create alterations in seasonality of solar radiation
reaching the Earth’s surface
Human causes Directly influence climate system → impact the
The greenhouse effect advance and retreat of Earth’s glaciers
Greenhouses gases are produced naturally and Eccentricity - the shape of the Earth’s orbit around
trap heat in the atmosphere like a blanket the Sun
Water vapor accounts for 98% of the natural Ranges more or less elliptically (0-5%) every
greenhouse effect 100,000 years
Enhanced greenhouse effect → global warming Changes the distance of short wave radiation
CO2, methane, fluorocarbons from the Sun
Burning of fossil fuels (industry, cars, homes) Prominent changes in the Earth’s climate and
Nitrous oxide - produced by soil cultivation glacial regimes
practices like commercial and organic fertilizers, Axial tilt - inclination of Earth’s axis in relation to its plane
fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production and of orbit around the Sun
biomass burning Periodicity of 41,000 years from 21.5 to 24.5 degrees
Methane - decomposition of waste in landfills, Precession - Earth’s slow wobble as it spins on its axis
agriculture, manure, livestock Wobbles from pointing at Polaris to Vega
More solar radiation is absorbed by the Periodicity of 23,000 years
greenhouse gases → heat is trapped Significant alterations → seasonal contrasts
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) El Nino Southern Oscillation Cycle (ENSO)
Found in aerosols, hairspray, fridges and foam a climate cycle in the Pacific Ocean with a global
plastics impact on weather patterns
Ozone layer keeps harmful UV rays out

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ocean temperatures and rainfall from storms veer to Crops such as oranges, grapes and peaches can be grown
the east in the UK
La Nina - waters of the tropical eastern pacific are Food insecurity
colder than normal and trade winds blow more Changes in rainfall patterns → impact on global water
strongly than usual supplies
During an El Nino → trade winds weaken → oceans → Impact of food production → food insecurity
warm → warm waters release a lot of energy into Random weather events and disasters wipe out crops
atmosphere → weather changes all over the planet Unsuitable climate
Melting permafrost → releasing large quantities of Unpredictable climate
methane Cropping seasons
Migration
10.7. Impacts of Climate Change Areas suffering drought
In 2015, 19 million people were internally displaced
Global Warming because of natural disaster
The Greenhouse Effect Bangladesh
Greenhouse gases absorb more solar radiation that is 35 million live in the coastal region
reflected back from the surface, keeping heat trapped Prone to natural disasters
in the atmosphere A sea level rise of 1 m could endanger the
More frequent and severe weather conditions and mangroves in the region
changes in weather patterns 15 million would lose homes and be forced to
High temp → disasters migrate
Storms, heat waves, floods, droughts, etc… Flooding from sea → increase salinity of soil and
2015 - 10 climatic disasters in the US that caused groundwater
$1 billion in losses Spring 2016: Cyclone Roanu
Average annually for 1980 to 2015 was $5.2 Entire villages were destroyed and people left
billion for all disasters combined in the US without access to food or water
Jeopardize access to clean drinking water, out of August and September 2014: flooding of the
control wildfires, and result in dust storms, extreme Brahmaputra
heat and flash flood, hazardous material spills, Displaced 325,000
property damage Rice harvest was destroyed
More warmth + wetness → more waterborne illnesses Agricultural employment declined
Higher death rates and health risks due to diseases Food insecurity
Heat exhaustion, waterborne illness, heat stroke, Migration to urban areas due to struggle to
cardiovascular disease, etc… maintain livelihood
Extreme heat in areas where people aren’t used to it East Coast US
Polluted, dirtier air Sea levels on the east coast are rising more than
Warm temp → more ground level ozone world average
Created when pollution from cars and factories Flood hazards
reacts with sunlight and heat 0.9 meter rise by 2100 could expose 4.2 million
More airborne pollen → more allergies and people to flooding and 1.8 meters could affect
hayfever 13.1 million
Loss of habitat and more wildlife extinction More flooding in general
Land, freshwater, and ocean species are shifting to People are moving towards the inland to avoid
cooler climates or higher altitudes in attempt to hurricanes, flooding and general unfavorable
escape global warming climatic conditions
Still face increased extinction risk Deficit in workforce
Vertebrae species are disappearing 114 times faster
than they should be 10.8. Controlling Climate Change
More acidic oceans
Absorption of excess emissions Sustainability - avoidance of the depletion of natural
Threat to aquatic life → CaCO3 shells or skeletons like resources in order to maintain ecological balance
mollusks, crabs and corals Meeting present needs without compromising the
Impact on shellfisheries → economic risks ability of future generations to meet their needs
Higher sea levels Mitigation - reducing climate change
Glaciers and ice sheets Adaptation - adapting to life in a changing climate
Threatening coastal systems and low lying areas Management
NYC, LA, Miami, Mumbai, Sydney and Rio International agreements, carbon tax and trading,
Changes in precipitation patterns alternative energy

