UNIT 1 WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL IN EDUCATION RESEARCH

Introduction
Welcome to unit one which deals with proposal writing in education research.
Writing an academic research proposal poses a great challenge to a large
proportion of students in colleges and universities. Thus, in this unit we are
going to examine the processes and procedures involved in writing a research
proposal.

1.0 Aim of the unit

This unit introduces you to key concepts in writing an educational research
proposal. It begins by defining what research is, and proceeds to describing the
different components of a research proposal. At the end, the unit provides
practical activity questions to help you revise your understanding of the topics
presented in this unit.

1.1 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
 Explain the concept of research
 Analyse types of Research
 Formulate an appropriate research topic
 Identify an effective research topic
 Explain steps in writing an effective background to the study
 Explain steps in writing an effective statement of the problem

1.1.1Content
This unit is divided into ten lessons as follows:
 1. The concept of research
2. Historical development of educational research
3. Types of research
4. Topic selection
5. Qualities of an effective research topic
6. Variables
7. Background to the study
8. Qualities of an effective background to the study
9. Steps in writing an effective background to the study
10.Statement of the problem

Time required
You need about six (6) hours per week interacting with this material.

LESSON ONE
THE CONCEPT OF RESEARCH

2.0 Research is an often-misused term, its usage in everyday language very

different from the strict scientific meaning. However, Kombo and Orodho
(2002) define research as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to
problems through planned systematic collection, data analysis and interpretation
of data. Tuchman (1978) describes research as a systematic attempt to provide
answers to the questions. In other words research is to search or inquire to
discover new ideas which can be proved scientifically in order to have a better
understanding.

In relation to the above definitions, we can say that research is a Systematic

investigative process used to increase or improve on existing knowledge by
discovering new facts. Research is divided into two general categories namely:
basic research and applied research.

Basic Research
Basic research is inquiry aimed at increasing scientific knowledge and is driven
purely by curiosity and a desire to expand our knowledge. This type of research
tends not to be directly applicable to the real world in a direct way, but enhances
our understanding of the world around us. It is, therefore, frequently purely
theoretical with the intent of increasing our understanding of certain phenomena
or behaviour.

Applied Research
Applied research is one type of research that is used to answer a specific
question that has direct applications to the world. This is the type of research
that solves a problem. Thus, applied research examines a specific set of
circumstances, and its fundamental goal is linking the results to a particular
situation.  In other words, this type of research uses the data directly for real
world application (Stanovich, 2007). 

LESSON TWO

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

2.1 Historical Development of Educational Research

According to George .J. Mouley, the means by which man seeks answers to his
problems can be categorised in three (3) ways, namely experience, reasoning
and experimentation. This can be traced back when man worked in search of the
truth about the nature and about his own status in that nature. The main goal for
all attempts that man-made was to understand and conquer nature. Man’s natural
ability such as intellect, thinking, reasoning, imagination, memory, judgement,
ability for analysis and synthesis helped him to study and experiment with the
environment. Therefore the beginning of research can be traced back to the
development of man’s thinking. It came up as a new field in order to apply
methods of research to solutions of Educational problems.

Research involves the following components:

a) It is systematic: It tries to solve problems whether social, economic, and
cultural or health- related in a systematic way. This involves identification of the
problem, review of related literature and data collection. It also requires proper
organisation and control to enable valid decisions to be made about the research
at hand. This is followed by data analysis, conclusion and recommendations.
b) It is objective: It attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the
problem. It involves gathering new data (primary sources) and secondary
sources (using existing data)
c) It is based on observable experiences. Therefore it demands observation and
description.
d) It employs designed procedures and rigorous analysis.

LESSON THREE
TYPES OF RESEARCH

3.0 Overview
On a broader perspective, research can be classified into two groups, namely
qualitative research and quantitative research. Now let us examine each of these
types of research in detail.
Qualitative research
This is research dealing with phenomenon that are difficult or impossible to
quantify. These include beliefs, meanings, attributes and symbols to mention but
a few. This type of research is used by researchers who aim at gathering in-
depth understanding of human behaviour and the reasons behind these
behaviours. They investigate the why, and how of decision making not just the
what, where and when. Researchers using this type of research use semi-
structured questionnaires, group discussions, interviews and focus group
discussions to gather the necessary data for their studies. These instruments tend
to give the respondent a free and more flexible atmosphere and also allows the
researcher to gather as much information as he/she can which otherwise could
not be obtained through the use of structured questionnaires. Kombo and
Orodho (2002) attest to the fact that feelings and insights are considered
important in any study.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

 It enables more complex aspects of a persons experience to be studied
 Fewer restrictions or assumptions are placed on the data to be collected
 The participants are able to provide information in their own words and in
their own way

Disadvantages of Qualitative Research

 It is more difficult to determine the validity and reliability of the data
collected
 There is more subjectivity involved in analysing the data
 Open ended questions can sometimes create quite a numerous data which can
take long to analyse
 It is time consuming
3.1 Forms of Qualitative Research
Qualitative research includes:
1. Ethnography which are observations of groups ( Leedy and Ormared 2005)
2. Interviews and focus group discussions FGDs (Kukn, 1970)
3. Case studies which use various data to investigate the subject overtime and
by ACTIVITY.1
1. Explain advantages and disadvantages of qualitative Research
2. What is ethnography as applied in research?

Quantitative Research
This research relies on the principle of verification. It is the systematic empirical
investigation of any phenomenon through statistical, mathematical r
computational techniques. Its objective is to develop and employ mathematical
models and hypothesis relating to the phenomenon. It is mainly used to test
hypothesis, for example laboratory experiments and surveys. According to
Fowler (1988) surveys provide a quantitative or numeric description of some
fraction of the population through the collection process of asking questions of
people. This helps the researcher to generalise findings from the sample of
responses to the population. This establishes the cause and effect relationship.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

 It allows the researcher to measure and analyse data
 The researcher is more objective about the final findings of the research
 This type of research can be used to test hypothesis in experiments because
of its ability to measure data using statistics.
Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
 It does not study things in a natural setting or discuss the meaning things
have for different people
 A large sample of the population must be studied for more accurate findings

However, it should be noted that both qualitative and quantitative approaches

are complementary. Where appropriate these two approaches should be
combined to maximize the strengths and minimize the limitations of each. For
example, once these two methods are applied in a research study, the
information that qualitative method fails to capture may be captured by the use
of the quantitative method, thereby increasing the validity and reliability of the
data collected and the findings of the study.
Activity 2

1. Explain why Research is important in Education and also the

advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research?
2. Outline four components of Research

LESSON FOUR
TOPIC SELECTION

4.0 What is Topic Selection?

The Term ‘topic’ refers to subject issue or area under discussion. The ‘topic’ one
selects to research on is essential in the success of research project. The ability
to develop a good research topic is an important skill. If the researcher selects a
topic in his field of specialisation, he is likely to enjoy the reading materials
related to the subject and put in more effort and time. The researcher will
develop a concern for that field and will be keen on collecting the required data,
analysing it and finding out the results.
Research requires painstaking (thorough) thought, writing and reading before
the proposal is finalised.

4.1 Steps to Follow In Topic Selection

An instructor may assign you a specific topic, but most often instructors require
you to select your own topic of interest. When deciding on a topic, there are a
few things that you will need to do:
 brainstorm for ideas
 choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature
 ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available
 make a list of key words
 be flexible
 define your topic as a focused research question
 research and read more about your topic
 formulate a thesis statement

Be aware that selecting a good topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and
focused enough to be interesting. However, the following are among other
things that you may follow:
 Identify what interests or puzzles you in an area of study. These social,
economic, health, cultural issues. For example, why are illicit brews
popular in shanty compounds of Zambia despite the dangers experienced
by most people in these areas and the warnings from government?
 Identify key words for the topic. According to smith (2011) key words in
the title will help the researcher make clear criteria relating to both the
 content and process. Therefore the researcher should examine the precise
wording of the topic in order to establish what the research is looking for
in terms of evidence and achievement.

However, there three things that a researcher should consider when analysing
the key words in the topic-
(a) The researcher should look for the word, discuss, plan, review, evaluate
etc. These words will guide the researcher on how to deal with content of
the research.
(b) Then the researcher should identify and underline content words for
example; Social class, Leadership style, motivation, children’s rights etc.
This will guide the researcher what he/she must focus on in the research.
(c) The researcher should read and write out the whole title. This helps the
researcher to establish what he/she intends to do, content area, what
she/he should do with content and the type of structure, style and audience
the research is intended for.

4.2 Defining a Topic

Defining the topic involves analysing selected words and out of the selected
words a number of topics can be studied for example, on elicit brews, the
researcher has to decide on what to concentrate on, whether it is causes and
effects or the costs, or free primary education. The researcher may choose to
concentrate on free primary and pupil retention, accessibility or learner
performance.

A good topic will make a claim that is novel, nonobvious, useful, and sound, for
both the writer and the potential readers. Further, a good research topic should
be something that one is deeply interested in, is scientifically original and
significant, and is manageable within the graduate studies time frame. Defining
a topic can be a multi-step process. You need to:
 Think about what drew you to the topic in the first place: what areas
interest you the most?
 Do some basic research both for background information and to find out
what's already been written on your topic
 Be sure you have a manageable amount to cover within the time and
space requirements of your assignment

4.3 Formulating the Topic

This involves the researcher to look for articles and other materials relevant to
the research topic. This information will help the researcher to develop clarity
over the topic selected. The researcher should take notes paraphrase and
summarize what she/he has read on relevant materials which will be included in
the literature review. Other relevant materials related to the topic can be found in
a library or internet.

4.4 Qualities of an Effective Research Topic

An effective research topic should among other things possess the following;-
a) It should be researchable.
b) It should captivate the interest of the researcher.
c) It should contribute to the new body of knowledge.
d) It should be provocative.
e) It should be clear and focused.
f) It should be focused.
g) It should address a specific question or problem in a meaningful way.
h) It should answer questions, such as who, what, when, where, why and
how, about the subject.
 Activity 3

1. Why should the research topic be selected by the

researcher and not the supervisor?
2. Why is it important to read relevant materials related to the
topic before writing the report?

LESSON FIVE

VARIABLES

5.0 What are variables?

The research variables, of any scientific experiment or research process, are
factors that can be manipulated and measured. Variables are attributes or
qualities of the cases measured or recorded for example gender, colour and
country are all perfectly acceptable variables, because they are essentially
changeable. If the cases are persons, the variables could be sex, age, height,
weight, level of empowerment ability etc.

Most scientific experiments measure quantifiable factors, such as time or

weight, but this is not essential for a component to be classed as a variable. As
an example, most of us have filled in surveys where a researcher asks questions
and asks you to rate answers. These responses generally have a numerical range,
from ‘1 - Strongly Agree’ through to ‘5 - Strongly Disagree’. This type of
measurement allows opinions to be statistically analysed and evaluated.
There are two major forms of variables. These are Independent and Dependent
variable. However, it should be noted that the key to designing any experiment
is to look at what research variables could affect the outcome. There are many
types of variables but the most important are the independent and dependent
variables.

(a) Independent variables

Independent variables are also known as the predictor or the explanatory
variables. The independent variables are the core of the experiment and are
isolated and manipulated by the researcher. For example, if the study is on the
impact of alcohol abuse among high school pupils’, then alcohol abuse is the
independent variable. This is because it can explain or affect the increase or
decrease in alcohol abuse.

(b) Dependent variable

Dependent variable usually depend on the independent variable. Usually there is
only one dependent variable which is known as the outcome. In other words, the
dependent variable is the measurable outcome of the manipulation of the
independent variable; the results of the experimental design. For many physical
experiments, isolating the independent variable and measuring the dependent is
generally easy.

To understand better the independent and dependent variables, let us look at the
following title: The role of adult education in enhance parents’ attitudes towards
their children’s’ education. This title has two key variables (a) role of adult
education (independent variable) and enhancing attitudes towards their
children’s education (dependent variable). In this study an attempt was to find
out how the role of adult education (independent variable) influences the
enhancement of parents children’s education (dependent variable). For instance,
if you designed an experiment to determine how quickly a cup of coffee cools,
the manipulated independent variable is time and the dependent measured
variable is temperature.

Activity 4

1. What are variables in research?

2. What are the characteristics of an effective research?

LESSON SIX

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

5.1 What is background of the Study?

The term “background” refer to the setting or position of the study. This is a
brief overview of the problem the researcher aspires to tackle. This includes an
explanation of the area of your research to set context for the problem at hand. It
also includes a detailed literature review in which you explain what previous
studies state about the topic, discuss recent developments on the topic, and
identify the gap in literature that has led to your study.
It identifies and describes the history and nature of a well-defined research
problem with reference to the existing literature. The background information
should indicate the root of the problem being studied, appropriate context of the
problem in relation to theory, research, and/or practice, its scope, and the extent
to which previous studies have successfully investigated the problem, noting, in
particular, where gaps exist that your study attempts to address. Further, the
background to the study helps clarify what has brought about the need for the
study; It points out the challenges faced due to the identified issue; It indicates
the opportunities for improvement; It demonstrates the researchers view of the
research problem; It helps to convince the readers that the problem or
opportunity exists and that it should be addressed. It also shows the reader that
the researcher knows the study area as she/he is familiar with what has preceded.

5.1.1. Qualities of an Effective Background to the Study

An effective background to the study should possess among other things the
following qualities. (a) It should be brief and specific though it gets a lot from
literature review. It is actually a summary of information in the literature review.
(b) It should excite the reader to be concerned about having the problem
addressed and interested in the solution proposed by the research (c) It gives the
reader a glimpse of the research problem (c) It gives the reader an idea of how
the proposal is structured. (d) The language used should be simple and straight
forward. (e) It should be formative and persuasive since it attempts to enlighten
the reader about the research problem and the urgency of the problem.

5.1.2 Steps in Writing an Effective Background of the Study

Having an effective background requires essential steps to follow. The following
are the steps to follow:
1. Reflection: Before writing the background to the study, the researcher
should analyse the selected topic and the title and then identify the
 variables. This will assist in locating the relevant literature related to the
research problem and literature will assist in background formulation.

2. Brain Storming: The researcher should think about the relevant literature
related to the topic that will specifically bring out the need for the study.
Challenges related to the selected topic should also be reflected in the
selected literature.

3. Material Compilation: The researcher should read various books and

articles from the library. These books and articles should be related to the
topic.

4. Formulation: The materials found should be used in the literature review

to write the background to the study. The researcher should cite previous
studies that are similar to what is being proposed.

5.1.3 Challenges Faced in Writing an Effective Background

Challenges faced by researchers in writing in an effective background include
the following;
 Failure to differentiate between the background to the study and literature
review. While the literature review expounds on various studies related to
the area of study, the background should be a short summary briefly
expounding on factors that have brought about the need for the study and
opportunities for improvement,
 Some researchers use the background content to justify the need for the
study. Therefore this section give a brief overview of the research
problem.
  Lack of clarity due to poor language use, such as the use of jargon such as
slang, trendy words, abbreviations, colloquial expressions, redundant
phrases and confusing language
 Quoting studies but not explaining how they fit in the background section.

LESSON SEVEN
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

6.0 Understanding the Statement of the Problem

A problem statement is a brief description of the issues that need to be addressed
by a researcher. It should help you clearly identify the purpose of the project you
will propose.  Often, the problem statement will also serve as the basis for the
introductory section of your final proposal, directing your reader’s attention
quickly to the issues that your proposed project will address and providing the
reader with a concise statement of the proposed project itself. It is the main idea
of your report. In other words, it is a summary what you want to prove in your
report for your reader. All of your subsequent topic sentences of body
paragraphs should tie back into this thesis, so make sure that it is general enough
to stand throughout your essay.

However, a statement of the problem is a claim of one or two sentences in length

that outlines the problem addressed by a study. The fundamental goal of a
problem statement is to convert a generalised problem (this may be something
that bothers you or a perceived lack of) into a targeted, well-defined problem is
one that can be resolved through focused research and careful decision-making.

The statement of the problem should briefly address the question: What is the
problem that the research will address? (Ellis and Levy, 2008). It need not be too
long. One page is more than enough for a good statement of problem.
Furthermore, it should be specific, manageable, and written to stimulate reader
interest. If the purpose is publication in a peer-reviewed journal, the proposed
research should contribute to the literature of the profession and perhaps beyond
(Moffatt, 1980).

Some key characteristics of a problem statement

In research, a good statement of the problem should:
1.      Address a gap
2.      be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
3.      be one that will lead to more research
4.      render itself to be investigated via  collection of data
5.      be interesting to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time and
resources
6.      be ethical

ACTIVITY 5
1. Outline four steps that should be followed in order to write an effective
research problem.
2. Explain the key characteristics of a problem statement.

References
Ellis, T.J. and Levy, Y. (2008). “A framework of problem-based research: A
guide for novice
researchers”. Informing Science: the International Journal of an
Emerging Trans-discipline. 11: 17–33. ISSN 1547-9684
Kombo,D.K. And Tromp, D.L.A.(2006.)Proposal and Thesis Writing. An
Introduction. Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa.

Kukn, (1970) Structure of scientific Revolutions 2nd Edition. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.

Moffatt, M. (1980). If peer review is acceptable for evaluating research, why

shouldn't it also
be used to evaluate teaching? The Chronicle of Higher Education, 36,
B1−B2.
Mouley, George J. The Science of Educational Research. N.Y. :VanNostrand
Reinhold Co., 1970.
Stanovich, K. (2007).  How to Think Straight about Psychology: 8th Edition. 
Boston, MA:
Allyn& Bacon.
Summary
The aim of this section is to present the general background on writing a
research proposal. It covered the definition of research, Topic and Topic
selection, and the definition of variable - independent and dependent.

The term “research” means to explore, investigate, seek or examine. The aim of
research is to search for new knowledge and solving practice problems in order
to improve our understanding of the topic concerned. Research can either
qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative is subjective and uses language and description than numerals and
figures. It also produces information only on the particular cases studied and any
more general conclusions are guesses or suppositions. Quantitative research
relies on the principle of verifiability, that is, confirmation, proof or validation.
It is used to test hypotheses.

Before undertaking any study, it is important to consider the literature to use in

the study. It is cardinal for the researcher to identify a topic to study and reflect
on whether it is practical and worthwhile to research on. Topic selection should
be done by the researcher and not the advisor.

An effective research should among other things possess the following

characteristics; (a) It should be researchable (b) it should captivate the interest of
the researcher (c) It should be provocative (d) it should be clear and focused.

Variables are attributes or qualities of cases measured for example, if the cases
are persons , the variables could be sex, age ,height, weight, level of ability etc.
The two major forms of variables are the independent and the dependent. The
independent variables are factors that explain variation in the variable. These are
the causes and the dependent variables are outcomes
UNIT 2

Introduction

This unit brings out the aspect of research hypothesis, which is derived directly from the
research question. The unit will discuss with you the different types of hypotheses, the
importance of hypothesis in research, qualities of an effective research as well as the
guidelines in formulating the hypothesis.

The unit also introduces you to the conceptual framework. This is an analytical tool with
several variations and contexts. It helps you to make conceptual distinctions or organize ideas.
Alongside this you will study the theoretical framework.

The last section of this unit will look at is on review of literature.It reviews the importance of
reviewing important literature related to your study. Previous research studies are abstracted
and significant writings of authorities in the area under study are reviewed. It will also review
various strategies for conducting the literature search you probably you will begin with as you
develop and refine your topic. It will help you to understand how to put information you find
into a coherent, focused review to help you get a major writing task on your way to writing
the chapter on literature review. The section also should sharpened your thinking about your
topic and help you see conceptual and methodological themes in the literature. In addition, the
process should lead you to identify methodological issues and procedures for your study.

Learning outcomes

After studying through this section you should be able to:

 Define research hypothesis.
 Mention and give explanations of the different types of research hypothesis.
 Write directional hypotheses, null hypotheses and questions that relate to a given
research problem.
 Apply the criteria to the development of hypotheses.
 Discuss with colleagues the importance of research hypothesis.
 Give the differences among the types of research hypotheses.
 Mention the qualities of testable research hypotheses.
 State and explain briefly reasons for conducting a review of literature before starting a
research project.
 Conduct a review of research literature for the proposed topic.
 Develop a coding system for your sourced literature.
 Describe ways to obtain references not available in your university library.
 Describe the differences between the conceptual and theoretical framework.
 Write the conceptual and theoretical frameworks for given or own topics.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
What is research hypothesis?

In our day-to-day activities we are often faced with problems for which we must gather
information and seek answers. In-order to focus our information gathering, we try to identify
possible solutions or explanations to our problems and then gather the information needed to
see if a given explanation is correct. These "educated guesses" about possible differences,
relationships, or causes are called hypotheses.

When we examine the definitions of hypotheses given by researchers such as Cone and Foster
(1994) Research hypotheses are declarative sentences that conjecture a relationship between
two or more variables. Others say it refers to an assertion, proposition or statement about
relations or constraints whose truth value is as of unknown but in principle determinable by
tests. In other words we can refer it to as a statement created by researchers when they
speculate upon the outcome of a research or experiment.

Now let’s take a look at the different types of research hypothesis.

a) Simple hypothesis
This is that one which there exists relationship between two variables. One is called
independent variable or cause and the other is dependent variable or effect. For example:
a) smoking leads to cancer
b) the higher ratio of unemployment leads to crime

b) Complex hypothesis
Complex hypothesis is that one in which relationship among variables exists. The
dependent as well as the independent variables are more than two. For example:
a) smoking and other drugs lead to cancer, chest infections, etc.
b) the higher ratio of unemployment, poverty, illiteracy, lead to crime like robbery,
rape,
prostitution, and killing.

c) Empirical hypothesis
This is that one which is applied to a field. During formulation, it is an assumption only but
when it is put to a test it becomes an empirical or working hypothesis.

d) Null hypothesis
It is contrary to the positive statement of working hypothesis. According to nullhypothesis,
there is nosignificant relationship between dependent variable and independentvariable. It
allows for statistical testing. It is denoted by HO.

e) Alternative hypothesis
Firstly, many hypotheses are selected. Then among them select one which is more workable
and more efficient. That hypothesis is introduced later on due to changes in the old formulated
hypothesis. It is denoted by HI.

f) Logical hypothesis
 It is that type in which hypothesis is verified logically. For example, agreement,
disagreement,
difference and residue.

g) Statistical hypothesis
This is one which can be verified statistically. The statement would be logical or illogical
but if
statistics verifies it, it will be statistical hypothesis.

The importance of hypothesis in research

The hypothesis plays a very important role in research. This includes the following:
(i) It states the researcher's expectations concerning the relationship between the variables in
the
research problem.
(ii) The hypothesis refines the research problem.
(iii) By defining the variables in the study, the hypothesis enables the researcher to collect
data that
either supports the hypothesis or rejects it.