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Change lifestyle: food, clothing, energy… Results from these FACE experiments provide best
Mitigation estimate about how plants and ecosystems will respond
Carbon tax - pay a fee for every ton of greenhouse in a future high CO2 world
gases emitted Duke Forest FACE Experiment - 8 years; examine the
Carbon credits and trading response of a temperate coniferous forest to high, future
London Congestion Charge level of atmospheric CO2
Cap and trade - permits to pollute above certain level Photosynthetic rates by canopy foliage increased up
are sold on the free market, any organization that is to 50% over controls
under allocation can make profit by selling the extra Biomass increment increased by 27% over that in
permits control plots
Individual lifestyle changes Higher growth and respiration of roots
Geoengineering and reducing emissions Increase of forest floor accumulation and literfall
CO2 reduction by extracting GHGs from the
atmosphere El Nino
Carbon capture - removal of CO2 from waste gases
from power stations and storing it in old oil and gas Means little boy/ Christ Child in Spanish
fields or coal mines underground  Originally recognized by fisherman off the coast of South
Reduced intensive livestock farming America in the 1600s, with appearance of unusually warm
Reduce chemical fertilizer use water in Pacific Ocean
Adaptation Name was chosen based on time of year (around
Improved air circulation methods and building design December) during which these warm waters events
Reduce use of fuels for the heating of homes to tended to occur
minimum levels by economical designs of housing El Nino refers to the large scale ocean atmosphere
and reduce use of fuels in more efficient transport climate interaction linked to a periodic warming in sea
systems surface temperatures across the central and east central
Monitoring control and spread of disease Equatorial Pacific
Improved sea defenses or managed retreat from low El Nino Southern Oscillation Cycle (ENSO)
lying coastal areas A climate cycle in the Pacific Ocean with a global
Protecting carbon sinks and fuel-stocks impact on weather patterns 
Using biomass and other alternative sources of energy Ocean temperatures and rainfall from storms veer to
such as nuclear power the east
Wave energy, wind power La Nina - waters of the tropical eastern pacific are
Afforestation and stopping deforestation colder than normal and trade winds blow more
strongly than usual
10.9. FACE - Free-air Carbon dioxide Enrichment - During an El Nino → trade winds weaken → oceans
Trials warm → warm waters release a lot of energy into
atmosphere → weather changes all over the planet
A FACE plot is circular and surrounded by a ring of pipes El Nino presents process of upwelling -movement of cold-
that release carbon dioxide enriched air, at vertical nutrient rich water to the surface- off the coast of Peru,
intervals just above the ground to just above the top of Ecuador, and Chile
the plant canopy. Forces fish that normal thrive in that region to
Wind direction, velocity and CO2 are measured at the relocate somewhere to find food
center of each plot Birds that feed on these fish die off
This information is used by computer-controlled system Can have devastating impact on local economies
to adjust CO2 flow rate and maintain the target amount Can also cause far-reaching weather events as well
of CO2 Drought and heat waves across Australia, Indonesia,
Only pipes on upwind side release CO2, unless wind and Philippines
velocity is very low, at that time CO2 is released Reduction in annual monsoons in India
alternately from adjacent release points Torrential rainfall in central/south America
For vegetation of low stature only 1 or 2 vertical release Heavy winter snows and floods in southern USA
points are necessary, whereas for tall vegetation several All of these affect water resources and food supply
vertical release points are needed to enrich the whole Occurs every 3 - 8 years and usually lasts around a year
canopy Scientists do not know why the pressure changes causing
FACE was developed as a means to grow plants in the winds to shift
field at controlled elevation of CO2 under fully open air Warm water arrives at south America around Christmas-
conditions, as opposed to greenhouses where the hence the name El Nino
atmosphere is completely controlled
10.10. Overexploitation

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Extreme use of some important areas like Apo Islands - Philippines

wetlands/forests for resources in damaging manner
Forests One of the most important fisheries in the world
Deforestation Fishers used dynamite and cyanide fishing methods
Depletion of habitat These methods had massive consequences on the
Global warming ecosystem
Industries that benefit: mining, lumber/timber, Killed local populations
agriculture Soon there was very little diversity and very few fish to
Loud noises also scare away species capture
Rainforests were once 14% of land surface; now This was damaging to local economy
6% Local fishers started to take action against the
Overexploitation deterioration of the marine life
Clearing land/trees Local volunteers formed a marine guard to enforce rules
Poaching and hunting against modern fishing methods
Mining of oil, gold and iron Muro-ami method: rocks are pounded against corals
Have allowed for the discover of many medicines to scare fishes and "herd" them in a certain direction
Case study: Wetlands in order to trap them
Most people destroy them for drinking water Dynamite fishing: illegal, but nobody enforced these
Resource gets destructed, and can lead to a species rules so fishers illegally used left over WWII dynamite
diminishing to capture the fish
Ex. Nylon mesh nets: if left behind in the water, many
Wild medicinal plants animals get trapped and starve in it (basically litter
Grazing pastures inside the ocean)
Fish stocks Fishers had to use traditional fishing methods instead,
Forests which were much less harsh on the ecosystem
Water aquifers Small paddle canoes
Causes Gill nets
Rich countries over consuming Hook and lines
Lack of incentives to conserve such as environmental Conventional bamboo fish traps
taxes Made the islands into a marine sanctuary, and opened it
Economic growth causes environmental degradation, for tourism
However, lowering economic growth in rich Used money generated from tourism to help preserve
countries will lower it in poor countries the island
Increase in human population number Within 10 years, immense diversity and growth returned
Case study: Passenger Pigeon to the island
Flocking bird found in N. America Now around 650 species of fish thrive there (and it is
Estimates suggest that there was at least 3 billion surprising, as the region is very small and shallow)
individuals 400 coral species originated in this time period within
Birds roosted together making them easy target the sanctuary
Hunters came up with several ingenious ways to
killing the birds 10.11. Eutrophication
Suffocation by burning grass
Fed alcohol soaked grain Pollutants coming from land is the usual cause for
Beaten down with long sticks eutrophication, the process where water bodies receive
Netted and trapped using decoy excess amounts of nutrients which results in excessive
Last one was seen in 1900 in Ohio plant growth and algal bloom
Case Study: Fishing industry Causes
Commercial fishing fleets exceed the ecological limit Overuse of fertilizers can pollute freshwater resources
Caused by greed, lack of data on actual fish stocks, Nitrate and phosphate fertilizers from surrounding
and lack of concern about the environment farmland can be washed into the water bodies
Out of the 21k species of fish only 9k are actual used Increased nitrogen and phosphorus in the water bodies
by humans leads to increased algal growth (algal bloom) - nitrogen is
22 species are harvested in excess of 100k tons per used by the algae to make protein, and phosphorous is
year needed to make cell membrane, DNA and other
In the Great Lakes in N. America there has been a molecules of life
decline in fish numbers and the lake trout and Atlantic Algal Bloom
Salmon are extinct in Lake Ontario Can block sunlight and prevent underwater
photosynthesis and causes them to die

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Algae also die - build up of dead organic matter on the

bottom of the lake
Bacteria builds up to feed on dead matter - they need
oxygen to respire and so oxygen levels in the lake
decrease
Shellfish may feed on harmful algae, and once we
ingest the shellfish we also can get illness and
possibly death
lack of oxygen means that animals in the lake die
Red Tides (Harmful algal blooms)
Harmful algal bloods can be colorful (red, green,
brown, orange, or sometimes colorless)
can discolor coastal waters
may deplete oxygen 
may release toxins that may cause illness in
humans and other animals
Have no relation to actual ocean tides
Many different species and organisms can cause this
(not only caused by human-induced eutrophication