Qualities of an effective hypothesis

Hypotheses must be of maximum value to the researcher. As such an effective hypothesis has
the following qualities
i) Must be conceptually clear - It must state clearly and concisely as possible the expected
relationships or differences between two or more variables.

ii)Should have empirical references - This property is an essential feature of a scientific

approach
to problems. It is fulfilled as soon as operational definitions have been found for all the
concepts appearing in the statement of the hypothesis. Particular care should be taken to avoid
moral judgments, values, attitudes, etc. Expressions like good, bad, ought to, should and the
like indicate non-scientific attitudes by the researcher.
iii) Must be specific - This property reflects the fact that the range of the problem is narrow
enough toallow precise well-definite investigation. If the problem is too wide the hypothesis
will be too general and thus not testable.

iv) Must be testable with available techniques - It must be testable and verifiable. it is possible
to
support or not support the hypothesis by collecting and analyzing data. The only way to go
about this is by studying carefully the operational definitions which should indicate clearly the
methods of measurement.

v) It must be consistent with the existing body of knowledge.

vii) It must give logical arguments to justify the hypothesis.
viii) The wordings must be clear and precise - In stating hypotheses the simplest and most
concise
statement of the relationship expected is generally the best. Brief, clear hypotheses are easier
for the reader to understand and also easier to test.

Guidelines in formulating the hypothesis

We have already discussed that research problems are questions about relations among
variables and hypotheses are tentative, concrete and testable answers to such problems. In
other words hypothesis is a suggested answer to a problem, has to be tested empirically before
it can be accepted and incorporated into a theory or rejected. In this sense the role of
hypothesis is not only to suggest explanations for certain facts or problems but also to guide
in the investigation.

According to Kombo and Tromp (2006) when formulating an effective hypothesis you should
take the following into consideration.
i) Reflect on issues of concern
ii) Analyze the research problem, title, objectives and literature review. These sections will
identify key variables that the researcher can use as a base to define the relationships.
iii) Generalize operational definitions for all variables.
iv) State the research hypothesis- The research hypothesis should clearly state the relationship
that
the researcher thinks exists between the independent and dependent variables.
v) Formulate- The researcher should then write down the relationship between the variables
ensuring that they are measurable and if accomplished will answer the research question. The
researcher should ensure they reflect expected relationships or differences.
vi) Evaluation - After formulating the hypothesis, the researcher should evaluate it to find out
if it
addresses all sections of the research problem.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Conceptual Framework

This is an analytical tool with several variations and contexts. It is used to make conceptual
distinctions or organize ideas. Strong conceptual frameworks capture something real and do
this in a way that is easy to remember and apply. Reichel and Ramey (1987) in Kombo and
Tromp(2006) say that this is a set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant fields of
enquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation.

On the other hand it is defined as a research tool intended to assist a researcher to develop
awareness and understanding of the situation under scrutiny and to communicate this. When
clearly articulated, a conceptual framework has potential usefulness as a tool to assist a
researcher to make a meaning of subsequent findings. It forms part of the agenda for
negotiation to be scrutinized and tested, reviewed and reformed as a result of investigation
(Guba and Lincoln, 1989 in Kombo and Tromp 2006).

Usefulness of Conceptual framework

A conceptual framework increasingly strengthens and keeps the research on track by:
 Providing clear links from the literature to the research goals and questions.
 Contributing to the formulation of the research design.
 Providing reference points for discussion of literature, methodology and analysis of
data.
 Contributing to the trustworthiness of the study
 Giving a broad scope to thinking about the research.
 Conceptualizing the problem and providing a means to link ideas and data so that
deeper connections can be revealed.

Strategies of Designing Effective Conceptual Framework

To come up with an effective conceptual framework, one has to analyze a set of broad ideas
and principles taken from relevant fields of inquiry, and study a variety of works showing
experiences where several kinds of thought combine. Extensive bodies of knowledge could be
used as cornerstones for organizing one's thinking.

The following strategies are useful when designing an effective conceptual framework.

i) Reflection - assessing situations from social, economic and philosophical perspectives. One
has to be clear about what the research is about (title, objectives). Factors such as the
independent and dependent variables and research questions should also be put into
perspective.

ii) Defining the key issue (problem) to be addressed and defining its practical boundaries.
iii) Identifying key uncertainties (gaps in understanding/knowledge) about the situation or the
social/economic systems, and so on. (The questions that need to be answered by the study).

iv) Identifying and assessing different possibilities for action.

A well constructed conceptual framework can guide the entire research writing process, keep
you on track, save time and enable you to defend your arguments soundly and readily.

Qualities of effective Conceptual framework

An effective conceptual framework should have the following qualities:

 Should be clear and concise.
 Language used should be simple and straight forward
 It should be self explanatory. It should have supportive evidence of ideas used.
 It should be logical and address the title, research objectives and statement of the
problem.
 It should be consistent with the literature review.
 It should also show a link between the literature review and the study problem.
 it should develop a set of guiding principles against which judgments and prediction
 might be made.
 It should act as a reference point from which to locate the research questions within
contemporary theorizing.
 It should provide a structure within which to organize the content of research and to
frame conclusions within the context.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated ideas based on theories. Theories are

formulated to explain, predict and understand phenomena and in cases, to challenge and
extend knowledge within the limits of critical bounding assumptions. It is a reasoned set of
prepositions, which are derived from and supported by data or evidence. A theoretical
framework accounts for or explains phenomena. It attempts to clarify why things are the way
they are based on theories. A theoretical framework is a general set of assumptions about the
nature of phenomena. It is a structure that can support a theory of a research study.

Theories represent tentative solutions to problems. A theory is a generalization about a

phenomenon, an explanation of how and why something occurs. Indeed, any statements that
explain what is measured or described in any general statements about cause or effect-are
theory based, at least implicit.

Importance of theoretical framework

A theoretical framework plays an important role in research. They are as follows:

i) It introduces you to a new view of the research problem. This enables you to
understand the total realm of the problem.
ii) It enables you to conceptualize the topic in its entirety as an outgrowth of the
larger society. This helps you to acknowledge the problem from a wider
perspective and not from a narrow personalized self-interest approach. This
enhances your objectivity.

Qualities of an effective theoretical framework

An effective theoretical framework should:

i) Account for and explain phenomena.
ii) Be specific and well articulated.
iii) Reflect the research problem being addressed.
iv) Be measured in a practical situation.
v) Provide tentative answers to questions, issues and problems addressed in the
research problem.
 vi) Should systematically address the various aspects of the problem, particularly the
key factors that are assumed to influence or the problem.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

What Literature Review is

This part of the report provides a background for the development of the present study and
brings the reader up to date. Since further research is based upon everything that is known
about a problem, this section gives evidence of the investigator's knowledge of the field.

A brief summary, indicating areas of agreement or disagreement in findings, or gaps in

existing knowledge, should be included.

According to Borg and Gall (1989) the review of the literature is an important part of
scientific approach and is carried out in all areas of scientific research, whether in the
physical, natural or social sciences. The review of literature in educational research provides
you with the means of getting to the frontier in your particular field of knowledge. Until you
have learned what others have done and what remains still to be done in your area, you cannot
develop a research project that will contribute to furthering knowledge in your field. Thus the
literature in any field forms the foundation upon which all future work must be built. If you
fail to build this foundation of knowledge provided by the review of literature, your work is
likely to be shallow and naive, and will often duplicate work that has already been done better
by someone else.

Sometimes researchers are tempted to get a sketchy review of literature suffice so that they
can get started sooner on their own research project. However, you should make every effort
to complete a thorough review before starting your research because the insights and
knowledge gained by the review almost inevitably lead to a better-designed project and
greatly improve the chances of obtaining important and significant results. Often the insights
you gain through the review will save as much time in conducting the project as the review
itself required.

Qualities of an Effective Literature Review

Cone and Foster (1994) say there are many ways of organizing literature. The strategies
described here are just among some of them. Let us look at those outlined by Kombo and
Tromp (2006).

(i) Identify key issues to be addressed by the literature review - You need to identify key
words related to your topic, in order to look up for these key words in the index to locate
sources of information related to your topic. For example, let us say you wish to search
Education Index for studies related to the following question: "What are student and teacher
attitudes toward disabled children in inclusive schooling?" Your list of words might include
the following: Attitudes, Inclusive Schooling, Hearing Impaired, Visually Impaired/Blind,
Mentally Challenged, Physically Challenged.

The objectives of the study should also be identified. You should also be certain of the
specific problem the literature review will help to address. You should also know what type of
literature review you are conducting. Certain literature review deal with issues of theory,
methodology, policy or social.

(ii) Formulate a preliminary statement of the problem -

You should formulate a preliminary statement. This will assist you to be focused in material
selection. For example, What are the causes and effects of negative attitudes towards the
disabled in schools? What has been done and can be done to change teachers and student
attitude? After the preliminary statement you can now begin to identify sources of
information relevant to the research topic.

(iii) Identify sources of information

You need to identify books, articles, professional papers and othe relevant publications that
relate to the research title and the research problem. There is a variety of sources of
information for your review. Some of it is found in libraries. some of it is in journals while
other sources can be found on Internet.

You should also identify the scope of the literature review. Be clear on what types of
publications will be used. Ensure that you also identify the discipline you are working in. This
helps to quicken up your search for the materials.

(iv) Analyse critically the articles identified - Once the necessary articles you need been
identified, you should now critically analyze each book or article selected by reflecting on:
 whether the author formulated a problem/issue. Clearly defined it and established its
significance.
 whether the author evaluated the literature relevant to the problem.
 whether there is an objective basis to the reasoning or is the author merely proving
what he/she already believes.
 how the author structures the argument, for example, does it establish cause-effect
relationships?
 how the book or article relate to the specific objectives or questions you are attempting
to study.

(v) Classify and ccode the article - You should develop a system of coding that will permit
you to indicate what type of material is contained on a given note card. The coding system
adopted by the researcher will be different for each review of the literature. This includes
taking notes and paraphrasing any relevant literature that you want to include in the
literature review. You should mark these notes with some codes for easy retrieval. This
involves putting the code on index card or on the photocopied article (if you photocopied
it).

These codes are generally placed in the upper right-hand corner of the note card. Example
suggested by Borg & Gall (1989):
+ An important study
S Studies dealing with social interaction
A Studies dealing with achievement of learners
G Studies describing grouping systems
B Studies relating to behaviour problems
P Studies relating grouping to personality adjustment

Using such a code is helpful in several ways. It makes you actively aware of the major areas
of concentration in your topic. It makes it possible for you to check quickly your notes on a
specific portion of the literature, and it makes the job of writing up your review of the
literature much easier.

You should add on the coded article any thoughts that come to your mind about the article.
Indicate any statements that are direct quotations, use quotation marks and write down the
page number. You should keep personal reactions separated from direct quotations. The
details of the source e.g. author, title, date of publication and the publisher should be
indicated.

(vi) Create an outline for the review - To create an outline of the literature review, you should
identify the main points in the order they should be presented. The article codes will assist in
this. You should also differentiate each main heading into logical subheadings. Similar points
should be grouped together.

(vii) Synthesize the information gathered - You should organize and synthesize material from
all those articles, chapters and books you gathered before writing the literature. You should
also have been thinking about this as you read the materials. You should evaluate your
literature critically. Which studies are best, and why? Which studies are worst, and why?
Consider methodological as well as conceptual strengths and weaknesses and analyzing each
reference in terms of the research variables. You should also analyze all references identified
for the relationships or differences between them.