factors: warm ocean surface temps, low salinity,

high nutrient content, calm seas, and rain followed
by sunny days during the summer months
tracking and monitoring efforts are helping scientists
better understand red tides
Global warming is allowing more species of algae to
create algae blooms
Changes in local ecosystems may allow exotic species to
thrive if introduced
Most common HAB- cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
Human harm
Ingesting shellfish which have ingested HABs can
cause Paralytic shellfish poisoning
Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning
Ciguatera fish poisoning
Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by
Acid Rain lightning strike/ sulphur dioxide by volcanic eruptions
Impact
Rainfall made by acidic atmospheric pollution causes Contribute to heart/lung problems such as asthma
environmental harm and bronchitis
It possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH) Can lead to loss of fish in acid sensitive lakes/streams
Can have harmful effect on plants, aquatic animals, and Eliminates insect life and some fish species (brook
infrastructure trout and creeks)
Caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen pH lower than 5 kills most fish eggs and even lower
oxides which react with water molecules in the can kill adult fish
atmosphere to produce acid Chronic acidification can reduce important nutrient
levels such as calcium which can weaken other fish
and plants
May remove soil nutrients such as calcium and
magnesium from soils in high elevation forests
Oceans
Oceans absorb ¼ of the CO2 that is released into the
atmosphere every year
Helps reduce the impacts of global warming, but
also leads to ocean acidification

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3 Rs
Regulating and reducing pollutants
Setting and imposing standards
Introducing measures for extracting the pollutant
from waste emissions
Cleaning up pollutants and restoring ecosystems
Extracting and removing pollutants from the
ecosystem 
Replanting and restocking with animal populations

Carbonic acid is formed and hydrogen ions are released

10.12. Sustainable Development
→ decrease in pH → more acidic oceans
Maintenance of the delicate balance between the human
Hydrogen ions combine with carbonate ions →
need to improve lifestyles and feeling of well-being on
bicarbonate
one hand, and preserving natural resources and
This lowers the carbonate ion concentration
ecosystems, which we depend on
This is a problem for marine calcifiers (corals,
Aim
crustaceans, and mollusks) who need carbonate ions
Define viable schemes combining economic, social,
to build their shells and skeletons
and environmental aspects of human activity
If ocean acidification persists, some organisms may no
Constant tussle between the planet, people, and
longer be able to produce and maintain their shells
profit
Pollutants from acidic fertilizers and industries also
Importance
contribute to this problem
Provides basic human needs
Prevention
Rising population will also make use of the bare
Vehicle emission can be controlled
essentials of life such as food, water, and shelter
Fluidized bed combustion also reduces about of sulfur
Agricultural necessity
emitted by power reduction
Agriculture must catch up with growing population
Wet scrubber is a reaction tower equipped with a fan
Accommodate city development (urbanization)
that extracts hot smoke stack gases from a power
As population rises, cities need to become larger
plant into the tower
Control climate change
Through sustainable development, global warming
Salmon Farming and the Infectious Salmon
can be partially remedied
Anaemia (ISA) Virus Would mandate lower usage of fossil fuels, an
unsustainable energy source
Discovered in Norway in 1984
Provide financial stability
Lead to the destruction of many salmon farms
Can produce more financially sustainable
Has been reported in freshwater farms, but generally
economies worldwide
occurs in hatcheries which use part sea water
Sustain biodiversity
Mostly in sea water
Detected in wild fish
Cases of clinical disease only in farm fish 10.13. Conservation
Control
Compulsory slaughter and disinfection of infected "Striving to save what we have"
farms Slows down rate of extinction caused by
Strict movement controls on suspect farms unsustainable exploitation of natural resources
Placing farms in the vicinity of an outbreak under Aims to maintain interaction between various species
surveillance Protect/preserve ecosystems
Cause - orthomyxovirus Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs): international
Effects - severe anaemia, hemorrhaging and necrosis agreements- UNEP
Pale gilles, distended abdomen Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs): not
run/influenced by government- Greenpeace, World Wide
Combating Pollution Fund for Nature (WWF)
Role of organizations
Altering human activity through education, incentives and work together to preserve and restore ecosystems
penalties and biodiversity
Development of alternative technologies ensure that human activities are run on a more
Adoption of alternative lifestyles ex: zero waste sustainable basis
lifestyle International Conventions

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UN conference on the human environment- discussed Monitoring emission targets

global environment and development Registry systems and an international transaction log
Earth summit in Rio De Janeiro- sustainable verify that transactions are consistent with the rules
development of Earth's resource of the Protocol
Agenda 21 - blueprint for action to achieve Reporting annual emission inventories and national
sustainable development worldwide, to be reports at regular intervals
implemented at a local level Compliance system ensures that parties are meeting
Aims their commitments and assists if needed
Collecting information about conservation Assists countries in adapting to the adverse effects of
areas climate change → technology
Persuading politicians to implement Adaptation fund
sustainable development
Raising environmental awareness through Paris Agreement
publications, local activities, education, TV and
radio Conference of the Parties 21; Paris, December 12, 2015
Working with other NGOs Entered force on November 4, 2016
Sharing information, and best practices; Aim: to strengthen the global response to the threat of
creating networks; sharing resources climate change by keeping a global temperature rise
UN convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) below 2 degrees C above pre-industrial  levels and to limit
the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees C
Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Increase ability of countries to deal with climate
Convention on Climate Change change
Appropriate mobilization of financial resources and
Adopted in Kyoto Japan on December 11, 1997 technology frameworks; enhanced transparency
Entered force on February 16, 2005 Nationally determined contributions
International treaty aimed to reduce the emission of Global stocktake every 5 years to track progress
gases that contribute to global warming such as CO2, Countries will have to disclose an inventory of their
CH4, N20 (nitrous oxide), perfluorocarbons. emissions
hydrofluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride Developed countries are need to give information
Commits its parties by setting internationally binding about the finance they are mobilizing
emission reduction targets Key features
150 years of industrial activity → developed countries are Long term temperature goal
primarily responsible for GHG emissions → heavier Global peaking of GHGs
burden on developed nations under the “common but Conserved sinks and reservoirs of GHGs
differentiated responsibilities” Voluntary cooperation
Marrakesh Accords: Conference of the Parties 7 - Adaptation
Marrakesh, Morocco, 2001 Minimizing loss and damage due to the negative
Rules for implementation of the Protocol effects of climate change
First commitment period was 2008 to 2012 Climate change education
27 industrialized countries and the European Transparency
Community committed to reduce GHG emissions Global stocktake
to an average of 5% against 1990 levels Developed nations will help developing nations with the
Second commitment period (2013-2020) - committed costs of going green and coping with the effects of
to reduce GHG emissions to an average of 18% below climate change
1990 levels Obliged to mobilise $100 billion per year
Kyoto Mechanisms
Clean Development Mechanism - allows a country In-situ Conservation
with an emission reduction/limitation commitment to
implement an emission reduction project in The conservation of species in their natural habitat
developing countries Endangered species are conserved in their natural habitat
Joint implementation - allows a country with an The animals are not the only things being protected, but
emission reduction or limitation commitment to earn also the habitat and ecosystem
emission reduction units from an emission reduction Works within the boundaries of conservation
or removal project in another party each equivalent to areas/nature reserves
one tonne of CO2 Pros
Can conserve whole ecosystems
Emissions trading - allows countries that have
emission units to spare, to sell this excess capacity to Allow research and education
countries that are over their targets Preserve many habitats and other species

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Prevent hunting and other human disturbance Heterotrophs - dependent for food
Cons (secondary/tertiary/quaternary consumers)
Can be extremely expensive Note that quaternary consumer is considered apex
Difficult to manage predator
Subject to outside forces that are difficult to control Producers/Autotrophs - produce own food by harnessing
Difficult to establish in the first place due to political energy from surroundings
issues/vested interests Saprotrophs - feeds on decaying matter
(decomposer/scavengers/detritivores/me)
Ex-situ Conservation Producers and prey provide a source of food and energy,
whereas predators keep population size in balance
Preservation of species outside of their habitats This interaction makes up a food chain or a food web
Usually takes place in zoos which carry out captive
breeding and reintroduction programs
Botanic gardens also come under Ex-situ conservation
where both living collections and seed banks are used to
store genetic diversity
Pros
Allow controlled breeding and maintenance of genetic
diversity
Allows research
Allows chance to educate others
Effective for protection for individuals/species
More useful for extremely endangered species which
have populations in the 100s
Cons
Have historically preferred popular animals, many of
them which aren't even at risk
Reintroduction to wild can be very tough
Ex-situ conservation does not preserve natural habitat Food Chains
\n
Chemosynthesis - chemosynthetic microbes convert
inorganic molecules and heat energy from geothermal
11. Interactions Between vents that consumers cannot use into forms of energy
that consumers can use
Organisms and the Happens deep below the surface of the ocean where
photosynthesis cannot take place
Environment Who eats what
Usually around 4 levels
11.1. Energy Transfer Biological magnification - humans are at the top level of
the food chain, hence the maximum concentration of
chemicals get accumulated in out bodies
Vocabulary
Producers - produce food and are the start of the web
Species - a group of closely related organisms that are Primary consumers - animals that eat the plants
very similar to each other and are usually capable of Control population size of producers
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring Ensures that producers have sufficient access to
Habitat - a place where an organism or a community of sunlight, water, space and other resources
organisms lives, including all living and nonliving factors Ensures that all producers can survive, not just the
or conditions of the surrounding environment ones that can grow very tall
Allows for a variety of food options for primary
Ecosystem - a system that includes all living organisms
consumers
(biotic factors) in an area as well as its physical
environment (abiotic factors) functioning together as a Secondary consumers - animals that eat the primary
unit consumers
Interdependence - the mutual dependence between Tertiary consumers - animals that eat the secondary
consumers
entities
Quaternary consumers - animals that eat the tertiary
Trophic Levels consumers
All levels of consumers keep the level below them in
check to maintain balance and a diverse ecosystem