(viii) Write the review of related literature - You are now ready to start writing. But you
should do the following:
 Select studies that relate mostly directly to the problem at hand.
 Tie together the results of the studies so that their relevance is clear.
 Indicate that the research area reviewed is incomplete or requires extension.
 Organized the review along major points relevant to the problem.
 Give the reader some indication of the relative importance of the results from the
studies reviewed.
 Use a professional tone in criticizing others' work. You should not overstate your
criticisms of others who think differently from you. Remember that all research has
strengths as well as weaknesses.
7. Statement of the problem

A research problem refers to an issue or concern that puzzles the researcher. This may be due to its
effect or consistence despite the measures taken. For example, a researcher may wonder why the
rate of school dropouts is still high in rural areas despite free primary education. This is a concern
that may result in the formulation of a research problem.

Qualities of an Effective Research Problem

The following are the qualities of an effective research problem:

 The research problem has an impact on the whole topic being investigated.
 The problem is researchable
 The problem has supportable statements.
 The research problem clearly indicates the urgency of the research and shows that the
research is definitely needed.
 The research problem is clearly stated and it is concise. The researcher is made aware that
there is a problem that need to be solved, because it stands out clearly and is easily
recognised.
 The language used is simple and objective (Kombo and Tromp: 2014)

Steps in writing an effective Statement of the Problem

The following are the steps that should be taken in order to write an effective research problem:

1. Reflection

The statement of a problem usually starts with an idea that the researcher might have as to what
kind of a problem he/she wants to solve or what questions to answer in a selected topic. Everyday
practices and experiences usually bring up questions the researcher wants to answer. These are
grounds for identifying the research problem. The researcher should write down some research ideas
based on the selected topic. Reflection involves assessing the selected research topic/title. It should
also reflect on key issues in the topic and the independent and dependent variables of the study.

2. Identification
After identifying the key variables, the researcher should also attempt to answer questions such as, is
there something wrong or disturbing in society, theoretically unclear or in dispute related to the
topic/title selected? Why is this a problem?

3. Formulation

After identifying the problem, the researcher should also attempt to clearly formulate why this is a
problem and how it affects people or institutions. The researcher should indicate he/she knows
about the problem through personal observation and research.

4. Justification

After stating what the researcher thinks is the problem, he/she should explain briefly the
repercussions likely to follow in the long run if the problem is not addressed. The researcher should
use the statement of the problem to show that the research is definitely needed.

Activity:

Discuss with your colleagues some of the more effective ways of finding a suitable research
problem?

8. Research Aim

Aims are intentions, goals or what the researcher strives to achieve. The aim reflects the aspirations
and expectations of the researcher. They are usually stated in general terms that are not easily
measurable.

Importance of aims in research

Aims reflect the outcome of the research. They portray the overall expectations of the study. By
analysing the aims of the study one is able to assess the study and evaluate its progress. They assist
in formulation of the objectives as they pinpoint the purpose of the study. They help in identifying
whether the research is urgently needed or not.

Qualities of effective aims and goals

Effective aims portray the following qualities:

 They are pragmatic. They state the purpose of the study, they do not refer to specific issues.
 They are reflective and clearly stated.
 They are broad and they lead to specific objectives.
 They state the accomplishment of a group rather than of individuals.
 They are always stated in general terms that provide direction for research development.

Steps in constructing effective aims

Before writing the purpose of the study, below are the steps to follow:

Reflection

The researcher should spend time to think of what he/she wants to accomplish by the end of the
study. This can be achieved by analysing the title.

Formulation
The researcher should then write down what the purpose of the study will be.

Analysis

The researcher should analyse the selected aims to find out if they if they address the research
problem and research questions.

Challenges faced in the formulation of aims

1. Lack of clarity

This is one problem faced by researchers in stating the aim of the study. The purpose of the study is
not clearly articulated.

2. Lack of cohesion

In some research works, there is no clear link between the title, purpose of the study and the study
objectives or problem statement.

3. Overambitious aims

Some researchers set out overambitious studies that may be achievable based on the resources and
time available. For example, a student studying masters whose aim is to find out the effect of free
primary education in a five year span may not achieve this. This is because most programmes at
masters level run for a span of two years (Kombo and Tromp, 2014)

Examples of sample aims

 Kwamboka (2003): Factors affecting food selection, intake and nutritional status of the
elderly in Mathare slums in Nairobi, Kenya.
The aim of the study is to investigate factors that affect food selection, intake and nutritional
status of the elderly in Mathare slums of Nairobi, Kenya.
 Kamonji (2003): An investigation of resources women farmers use to enhance household
food security: A case study of Embu distrct, Kenya.
The purpose of the study was to determine the resources women used for household food
security in Embu district.

From the above samples, it is clear that all the aims formulated are linked to the title. The aims do
not refer to specific issues, and state he accomplishment of a group rather than of individuals

(kombo and Tromp: 2004).

Activity:

Look at this research problem:

Girl parents in secondary schools in Zambia: An evaluation of pre and post pregnancy performance.
What are specific objectives of this study?

Expected answers:

(a) Identify factors responsible for the increase of abortion among female students in secondary
schools and colleges
(b) Investigate the effects of abortion on learning
(c) Examine the role played by society in addressing the problem of abortion among students.
 (d) Suggest appropriate strategies that would help reduce abortion among female students in
Zambia.

9. Research objectives

Objectives are intentions or purposes stated in specific measurable terms. They provide
opportunities for evaluating the end results. In research an objective is a specific statement relating
to the defined aim of the study. Specific objectives specify what the researcher will do in the study.

Importance of objectives

 Objectives guide decisions in the selection of respondents, research instruments and the
study area.
 Objectives influence all components of the research design including data analysis and report
writing.
 A clear statement of objectives helps to limit the scope of the literature review. They help
the researcher organise the study in clearly defined parts or phases.
 Objectives break up the aims into achievable and measurable components. They serve as a
guide for evaluation.
 They serve to clarify the variables of the study. This helps in the evaluation of the study.
 Objectives provide a common consistent focus for the many activities in research.

Qualities of effective objectives

The following are qualities of effective objectives:

1. They are specific - This means that, selected objectives clearly state what the researcher will
do in order to fulfil the purpose of the study
2. They are measurable - This means that they can be evaluated.
3. They are focused - The objectives should narrow the study to essentials. They should also
cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and
in a logical sequence. They should systematically address the various aspects of the problem,
particularly the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.
4. They are operational – They should be clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying
exactly what the researcher will do.
5. They are realistic – This means that they are achievable.

Guidelines in writing objectives

Effective guidelines to the researcher must be as follows:

 Reflection: This concerns analysing the aim of the study, the topic and title before
formulating the specific objectives. Specific objectives should be related to all these aspects.
 Formulation: The researcher should write down the specific objectives ensuring that they
are measurable and if accomplished will answer the research question.
 Evaluation: After the formulation of objectives the researcher should answer the following
questions:
1. Do the objectives address all parts of the research problem?
2. Do the objectives measure what is being researched?
3. Are the objectives feasible?
4. If too ambitious, could the scope of the study be reduced?
 Bare it in mind that answers to these questions will assist the researcher to formulate
effective objectives.

Activity

Unit 3 research design

3.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Define the research design
 State the types of research design; descriptive design, experimental design,
correlational design, case study design, cross cultural research design and survey.
 List the steps to follow in selecting a research design
 Discuss the qualities of an effective research design
 Ascertain the guidelines in selecting a research design

3.1 Defining Research Design

Research design is the plan to be followed to answer the questions raised by research
problems. it is a formal, written set of specifications and procedures for conducting and
controlling a research project (Leedy, 1985). A research design involves selecting the most
appropriate methods and techniques to solve the problem under investigation. For Adegoke
and Adedayo (2010) research design is a logical arrangement of the procedures and tools to be
employed in a proposed research in order to minimise misinterpretations of social
phenomenon being investigated. This constitutes the beginning of the empirical phase of the
research process.
Bowling (2001) identified the following components of research:
- Strategy
- Framework
- Participants/target groups
- Process
- Results
- Decisions

Research design enables the researcher to continue with investigation even when she/he
cannot access a set of respondents or even when the originator of the research is unavailable.
So it becomes obvious that it is the vehicle for the operationalising a research question.

3.2.0 Types of Research Design

Research designs are of different types depending on the type of the research study and
approach employed by a researcher or student. As long as the research can be categorised into
two major research paradigms, that is, Qualitative and Quantitative, then research design can
vary according to such paradigms.
a) QUANTITATIVE; it is theory driven that uses fixed approaches that involve the
collection of statistical and numerical data. Quantitative research is generally
approached using scientific methods and the process include.
- the generation of models, theories, and hypotheses
- the development instruments and methods for measurements
- the experimental control and manipulations of variables
- the collection of empirical data
- the modelling and analysis of data; and
- the evaluation of result.

Thus, the objective of the quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical or
representational of models designed to indicate systematic patterns of relations, time
sequences or causal connection in data, and theories and testing of hypotheses pertaining to
natural phenomenon (Blaikie, 2008).
b) QUALITATIVE; Qualitative research is based on qualitative data and tends to follow
the exploratory mode of scientific method. Bolarinwa (2006) observes that qualitative
research verbally describes or tells what is done or what has been done. It tells stories
around events, occurrences and practices. Theory and conceptual insight derive from
collection of data prior to it. Examples of qualitative research design, some include
participant-observation, ethnography, interviews, case study, action research,
photography and grounded theory.

3.2.1 Descriptive design

Descriptive designs are used for large samples using survey a method. Descriptive design can
be cross-sectional or longitudinal where time series data tend to be collected.
. Cross sectional design; it is also known as transverse design. It refers to a design in which a
researcher carries out observations of all the population, or a representative subset, at one
specific point in time. For example can decide to study how Grade twelve students in Isoka
and Chililabombwe have performed in Biology national examination in 2016.
. Longitudinal design; this design is used when one wants to study a sample or a unit or an
individual over a long period of time.

3.2.2 Experimental design

In this, subjects are randomly assigned to an experimental group which receives the treatment
or a control group which does not receive treatment. Assuming the two groups were initially
equivalent, the researcher can compare their performance. In this design cause and effect can
be easily determined. If you decide to use this design, you must be certain of independent and
dependent variables and must guard against the influence of extraneous variables.
3.2.3 Correlational design
It indicates the degree of relationship or correlation or association between variables.
Diagnostic studies employ this type of design. The design is employed when a researcher
wants to discover a statistical relationship between variable exists, both in direction and
magnitude. For example, if you compare the examination performance of a group of
Chalimbana University students who prepare their own meals every day and those who eats at
the cafeteria or restaurant, you will use correlation design. The use of this design will enable
you to map out the relationship between two or more educational activities.
3.2.4 Case study design
This study is used for small samples to build insight by testing hypothesis. A researcher in this
type of design can decide to use case study approach. A case study approach entails an
investigation that seeks to describe in detail a unit in context and holistically. A case in this
context is a unit or an individual or object that one intends to study or examine.. it can be a
person, an institution, concept, theory or a farm. The aim is to bring deeper insight and better
understanding of the problem prevailing
3.2.5 Cross cultural research design
This is used to compare the behaviour patterns of different cultures. Using this design you can
perceive how various cultures perceive certain educational and social outcomes. For example
you can make tentative comparison in terms performance in literacy between rural and urban
schools and find out to what extent cultural variations influence performance.
3.2.6 Survey
Survey research involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through
their responses questions. It is an efficient method for systemically collecting data from a
broad spectrum of individuals and educational settings. As you probably have observed, a
great many researchers chose this method of data collection. In fact surveys have become
such a vital part of our social fabric that we cannot assess much of what we read in the
newspaper or see on TV without having some understanding of survey research.
Surveys are efficient in that many variables can be measured without substantially increasing
the time or cost. Survey data can be collected from many people at relatively low cost and,
depending on the survey design, relatively quickly.
Survey methods lend themselves to probability sampling from large population. Thus, survey
research is very appealing when sample generalisability is a central research goal. In fact,
survey research is often the only means available for developing a representative picture of
attitudes and characteristics of a large population.
A survey should be guided by a clear conception of the research problem under investigation
and the population to be sampled. Throughout the process of questionnaires design, the
research objective and evaluations often uses surveys to assess the extent to which
programmes achieve their goals.
Generally, survey research is a method of collecting information by asking questions.
Sometimes interviews are done face-to face with people at home, in school, or at work. Other
times questions are sent in the mail for the people to answer and mail back.. Increasingly, are
conducted by telephone.

3.3.0 Steps to follow in selecting a research design

The following are steps to follow in research design:
a) The problem – The first step involves the proper selection and then know about what
he has to search, but should be kept in mind that the problems selected should not be
unmanageable in nature and also should not be based on desires.
b) Objective of the study – the objective should be very clear in the mind of the
researcher as this will lead to the clarity of the design and proper response from the
respondents.
c) Nature of the study- the research design should be very much in relation with the
nature of the study, which is to be carried out.
d) Data sources – the various sources of the data or the information should be very
clearly stated by the researcher.
e) Techniques of data collection- for the collection of the required information,
sometimes becomes very necessary to use some special techniques.
f) Social cultural context –research design based on the social cultural concept is
prepared in order to avoid the various study variations.
g) Geographical limit – this step become a necessity at this point in time as with the help
of this step, research linked to the hypothesis applies only to certain number of social
groups.
h) Basis of selection – selecting a proper sample acts as a very important and critical step
and this done with help of some mechanics like drawing a random stratified,
deliberate, double cluster or quota sample etc.
Be aware that selecting a good topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and focused enough
to be interesting, yet broad enough to find adequate information. Before selecting your topic,
make sure you know what final project should look like. Each class or instructor will likely
require a different format or style of research project. Moreover, it is very imperative to
discuss with friends on the validity and reliability of your research.

3.5.0 Qualities of Effective Research Design

 They are systematic and logical. They effectively address the questions raised in the
study. Based on this design the researcher can construct questions that will solicit the
desired information.
 They contribute to accurate and fair interpretation of results.
 They clarify to the researcher the respondents and the means by which the study will
be conducted.
 They contribute to deeper insights and better understanding of the research topic.

3.6.0 Guidelines in Selecting a Research Design

The following are essential points that a researcher should adhere to while selecting a research
design:
3.6.1 Identify the research questions to be addressed by the study: the researcher should
identify and reflect on the research questions raised in the study, reflection should include
brainstorming on issues such as:
 Do the questions raised in the study require collecting information by interviewing,
questionnaires? If the response is positive then the researcher will use a survey design.
 Do the questions raised in the study require systematic manipulation of independent
and dependent variable? If the answer is yes, then the researcher will use experimental
design.
 Does the study require a researcher to assess the degree of relationship between two or
more variables? If the answer is yes,, then a correlation design will be used.
 Does the seek to describe a unit in detail if so then a case study will be used.
 Does the study seek to compare the behaviour patterns of different cultures? If the
answer is positive then a cross- cultural research design will be applicable.

3.6.2 After identifying the research design to be used, read materials related to the design to
understand the advantages and disadvantages. Indicate the research design pointing out its
validity and reliability.

ACTIVITY 3.
a) Discuss accordingly, how you can make a good research design with reference of any
type of research design of your choice.
b) State relevant qualities of typical research design.
 c) Make a distinction in between a correlational and cross cultural research design.
d) Define the following types of research design and give relevant examples to scaffold
your explanation;
(i) Case study
(ii) Descriptive design
(iii) Experimental design
(iv) survey

INTRODUCTION
I am sure by this time, you should be wondering how you can select people to participate in
your research. This unit will give you information on the sampling techniques. Each sampling
technique will be critically examined in terms of their advantages and disadvantages.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Define the term population as used in research

 Differentiate between probability and non-probability sampling techniques.
 Explain challenges faced in population sampling
CONTENT
 Population
 Sampling techniques
 Bias and error in sampling
 Challenges faced in population sampling
 Qualities of effective reproduction selection

POPULATION
A population is a group of individuals, objects or items from which samples are taken for
measurements (for example a population of students). Population refers to an entire group
of persons or elements that have at least one thing in common, for instance, students at
Chalimbana University. Population also refers to a larger group from which the sample is
taken. It is important for the researcher to find out as much as possible about the study
population. This includes some of the overall demographics such as age, gender and class of
the population. The greater the diversity and differences that exists in the population, the
larger the researcher’s sample size should be. Capturing the variability in population allows
for more reliability of the study.
The following are qualities of an effective population of the study.
 a) Diversity: an effective population sample attempts to be as diverse as possible. The
greater the diversity and differences that exists in the population sample the higher
the applicability of the research findings to the whole population.
b) Representative: It is important for the researcher to identify and select respondents
that fulfil the questions the research is addressing. For example, if a study is on the
effect of the slum environment of basic education, it is important that the majority
of the population of the respondents is from the slum environment.
c) Accessibility: An effective population sample is one that is accessible to the
researcher.
d) Knowledge: An effective population sample should have some idea of the topic being
investigated.

Guidelines in population
In population sampling, the researcher should carry out the following:
a) Reflect on the research title particularly the independent and dependent variables
and the study objectives. This enables the researcher to identify the type of
population that will be most suitable for the study
b) Identify the largest population which can relevantly be used as respondents in
addressing the research question and meeting the specific objectives.
c) Consider the heterogeneity of a potential study population and choose areas or
communities which represents the range of variations with the most important
characteristics.
d) Evaluate the effectiveness of the selected population in meeting the objectives of the
study. Issues of accessibility to the respondents should also be considered during
evaluation.

Sampling techniques
Sampling is the procedure a researcher uses to gather people, places or things to study. It is
a process of selecting a number of individuals or objects from a population such that the
selected group contains elements representative of the characteristics found in the entire
group (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose
properties are studied to gain information about the whole (Webster, 1985). When dealing
with people, it can be defined as a set of respondents (people) selected from a larger
population for the purpose of survey. Research conclusion and generalizations are only as
good as the sample they are based on. Samples are always subsets or small part of the total
number that could be studied. Sampling is the act, process or technique of selecting a
suitable sample, or representative part of population for the purpose of determining
parameters or characteristics of the whole population. The way in which a researcher selects
subjects for a study will determine how one is able to generalize the results of the study.
Sampling design
The term “sampling design” refers to that part of the research plan that indicates how cases
are to be selected for observation. Sampling designs are divided into two broad areas:

 Probability designs
 Non-probability designs

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The key component behind all probability sampling approaches is randomization, or random
selection. In probability sampling, people, places or things are randomly selected. Each unit
in the population has an equal chance of being selected. This sampling gives every member
of the population equal chance of being included in the study. Probability sampling enables
the researcher to generalise to the larger population and make inferences. If the purpose of
your research is to draw conclusions or make predictions affecting the population as a
whole, then probability sampling is appropriate. Various methods have been established to
accomplish probability sampling. These include the following:
a) Simple random sampling

This method is referred to as simple random sampling as no complexities are involved. All
you need is a relatively small, clearly defined population to use this method. For example in
a town of 10,000 residents, the researcher may simply obtain a list of all residents, and then
using a sequence of numbers from a random number table (or draws of a hat, flips of coin),
selects say 10% or 20% or some portion of names on that list, making sure that he / she is
not drawing from any letter of the alphabet more heavily than others. Advantages of simple
random sampling are that the samples yield research data that can be generalized to a larger
population. This method also permits the researcher to apply inferential statistics to the data
and provides equal opportunities of selection for each elements of the population. It is a
procedure in which all the individuals in the defined population have an equal and
independent chance of being selected as a member of the sample.
Disadvantages
However this method also has disadvantages. These include the following:

 It is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling. The researcher may, just
because of luck of draw, not get good representation of subgroups in a population.
 Bias in selection is common.
 Some samples may be over or under represented.
 Non response error is high. Some of the members selected may have moved to other
areas.

b) Stratified random sampling

Stratified random sampling involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups
and then taking simple random sample in each subgroup. The sample is selected in such a
way as to ensure that certain subgroups in the population are represented in the sample in
proportion to their number in the population. This method is appropriate when the
researcher is interested in issues related to gender, race or age disparities in the population.
For example, if one is planning to study Factors Influencing female enrolment in architecture
and knows that gender is going to be an important factor because female students rarely
take this course or quite before completing the course, the researcher therefore needs to
stratify the sample by the gender strata, making sure that the female students are over
sampled (draw more or random number of female students) as opposed to male students
(which the researcher would under sample). For example, the department has 1,000
students consisting of 900 male and 100 female students, and the researcher’s intent on
sampling 10% of the total, and the researcher proceeds as usual, drawing 90 marks at
random and 10 female at random. If he/she had used the students list of names, regardless
of gender, chances are that the researcher may not obtain 10 female students at random
because they are fewer in total number. The advantages of this method are that you will be
able to represent not only the overall population, but also key subgroups of the population,
especially small minority groups. Stratified random selection will generally have more
statistical precision than simple random selection.
Disadvantages
If not carefully stratified, bias can occur resulting in some groups of the population being
unrepresented.

c) Systematic random sampling.

Suppose a researcher had a large list of people, places or things to select from, such as
100,000 people or more. The appropriate method to use is to select every 10 th, 20th, or 30th
person to such a list. This decision to use every 10 th, 20th, or 30th person is called the sampling
interval, and as it is done systematically and the entire list is used, the researcher is said to
be systematically random sampling.
Advantages.

 Large population can be analysed.

 Every member of the population has an equal chance of inclusion
 Bias is minimised

Disadvantages

 The response may be low since the respondents’ availability is unpredictable.

 The selection of the first sample member may result in bias in the entire sample
 The list used may not be in a systematic order.
d) Cluster random sampling.

In the event that a population is dispersed across a wide geographic region, one may have to
use cluster random sampling. This method allows for the division of the study population
into clusters (usually countries, regions, provinces or other boundaries) and random
sampling of everyone in those clusters. The units within the sampled clusters should be
measured.
For instance, a survey of all secondary schools in Kenya will require the researcher to visit all
the provinces. If one uses the simple random sampling method, he/she will have to cover
the entire country geographically. Instead, one could simply do a cluster sampling of two
districts per province, which would then be visited for the survey. The advantage of this
method is that it needs a detailed sampling frame for selected clusters only rather than for
the entire target area. There are savings in travel costs and time as well. However, there is a
risk of missing important sub groups and not having a complete representation of the target
population.
Probability sampling is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection.
In order to have a random selection method, a researcher must set up some process or
procedure that assures that the different units in the selected population have equal
probabilities of being chosen. Some forms of random selection include picking a name out of
a hat. These days, you can use a computer and generate random numbers as the basis of
random selection. Random sampling is still regarded as one of the best statistical methods as
it is free from bias.
Disadvantages.