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When the ecosystem is not diverse, it can lead to one

species dominating and wiping out the other species
Herbivores, omnivores, carnivores
Trophic levels
Plants are trophic level 1
Trophic level 2 can be herbivores or omnivores
Trophic level 3 and higher can be carnivores or
omnivores
Decomposers - keep the number of dead plants and
animals under control by breaking down dead organisms
Saprotrophs - fungi and bacteria; cannot be seen
Break down dead plant and animal tissue through
the process of chemical digestion
Ecological Pyramids
Do not “eat” but do use the products of chemical
digestion as nutrients to perform life functions 3 types
Turn organic wastes into organic materials such as Energy
nutrient-rich soil Biomass
Detritivores - worms, maggots; eat dead plants and Population
animals that died or natural causes or that were
Energy: indicates how much energy is present in each
hunted by predators
trophic level
Scavengers - vultures and hyenas; eat dead plants and
Always decreases as you go up the levels because
animals that died or natural causes or that were energy is lost as metabolic heat 
hunted by predators

Biomass: amount of dry matter present in each level

Always decreases as you go up as only energy stored
11.2. Yellowstone National Park Food as tissue is transferred
Web
Mountains, grasslands and forests
Fauna: deer, mice, wolves, grizzly bears, elk and bison;
birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects
Flora: pine trees, aspen trees, sagebrush and a variety of
grasses and wildflowers

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Opposite is true for some underwater ecosystems 11.3. Cycles

Amount of biomass increases as you move up the
levels (inverted pyramid Water Cycle

Evaporation:
Water from oceans and other water bodies
evaporates
Changes to a gaseous state as part of the atmosphere
Condensation
The water vapor within the atmosphere condenses
into clouds under the right conditions
Precipitation
The clouds gather more and more water molecules
until it finally falls down to the earth
Either the liquid or solid state (rain, snow, or hail)
Transpiration
The water gets absorbed by the soil and taken in by
plants
They release water vapor through transpiration

Carbon Cycle

Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air for

photosynthesis
The carbon becomes a part of the plant
once the plant dies, the carbon becomes a part of the soil
Population pyramid Through respiration, both plants and animals release
Decreases as you go up carbon dioxide back into the air

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Plants absorb these various forms of nitrogen from

the soil
Used for creation of plant/ animal proteins
Ammonification
When the organism dies/ emits wastes, the nitrogen
re enters the soil
Is broken down by more microorganisms
(decomposers), and produce ammonia
Denitrification
Nitrogen returns to the atmosphere where NO3 is
converted to N2
occurs mostly in wet soils where the water makes it
tough for organisms to get oxygen
Denitrifying bacteria will convert the NO3 to N2 to get
bacteria