 There is a risk of missing on important sub-groups

 Lack of complete representation of the target population.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
In this method, the researcher is interested in the representativeness of the concept in their
varying forms. This method of sampling aims to be theoretically representative of the study
population by maximising the scope or range of variation of the study. This method is mainly
applied to find out how a small group, or representative group, is doing for purposes of
illustrating or explanation. Various methods have been established to accomplish non-
probabilistic sampling.
a) Quota sampling.
This sampling technique begins by dividing the population into relevant strata such as age,
gender or geographical region. The total sample is allocated among the strata in direct
proportion to their estimated or actual size in the population. Once the researcher identifies
the people to be studied, they have to resort to haphazard or accidental sampling because
no effort is usually made to contact people who are difficult to reach in a quota. The
problem with this method is that bias intrudes on the sampling frame. This is because
researchers allowed to self-select respondents are subject to bias such as interviewing their
friends in excessive proportion or concentrating in areas where there are large numbers of
potential respondents.
b) Convenience sampling.
This method is based on using people who are captive audiences, people the researcher
meets haphazardly or accidentally. Respondents are people who just happen to be walking
by, or show a special interest in your research. The use of volunteer is an example of
convenience sampling.
c) Purposive sampling.
In this sample method, the researcher purposely targets a group of people believed to be
reliable for the study. For example, to study the effects of abortion on learning, the
researcher may make efforts to contact students who previously had terminated their
pregnancies. The researcher never knows if the sample is representative of the population.
The power of purposive sampling lies in selecting information rich cases for in-depth analysis
related to the central issues being studied.
Purposive sampling can be used with both quantitative and qualitative studies. Purposive
sampling can be carried out in addition to probability sampling. For example, after
completing your baseline study based on a random sample, you may recognise that certain
section of the project area are quite different from other areas due to variations in
landscape, geography, culture etc. you may then positively select those areas to get
representative information about how the variation have influenced the behaviour of the
people. Purposive sampling is particularly relevant when you are concerned with exploring
the universe and understanding the audience. This means, using your common sense and
the best judgement in choosing the right habitation and meeting the right of the correct
people for the purpose of your study. Types of purposive sampling include the following:

 Extreme Case Sampling: it focuses on cases that are rich in information because
they are unusual or special in some ways, for instance, the only community in a
region that prohibits wife inheritance.
 Maximum Variation Sampling: Aims at capturing the central themes that cut across
participant variationism, for instance, persons of different age, gender, religion and
marital status in an area protesting against child marriage.
 Homogeneous Sampling: Picks up a small sample with similar characteristics to
describe some particular subgroup in depth, for example, charcoal burners, touts,
bar maids and so on.
 Typical case Sampling: Uses one or more typical cases (individuals,
families/households) to provide a local profile. The typical cases are carefully
selected with the co-operation of the local people/extension workers.
  Critical Case Sampling: Looks for critical cases that can make a point quite
dramatically , for instance, farmers who have set up an unusually high yield record
of a crop in arid land
 Snowball or Chain Sampling: Begins with asking people, “who knows a lot about__.”
By asking a number of people, you can identify specific kinds of cases, for example
critical, typical, and extreme and so on. Snowball sampling begins with a few people
or cases and then gradually increases the sample size as new contacts are
mentioned by the people you started out with.
Purposive sampling is adequate under the following situations:
 When studying past invents and only a fraction of relevant materials is
available or accessible.
 While studying sensitive issues such as abortion, prostitution or crime,
certain individuals or groups of individuals may refuse to cooperate. The
researcher may use a non-probability method.
 If the population contains few relevant cases.
 If the population is unknown or not readily identifiable.

Target population (Selection of respondents)

The people a researcher selects as respondents in the study are vital in achieving the set
objectives. Selection of respondents will largely depend on the following.

 Information needed
 Data techniques to be used
 The available funding may pre-specify the sample size.

For reliable conclusion to be drawn from the research, samples for quantitative research
must be representative of the target group. Other things being equal, a larger sample of
respondents is better than a smaller one. In general, the larger the sample, the more
representative is likely to be, and the more generalizable the result of the study are likely to
be. Minimum acceptable sizes depend on the type of research.

Generally, a researcher would need 30 subjects in each group for co-relational and
descriptive research may be able to get by with 15 subjects per group in experimental or
quasi experimental design. In general, selection of respondents will depend on the nature of
the analysis to be performed, the desired precision of the estimates one wishes to archive,
the kind of number of comparisons that will be made. The number of variables that have to
be examined simultaneously and how a heterogeneously universe is sampled. Population is a
set of all the elements of interest in a study. Efforts should be made by a researcher to
ensure that the informants, particularly key informants, possess special knowledge related
to the study. Efforts should be made to ensure that participants are active participants in the
culture or organization under study, that they are involved in the events under study and
have adequate time. They should be willing to talk to the researcher.
Bias and error in sampling.

There are various challenges faced by researchers during sampling. Some of these
challenges include the following:

Sampling error – sampling error comprises of the differences between the sample and the
population that are due solely in the particular units that happen to have been selected. For
example, suppose that a sample of 100 university students is measured and all are found to
be taller than six feet. It is very clear even without any statistical proof that this would be a
highly unrepresentative sample leading to invalid conclusions. This is a very unlikely
occurrence because naturally such rare cases are widely distributed among the population.
But it can occur. Luckily, this is a very obvious error and can be detected very easily. The
more dangerous error is the less obvious sampling error against which nature offers very
little protection. An example would be a sample in which the average height is overstated by
only one inch or two rather than one foot which is more obvious. It is the unobvious error
that is of much concern.

There are two basic causes for sampling error; chances and sampling bias.

a) Chance – This is the error that occurs due to bad luck. This may result in untypical choices.
Unusual units in a population do exists and there is always a possibility that an abnormally
large number of them will be chosen. The main protection against this kind of errors is to use
a large enough sample.

b) Sampling Bias – Sampling bias is a tendency to favour the selection of units that have
particular characteristics. Sampling bias is usually the result of a poor sampling plan. The
most notable is the bias of non-response when for some reason some units have no chance
of appearing in the sample. Take a hypothetical case where a survey is conducted to find out
the level of stress that graduate students are going through. A mail questionnaire is sent to
100 randomly selected graduate students. Only 52 students respond. The results show that
students are not under stress, yet the actual case is that stress levels may be high except
among those who are answering the questionnaire. Bias can be very costly and has to be
guarded against as much as possible. A means of selecting the units of analysing must be
designed to avoid the more obvious forms of bias.

Non-sampling error (measurement error) – The other main cause of unrepresentative

samples is non-sampling error. Non-sampling error may either be produced by participants
in the statistical study or may be an innocent by-product of the sampling plans and
procedures. A non-sampling error is an error that results solely from the manner in which
the observations are made. The simplest example of non-sampling error is inaccurate
measurements due to malfunctioning instruments or poor procedures. For example,
consider the observation of human weights. If persons are asked to state their own weights
themselves, no two answers will be of equal reliability. The people will have weighed
themselves on different scales. An individual’s weight fluctuates, so that the time of
weighing will affect the answer. The scale reading will also vary with the person’s state of
undress. Responses therefore will not be of comparable validity unless all persons are
weighed under the same circumstances. Biased observation due to inaccurate
measurements can be innocent but very devastating.

In surveys of personal characteristics, unintended errors may result from the manner in
which the response is elicited, the social desirability of the persons surveyed, the purpose of
the study and the personal biases of the interviewer or survey writer. In all the sampling
procedures major weaknesses include failure to identify the accessible and target population
and using a sample that is too small to permit statistical analysis.

Challenges faced in population sampling

In population identification, researchers are sometimes faced with various challenges. These
include the following:

 Scope: Avery wide scope for example a study of a whole country may hinder
effective sampling of the population. A narrow scope for example a study on one of
the population. A narrow scope for example a study on one school affects the
validity and reliability of the findings.
 Lack of representation.
 Bias in sampling: some researchers select a population that is convenient for them in
terms of accessibility.
 Poor accessibility to the population: some population samples are difficulty to
access.

Respondents

In research, the term “respondents” refers to those who will reply to, or respond to the
research instruments. The selection of respondents is crucial to the overall usefulness of the
information produced. This is because respondents help in the clarification of issues under
the study. This contributes to the achievements of the set objectives. The selection of the
respondents will largely depend on the information needed and the date techniques to be
used. The researcher should ensure that informants, particularly key informants, possess
special knowledge related to the study.

 Qualities of effective respondent’s selection.

The following should be adhered to by researchers in the selection of respondents.

 Respondents should be individuals who possess some knowledge about the topic
being studied.
 They should be willing to share the information they have in relation to the topic with
the researcher.
  They should be active participants in the culture or organization under study.
 They must be willing to give their time to the study.
 A large sample of respondents is better than a small one. In general, the larger the
sample, the more representative it is likely to be, and the more generalizable the
result of the study is likely to be.

Challenges faced in respondent selection.

The selection of the reliable informants has various challenges. These include the following:

 Unwillingness of respondents to share all they know on the issue with the
researcher.
 Language barrier: the interviewer or questionnaire may have been written in
Kiswahili yet the respondent can effectively express him/herself in English or say
Dholuo.
 Hostility towards the researcher: Some respondents may personalise the questions
asked particularly during interviews and become hostile towards the researcher.
 Time limitations.

In general, selection of respondents will depend on the nature of the analysis to be

performed, the desired precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve, the kind and
number of comparisons that will be made, the number of variables that have to be
examined simultaneously and how heterogeneously a universe is sampled.

ACTIVITY

1. Discus Qualities of an effective population sample.

2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the following sampling techniques.
a. Simple random sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Convenience sampling

3. Discus different types of purposive sampling.

Unit 5
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Introduction
In this unit you will focus on research instruments. Research instruments refers
to the tools that the researcher uses in collecting the necessary data. The most
common research instruments used. Include the following : questionnaire,
interview, observation, checklist and focus group.
Learning Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 design a questionnaire
 use a questionnaire to collect appropriate data
 design interview guide schedules
 conduct interview and collect appropraite data
 design observation shedule
 use observation shedule to collect appropriate data
 conduct focus group discussion
content
5.0 Questionnaires:
5.1 Types of Questionnaires
Denscombe (2010) maintains that there are many types of questionnaires. They
can vary enomously in terms of their purpose, size and appearnce. To qualify as
a resaerch questionnaire, however, they should do the following:
 be designed to collect information which can be used subsequently as data
for analysis.and whose purpose is to discover things
 consists of a written list of questions, that each person who answers the
particular questionnaire reads an identical set of questions. This allows for
consistency and precision in terms of the wording of the questions and
makes the processing of the answers easier.
 Gather information by asking people directly about the points concerned
with the research.
Questionnaires work on the premise that if you want to find out something about
people and their attitudes you simply go and ask them what it is you want to
know and get the information “straight from the horse’s mouth”