Phosphorus Cycle

Weathering
Phosphorus found in rocks is extracted through
weathering by air or water
Eventually becomes a part of the soil
Absorption
Plants, fungi, and microorganisms absorb phosphorus
from the soil
Animals also absorb the phosphorus by eating these
plants
Decomposition
All organisms which have absorbed phosphorus die
Through decomposition return back to the soil 11.4. Keystone Species/ Paine
Experiment
Species which is necessary for food chain - the health,
balance, and diversity of an ecosystem depend on the
keystone species
they are not always top predators
ex: beavers in wetlands, prairie dogs in grasslands,
grey wolves in Yellowstone
Chain would self destruct without it
Case study: Pisaster Ochraceus (a type of starfish) in
rocky shoreline water ecosystem
When pisaster is gone, its prey snails, mussels, and
barnacles increase in population 
in the area of the shoreline next to the removal
site, he left the ecosystem in its original state as a
control group, with the Piaster still present
kept the shoreline Piaster free for 10 years
Now these prey feed on more phytoplankton algae
Nitrogen Cycle The phytoplankton and algae are unable to grow and
are eliminated from ecosystem
Nitrogen fixation
Now mussels, snails and barnacles have no food and
Atmospheric N2 is taken into the soil by precipitation
they die too
After it is in soil/ surface water, it changes into NH4
Paine did all this to understand the role of different
thanks to microorganisms such as anaerobic bacteria
species within a food chain, and like that, discovered the
and algae (rhizobian)
concept of keystone species
Nitrification
Showed that the removal of a top predator can lead
Bacteria converts NH4 into NO2 and then NO3
to the imbalance and destruction of an ecosystem
Assimilation

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Predator/prey relationship Both species benefit; cannot live without each

Predators hunt or feed on other animals other cause they’re dramatic and clingy 
The animals that are eaten by the predators are called Birds eating excess food on crocodile teeth
prey Crocodile gets teeth cleaning
Bird gets food
11.5. Competition Commensalism (+,0)
One species benefits while the other in completely
Among same species is intraspecific competition unaffected
Between different species in interspecific competition Creepers growing on larger tree
Ex: Larger tree is unaffected
Predation - predators eating prey Creeper get a way to grow
Herbivory - animals eating plants
Symbiosis - when two species live together/interact Predation vs Parasitism
closely
Parasitism Predation Parasitism
Mutualism May have several types of Very specific
Commensalism preyLacks metabolic relationshipMetabolically
Interspecific interaction can affect survival/reproduction dependence on the depends on the host
of species, so effects are either +, - , or 0 preyUsually larger and organismSmaller than
stronger than the preyActive hostGenerally passive in
Interspecific Competition effort requiredImmediately progressionDoesn’t
kills preyLife cycles of immediately kill hostRequires
Competition (-,-) predator and prey are host to complete life cycleEx:
Two or more species compete for a resource that is independent of each otherEx: lice on humans, tapeworms
short in supply lion and zebra, bear and fish in cows
Competitive exclusion principle states that two
species cannot coexist in same community if their Relationships Within a Species
niches (ecological role)  is identical
Predation (+,-) Territoriality - the methods by which an animal or group
One species (predator) kills and eats prey of animals protects its territory from incursions by other
Predator is benefitted of its species
Prey is at disadvantage Boundaries may be marked by sounds such as bird
This relationship led to more diversity in adaptation song, or by scents such as pheromones secreted by
(mimicry, camouflage, etc) the skin glands of animals
Herbivory (+,-) Ex: wolf packs maintain territories in which they hunt
Same as predation and live
Allows for plants to have adaptations against being Group defence - living in groups for safety and to defend
eaten against predators
Herbivores have adaptations to eat plants Have collective senses - many eyes, ears, noses, etc… 
Symbiosis: individuals of 2 or more species live in close Group of animals feeling from a predator can create
contact with each other - 3 main types: confusion → harder to catch
Parasitism (+,-) Ex: herd of zebras running - you can’t tell where
Parasite derives its nourishment from host one zebra ends and where another begins
species, which is harmed, weakened and Sexual conflict - conflict that exists as a result of the
sometimes killed divergent evolutionary interests of males and females
Parasites usually don’t kill host Genes may be expressed in both males and females
Parasites are also usually much smaller than host that may be beneficial to only one sex → sex-limited
Lice, hookworms, etc gene expression
Some good parasites - Case Study: Worm therapy
Worm like parasites (Helminths) are injected
into body and they suck blood
Supposedly helps with autoimmune ailments,
inflammatory bowel disease, and hay fever
In the future, people will probably use genetic
engineering to get molecules/genes from these
worms instead of injecting themselves with live
worms
Mutualism (+,+)