5.1.1 When to use a questionnaire

Kasonde (2014) maintains that different methods are better suited to different
circumstances and questionnaires are no exception. Although they can used,
perhaps ingeniuosly across a wide spectrum of research situations (both postal
and internet) are at their most productive:
 when used with large number of respondents in many locations;
 when what is required tends to be fairly straight forward information-
relatively brief and uncontroversial ;
 when their is need for standardized data from identical questions-without
requiring personal face to face interaction;
 when the respondents can be expected to be able to read and understand
the questions- the implication of age, intellect, language and eyesight
need to be considered;
 when the social climate is open enough to allow full and honest answers.
5.1.2Kinds of Data Collected by Questionnaires
As you may be aware,Questionnaires rely on written information supplied
directly by people in response to questions asked by the researcher. In this
respect, the kind of data is distinct from that which could be obtained from
interviews, observation or documents. The information from questionnaires tend
to fall into two broad categories- “facts” and “opinions”-and it is vital that at all
stages of using questionnaires the researcher is clear whether the information
being sought is to do with facts or to do with opinions.
Factual informationdoes not require much in the way of judgement or pesonal
attitudes on the part of respondents. It just requires respondents to reveal
straightfowrd information (such as their address, age, sex, marital status or
number of children). An example of a “fact “ question might be”which TV
programmes did you watch last night?
Opinoins, attitudes, views, beliefs, preferences etc can be investigated using
questionnaires. In this case, though respondents are required to reveal
information about feelings, to express values and to weigh up alternatives in a
way that calls for a judgement about things rather than the mere reporting of
facts. An example of an opinion question might be “which is your favourite TV
programme?
As you may be aware, it is worth stressing that in practice questionnaires are
very likely to include questions about both facts and opinoins. Political opinion
polls for reinstance, might include factual questionsabout how people actually
voted at the last election as well as questions about feelings of support for
particular political parties’ policies, and market researchers might want to know
factual information about the age , social class, sex, etc of the people whose
opinions, attidues and preferences they are investigating.
5.1.3 Planning the Use of Questionnaire
You may be aware that Questionnaires tend to be ‘once-offs’. In general,
researchers do not have the time or resources to repeat pieces of research which
involve the use of questionnaires; nor do they have the opportunity to make
amendments and corrections to the questionnaires once it has been printed and
distributed. And the vast majority of respondents are likely to be less than
sympathetic to a plea from the researcher to fill in the questionnaire a second
time in order to overcome a mistake in the first version. There is, theirfore, a lot
of pressure to get it right first time. This involves planning. The cost, the timing
and other factors linked to the distribution of the questionnaire need to be
carefully considered because each has a direct bearing on the researcher’s
prospects of getting it right first time.
, As a research tool a questionnaire has various advantages including the
following: information can be collected from a large sample and diverseregions,
confidentiality is upheld and itsaves time . howeve it has also some
disadvantages, these include : response rate can be quite slow as participants
complete or answer the questionnaire at their own pace, especially when it
involves mailing. The other disadvantage is that there is no direct contact with
the participants so the researcher cannot deal with any possible
misunderstanding. Finally, no clear reason can be given for incomplete
responses.

Activity 1
1. According to Denscombe( 2010) explain three factors that can make a
research questionnaire to qualify as a tool for data collection

2. At what point can you decide to use a questionnaire?

3. Explain some advantages and disadvantages of using a questinnaire as a

tool for data collection.

6.0INTERVIEWS;
Interviews are an attractive propositions for project researchers. At first glance,
they do not seem to involve much technical issues and they draw on a skill that
the researcher already have- the ability to conduct conduct a conversation.
Although their are a lot of supperficial similarities between a conversation an
interview, interviews are actually something more than just a conversation.
Interviews involve a set of assumptions and understandings about the situation
which are not nomarly associated with a casual conversation
Denscomb,1983’Silverman 1995). When someone agrees to take part in a
research interview:
 There is concent to take part. From the researcher’spoint of view this is
particulary important in relation to research ethics. The interview is not
done by secret recording of discussion or the use of casual converstion as
data. It is openly a meeting intended to produce material that will be used
for research purposes-and the interviewee understands this and agrees to
it.
 Interviewees’ needs can be treated as “on the record” and for the record. It
ia of course, possible for interviewees to stipulate that their words are not
to be attributed to them, or not to be made publicly available. The point is,
 though, that unless interviewees specify to the contrary, the interview talk
is “on record” and for the record”.
 The agenda for the discusion is set by the researcher. Although the degree
of control excised by the researcher will vary according to the style of
interviewing , there is a tacit agreement built into the notion of being
interviewed that the proceeding and the agenda for the discussion will be
controlled by the researcher.
6.1 When to Use Interviews
Although interviews can be used to for the collection of straightforward
factual information, their potential as a data collection method is better
exploited wthen they are applied to the explaration of more complex and
uncontroversial facts, then questionnaires might prove to be a more cost-
effective method. But when the researcher needs to gain insights into things
such as people’s feelings, emotions and experiences, then interiews will
almost certainly provide a more suitable method-a method that is attuned to
the intricacy of the subject matter. To specific, interiews-in particular
indepeth interviews-lead themselves to the collection of data based on:
 Opininos, feelings, emotions, and experiences. The nature of these
means that they need to be exploited in depth and in detail rather than
simply reported in a word of two
 Sensitive issues. When the research covers issues that might be
considered sensitive or rather personal there is a case to be made for
using interviews. Using a careful and considerable approach ,
participants can be encouraged to discuss personal and sensitive issues
in open and honest manner.
 Previlaged information. Here the justification for interviews is based
on the values of contract with key players in the field who can give
privilaged information. The depth of information provided by
interviews can produce best “value for money” if the informants are
wiling and able to give information that others could not.
The decission to use interviews for a research project, as you may be
aware needs to take account of their feasibility as a data collection
method. Before embarking on a programme of interviews the researcher
needs to feel assured of that:
 It is possible to gain direct acess to the prospective interviewees.
There is obviously no point in pursuing the idea of conducting interviews unless
there are good grounds for believing that the necessary people can be
accessesd,and that some agreement can be obtained from all the parties involved
in the research.
 The interviews are viable in terms of the costs in time and travel
involved.
With limited resources, the researcher needs to ensure that the people are not
distributed too widely across a large geographical area and that condicting the
interviews will not incur prohibitive costs.
6.1.1 Types of Research Interviews
 Structured interviews
You may be aware that structured interviews involve tight control over the
format of the research questions and answers. In essence, the structured
interview is like questionnaire which is administered face to face with a
respondent. The researcher has a predetermined list of questions, to which the
respondent is invited to offer limited option responses. The tight control over the
wording of the questions, the order in which the questions occur and the range
of answers that are on offer have the advantage of “standardization”. Each
respondent is faced with identical questions. And range of pre-coded answers on
offer to respondents ensures that analysis is relatively easy. The structured
interview in this respect, leads itself to collection of quantitative data.
Structured interviews are often associated with social surveys where researchers
are trying to collect large volume of data from a wide rang of respondents. Here
we are witnessing the replacement of interviews armed with clipboards and
paper questionnaires with those using laptop computers to input information
direct into a suitable software program. Such computer assissted personal
interview (CAPI) has the advantage of using software with built in checks to
eliminate errors in the collection of data, and it allows quick analysis of the data.
However, its relatively large initial costs,caused by the purchase of the laptop
computers, the development of suitable software and the training involved mean
that CAPI is better suited to large-budget, large-number surveys than to small-
scale research.
 Semi-structured interviews
With semi-structured interviews, the interviewer still has a clear list of issues to
be addressed and questions to be answered. However, with the semi-structured
interview the interviewer is prepared to be flexible in terms of the order in which
the topics are considered and perhaps more significantly, to let the interviewee
develop ideas and speak more widely on the issues raised by the researcher. The
answers are open-ended, and there is more emphasis on the interviewee
elaborating points of interest.
 Unstructered interviews
Unstructured interviews go further in the extent to which emphasis is placed on
the interviewee’s thoughts. The researcher’s role is to be as unintrusive as
possible –to start the ball rolling by introducing a theme or topic and then letting
the the interviewee develop their ideas and pursue their train of thought.
Semi-structured and unstructured interviews are realy on a continuum and in
practice,it is likely that any interview will slide back and forth along the scale.
What they have in common, and what separates them from structured interview
is their willingness to allow the interviewee to use their own words and develop
their own thoughts. Allowing interviewees to “speak their minds is a better way
of discovering things about complex issues and generally semi-structured and
unstructured interviews have as their aim “discovery” rather than “checking”.

 One-to-one interviews
You may be aware that the most common form of interview is the one-to-one
variety which involves a meeting between one researcher and one informant.
One reason for its popularity is that it is relatively easy to arrange. Only two
people’s diaries need to concide. Another adavntage is that the opinions and
views expressed throughout the interview stem from one source: the
interviewee. This makes it fairly straightforward for the researcher to locate
specific ideas with specific people. A third advantage is that the one-to-one
interview is relatively easy to control. The researcher only has one person’s idea
to grasp and a fourth adavantage of conducting one-to-one interviews becomes
evident when the researcher embarks on transcribing the interview tape. It is far
easier to transcribe a recorded interview when the talk involves just one
interviewee. There is only one voice to recognise and only one person talkingat
a time.
 Group interviews
According to Mwansa (2005) a disavantage of the one-to-one interview is that it
limits the number of views and opinions available to the researcher. Listening to
one person at a time effectively restricts the number of voices that can be heard
and the range of views that can be included within a research project. Group
interviews however, provide a practical solution to this. By interviwing more
than one person at a time the researcher is able to dramatically increase the
number and range of participants involved in the research.
Group interview can be undertaken very much like a one-to-one interview in the
sense that the interviewer remains the focal point of the interaction that takes
place. The questions and answers are channelled through the interviewer. The
difference is that instead of each question prompting a response from just one
interviewee the researcher can get perhaps four responses from four people
during the interview.
Increasing the numbers involved can have benefits in terms of the
representativeness of the data. The inclusion of more participants is likely to
mean that a broader spectrum of people are covered by the research and that
there might be a greater variety of experiences and opinions emerging from the
investigation. Indeed, undercertain circumstances researchers can deliberately
select participants who are very different in order to gather widely different
views and experiences on the topic of the interview.
An alternative version of the group interview is one that streese the “group”
characteristics of the interaction during an interview. It sees the group
interaction as distinctive in the way that it can get the participants to respond as
part of a group, rather than as individuals. The researcher’s incentive for using a
group interview, in this case, is not a quantitative one concerned with increased
numbers and improved representativeness. It is, instead, a qualitative one
concerned with the way that group discussions can be more illuminating. The
group discussion allows participants to listen to alternative points of view, it
allows members to express support for certain views and to challange views
with which they disagree. The group interview, in this case trades on group
dynamics. It uses the social and psychological aspects of groupbehaviour to
foster the ability of participants to get involved, speak their minds and reflect on
the views of others.

 Focus Groups Discussion

You may be aware that a Focus group consists of small groups of people who
are brought together by a “moderator”(the researcher) to explore attitudes and
perceptions, feelings and ideas about a specific topic. Denscomb(2010)
maintains that focus group discussions typically last for 1 hour 30 minutes or 2
hrs and are useful for gauging the extent to which there are shared views among
a group fo people in relation to a specific topic. According to Mwansa (2005)
focus group interviews have six to nine people in them. This is a large enough
number to allow a range of views and opinions to be present among the group
but not too large as to be unmanageable in terms of the discussion. In small-
scale research projects the numbers are often smaller. The reason for this is that
focus groups can be costly and time-consuming to arrange. It is not easy to
organise a venue for the meetingand get six or more people to fund travel and
pay the the room.
According to Kasonde (2014) focus groups make particular use of dynamics and
have three distinct features:
 There is a focus to the session,with the group discussion being
based on an item or experience about which all participants have
similar knowledge,
 Particular emphasis is placed on the interactionwith in the group as
as a means of eliciting information,
 The moderator’s role is to facilitate the group interaction rather lead
the discussion

Activity 2
(a).What is an interview?

(b).Design a simple structured interview schedule

(c).What do you see as strengths and weaknesses of relying on people’s

words and observable behaviour in qualitative research?