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More growth in LEDCs

Less chance of survival → women have more children
Agricultural families → more kids = more labor
Lack of contraception, education, and medical
services also leads to increased birth rates
More population = more pressure on resources
MEDCs use more resources than LEDCs even though
they have less population growth
Population growth limits
Low food supply
Lack of space
Light
Water
Nutrients/minerals
Disease/parasites
Individuals of either sex may also attempt to shift the When population increases, pressure is put on
balance of conflict in their favor by coercion or resources → supply of resources decrease → some
manipulation individuals die since they don’t have access to
Monogamy - a mating system of one male and one resources → population can’t reproduce at same rate
female forming an exclusive social pair bond → birth rate drops
Pattern of social organization
Share a territory and live in cohabitation 
Both individuals take care of progeny in some way
Ex: beavers
Parental care - any behaviors on the part of either or both
parents that help their offspring survive
Ex: nest building and feeding young
Teaching important skills
Ex: meerkat adults teach their pups how to eat
scorpions
Infanticide - when a parent kills its own offspring
Can be evolved as a reproductive strategy in males
and sometimes in females
11.7. Speciation
Often harms females that dedicate time and
Development of a new species through a variety of
energy
vectors
Counter strategies by females
Rate of speciation depends on generation time,
Promiscuity - the more promiscuous the female,
environmental conditions, etc
the more sperm the male needs to ensure mating
Can be caused by change in just 1 gene or a set of genes
success
causing some sort of isolation
Kill the kids of other females
3 main types
Have kids the same day as dominant female so
Allopatric
dominant female can’t kill them
Gene flow is interrupted when a population is
Predation - the process of killing and eating an individual
divided into geographically isolated
of the same species
subpopulations
Berlin blockade for animals
11.6. Population Growth Parapatric
Part of population enters a new habitat bordering
Development of settled agriculture represents one of the the range of the parent species
most significant changes in human history, and enabled Some gene flow may occur between populations
human populations to start growing which live in border zone
Industrial revolution - further fuelled growth Sympatric
20th century - growth became exponential Occurs in populations that live in same geographic
Factors that contributed to an increase in human area
population Less common than allopatric speciation
Better healthcare Happens when gene flow is diminished by:
More nutritious food Polyploidy
Cleaner water Habitat differentiation
Better sanitation

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Sexual selection 4. Has differentiated body w/ stems,

leaves, and roots
11.8. Classification 5. Has well developed tissue for
conduction (xylem and phloem)
6. Ex. ferns
Five Kingdom System
4. Angiosperms
1. Monera: prokaryote, unicellular, some perform 1. Dicots- 2 embryos
photosynthesis 2. Monocots- 1 embryo
1. Bacteria 3. Flowering plant which carries
2. Cyanobacteria reproductive organs
2. Protista: prokaryotes, simple multicellular 5. Gymnosperms
1. Algae 1. Coniferous
2. Protozoans 2. Seeds on the outside
3. Fungi-like protists 5. Animalia: Eukaryotes, Complex multicellular,
3. Fungi: eukaryotes, multicellular, autotrophs (some heterotrophs
decomposer types are heterotrophs) 1. Invertebrates - 7 types
1. Molds 1. Profera- multicellular, lack true tissue,
2. Yeast sponges
3. Mushroom 2. Cnidaria-radial symmetry, only one
4. Lichen mouth/anus, sea anemone, jellyfish
4. Plantae: eukaryotes,  multicellular, autotrophs 3. Platyhelminthes- unsegmented
1. Thallophyta: flatworms (flukes)
1. Undifferentiated (no stems, roots 4. Annelids - segmented worms
leaves, etc) (Earthworms and leeches)
2. No embryo formation or vascular 5. Arthropoda - segmented body and
system chitinous exoskeleton (scorpion,
3. Mainly multicellular algae cockroaches, spider)
4. Mainly aquatic 6. Mollusca- unsegmented muscular
5. Multicellular form is ribbon-like (snail, octopus, clam)
2. Bryophyta 7. Echinoderm- marine, spiny skinned (sea
1. Mosses, liverworts urchin, star fish)
2. Small multicellular 2. Vertebrates - 5 types
3. Do not have true leaves and roots but 1. Fish- have scales, fin, and gills
have root-like and leaf-like structures 2. Amphibians- smooth moist skin,
4. No xylem and phloem metamorphosis
5. Usually grow in damp-shady places 3. Reptiles- scales, lungs, lay eggs with
6. Non-vascular land plants leathery shell
3. Pteridophyta 4. Aves- feathers, beak, lay eggs with hard
1. Pointed needle-like leaves shell
2. Found in cool places 5. Mammals- fur mammary glands
3. Contain vascular systems and
reproduce via spores

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Biology

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