7.0 OBSERVATION
You may be aware that observation offers the social researcher a distinct way of
collecting data. It does not relay on what people say they do, or what they think.
It is more direct than that. Instead it draws on the premise that , for certain
purposes, it is best to observe what actually happens.
Mwansa (2005) maintains that there are essentially two kinds of observation
research used in the social sciences. The first of these is:
7.1 systematic.or non-participantobservation, has its origins in social
psychology-in particular, the study of interaction in settings such as school
classrooms. It is normally linked with the production of quantitative data and the
use of statistical analysis. The second is
7.1.1participant observation. This is mainly associated with sociology and
anthropology, and is used by researchers to infiltrate situations, sometimes as an
undercover operation, to understand the culture and processes of the group being
investigated. It is normally associated qualitative data.Denscomb (2010)
maintains that these are two methods of research might seem poles apart interms
of their origins and their use in current social research, but they share some vital
characteristics:
 Direct observation. The obvious connection is that they both rely on direct
observation. In this respect, they stand together, in to methods such as
questionnaires and interviews, which base their data on what informants
tell the researcher, and in contrast to documents where the researcher
tends to be one step removed from the action
 Field work. The second common facfor is their dedication to collecting
data in real-life situations-out there in the field. In their distinct ways, they
both involve field work. The dedicationto field work immediatelly
identifies observation as an empirical method for data collection. As a
method, it requires the researcher to go in search of information,at first
hand, rather than relying on secondary sources.
 Natural settings. Fieldwork observation-distinct from laboratory
observations-occurs in situations which would have occured whether or
not the research had taken place. The whole point is to observe things as
they normally happen, rather than as they happen under artificially created
conditions such as laboratory experiments. There is a major concern to
avoid disrupting the natural ness of the setting when understanding the
research. In this approach to social research,it becomes very important to
minimize the extent to which the presence of the researcher might alter
the situation being reseached.
 The issue of perception. Systematic obervationand participant observation
both recognise that the process of observing is far from straightforward.
Both are acutely sensitive to the possibility that research’s perceptions of
situations might be influenced by personal factors and that the data
collected could thus be unreliable. They tend to offervery differentways of
overcoming this, but both see it as a problem that needs to be addressed.

7.1.2 Systematic Observation and Observation Schedules

Mwansa (2005) maintains that the psychology of memory and perception
explains why the facts recorded by one researcher are very likely to differ from
those recorded by another, and why different observers can produce different
impressions of the situation. However, all this is rather worrying when it comes
to the use of observation as a method of collecting data. It suggests that the data
are reliable to be inconsistent be tween researchers-too dependent upon the
individual and the personal circumstances of each researcher. It implies that
different observers will produce different data.
It is precisely this problem which is addressed by systematic observation and its
use of an observation schedule. The whole purpose of the schedule is to
minimize, possibly to eliminate, the variations that will arise from data based on
individual perceptions of events and situations. Its aim is to provide a frame
work for observation which all observers will use, and will eliminate them to do
the following:
 Be alert to the same activities and be looking out for the same things
 Record data systematically and thoroughly
 Produce data which are consistent between observers, which two or more
researchers who witness the same event recording the same data.
To achieve these three aims, observation schedules contain a list of items that
operate something like a checklist. The researcher who uses an observation
schedule will monitor the items contained in the checlist and make a reord of
them as they occur. All observers will have their attention directed to the same
things. The process of systemic observation then becomes a matter of measuring
and recording how many times an event occurs, or how long some event
continues. In this way, there will be a permanent record of the events which
should be consistent between any researcher who use the schedule, because what
is being oberved is directed by the items contained in the schedule. When
researchers are properly trained and experienced, there should be what is called
high “inter-observer” reliability.
The value of findings from the use of an observation schedule will depend
however, on how appropriate the items contained in the schedule are for the
situation. Precise measurements of something that is irrelevant will not advance
the research at all. It is imperative, for this reason, that the items on the schedule
are carefully selected. The findings will only be worth something if the items
can be shown to be appropriate for the issues being inverstigated.

Activity 3
 (a).What is observational Research?

(b).What are the advantages and disadvantages of both participant and non-
participant observation?

(c).Design a checlist for the use of observation schedules.

8.0 Standardized Tests

You may be aware that standardization is when a test is given to a large number
of subjects who will be the representative of the people whose test is designed
for. All those subjects should take the same version of the test and should be put
under the same conditions. The scores of this group would help to find the norm
or standards.
8.1 verifying the Data
The credibility of research is something that needs to be demonstrated as part
and parcel of the research process itself. It should not be taken for granted. For
the research to achieve credibility it needs to demonstrate in some way or
anotherthat the findings are based on practices that are acknowledged to be the
bases of good research. And Silverman(2006-2010) has tressed, this applies as
much to qualitative research as it does to to quantitative research.
Conventionary, the bases for judging the credibility of research have been:
 Validity. This refers to the accuracy and precision of the data. It also
concerns appropriate ness of the data in terms of the research question
being investigated. The basic question is “are the data the right kind for
investigating the topic and have they been measured correctly?
 Reliability. This refers to whether a research instrument is neutral in its
effect and consistent across multiple occasions of its use. This is
frequently translated as the question “would the research instrument
produce the same results on different ocassions (all other things being
equal)?
 Generalizability (external validity). This refers to the prospect of applying
the findings from research to other examples of the phenomenon. It
concerns the ability of research findingsnto explain or occur in, similar
phenomenon at a general or universal level rather than being something
that is unique to a particular case (s) used for the reseach
  Objectivity. This refers to the absence of bias in the reseach. It denotes
research that is impartial and neural in terms of the research’s influence
on its outcome, and it denotes processes of data collection and anlysis that
are fair and even –handed.
8,1,2 Data Collection
Kasonde (2014) maintains that Data Collection refers to the gathering of
information to answer research questions. In research, the term “dta collection”
refers to gathering specific information aimed at providing or refuting some
facts. In data collection you, as researcher, must have a clear understanding of
what you hope to obtain and how to obtain it ie whether you are going to
conduct an experiment, a survey, field research or to focus on the re-analysis of
statistics already created by others(documentary analysis). Using our example of
research instruments above the data collection procedure(s) would be:
Qualitaive researchers may use different approaches in collecting data, such as
the grounded theory practice, and classical ethnography. The type of data
collected in qualitative methods can include invterviewsand group discussions,
observation and field notes, pictures, and other materials. Qualitative reserchers
typically rely on the following methods for gathering information: participant
observation, non-participant observation, field notes, journals, structured
interviews, semi-structured interviews unstructured interviews and analysis of
documents.
According to Kasonde (2014) in education research the most frequently used
qualitative research methodologies include the following:
 Ethnographic Research, used for investingating cultures by collecting and
describing data that is intended to help in the development of a theory. An
example applied ethnographic research is the study of a particular culture
and understanding of the role of a particulae behaviour in the cultural
framework.
 Critical Social Research, used a researcher to understand how people
communicate and develop symbolic meanings
 Ethical Inquiry, an intellectual analysis of ethical problems which
includes the study of ethics as related to responsibility, rights, duty, right
and wrong choices, etc.
 Grounded Theory is an inductive type of research, based or “grounded” in
the observations or data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of
data sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews,
observations and surveys.
  Phenomenological Research, describes the “subjective reality” of an event
as perceived by the study population; it is the study of a phenomenon.
 Philosophical Research, is conducted by field exparts within the
boundaries of a specific field of study or profession.
Denscomb (2010) maintains that their is not a particular method of data
collection that claims to be unique. He has indicated,“very divers materials
(interviews; transcripts of meetings; court proceedings; field observations;other
documents, like diaries and letters; questionnaire answers; sensus statistics;etc)
provide indispensable data for social research.

Activity 4
1. What is data collectiong?

2. Explain how you can ensure the Validity and Reliability of Research
Instruments.
3. Design two data collection instruments of your choice.

17. Data analysis and presentation

Introduction

For data to be useful, our observations need to be organised so that we can get some patterns and
come to logical conclusions. Data refers to the information that was gathered to prove some facts
concerning the problem that the researcher is conducting the research on. Data collection is vital in
our daily living. In view of this, the unit identifies data analysis, data analysis in qualitative research
and data analysis in quantitative research.

Data analysis

In research data analysis to examining what has been collected in a survey or experiment and making
deductions and inferences. It involves extracting important variables, deducting any anomalies and
testing any underlying assumptions. It involves scrutinizing the required information and making
inferences. Statistical data analysis divides the methods for analysing data into two categories,
exploratory methods and confirmatory methods. Exploratory methods are used to discover what the
data seems to be saying by using simple arithmetic and easy to draw pictures to summarise data. It is
used mainly in qualitative research.

Confirmatory methods use ideas from probability theory in the attempt to answer specific questions.
These methods are mainly applicable in quantitative research. The methods used in data analysis are
influenced by whether the research is qualitative or quantitative (Kombo and Tromp: 2014).

 Data analysis in qualitative research

Qualitative data analysis is primarily an inductive process of organising the data into categories and
identifying patterns (relationships) among the categories. Qualitative analysis is a systematic process
of selecting, categorising, comparing, synthesising and interpreting to provide explanations of the
single phenomenon of interest.

Qualitative research involves intensive data collection (several variables), over an extended period of
time in a natural setting. The analysis of data varies from simple descriptive analysis to more
elaborate reduction and multivariate associate techniques. The analysis will vary with the purposes
of the research. In qualitative research the researcher should decide before going to the field how
she/he is going to analyse the data. The analytical technique will determine the recording style that
will be used during the data collection exercise.

In qualitative research, data can be analysed by summarising key findings. For example in focus group
discussions the researcher notes down the frequent responses of the participants on various issues.
Explanations, interpretation and conclusions can be analysed.

 Data analysis in quantitative research

Data analysis and presentation states the statistical techniques to be used in data analysis and
specifies how the data will be presented. It consists of measuring numerical values from which
descriptions such as mean and standard deviations are made. These data can be put into an order
and further divided into two groups, discrete data or continuous data. Discrete data are countable
data. Continuous data, are parameters (variables) that are measurable and are expressed on a
continuous scale, such as the height of a person. The researcher states the statistical test for each
research question and or hypothesis and if necessary, the rationale for the choice of the test. The
rationale may be in terms of purpose of the study, sample size and type of scales used in the
instrument. The statistical technique is selected on the basis of appropriateness for investigating the
research question and or hypothesis.

The analysis of quantitative data varies from simple to more elaborate analysis techniques. The
analysis varies with the objective of the experiment, its complexity and the extent to which the
conclusion can be easily reached. Data analysis in quantitative research depends on the type of
study. This as follows:

 Correlation studies: data is mainly analysed using the correlation coefficient. By using this
tool the researcher indicates the degree of relationship between two variables. Another type
of correlational analysis is reliability studies (analyses conducted to provide information
about the validity and reliability of tests). In reliability studies the same group of subjects is
given a test and then at a somewhat later date is given to the test again.
 Prediction studies:
 In predictive correlational studies, While carrying out the analysis, the researcher uses the
degree of relationship that exists between two variables to predict one variable from the
other.
 Causal-comparative research:
Causal-comparative educational research attempts to identify a causative relationship
between an independent variable and a dependant variable. However, this relationship is
more suggestive than proven as the researcher does not have complete control over the
independent variable.
 Experimental research:
The major difference in data analysis between causal-comparative and experimental
research is that the researcher has control over the independent variable in experimental
research and can manipulate this variable at will.

Activity

1. Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data analysis research.

2. Briefly explain what is involved in causal-comparative research and experimental research.

17. Data presentation

There are three ways that researchers can present data after analysis. These are:

1. Using statistical techniques

2. Using graphical techniques
3. Using a combination of both 1 and 2.

Statistical techniques

Statistical techniques are a set of mathematical methods used to extract and clarify information from
observed data. Statistics generate simple numbers to describe distributions, either grouped or
ungrouped. Statistics is a basic tool of measurement, evaluation and research. Statistics have two
major functions in data presentation. They can add to our understanding of the data that make up
the distribution and they can substitute for the distribution. A sample statistic is any numerical value
describing a characteristic of a sample.

The following are some of the statistical techniques used to present analysed data:

(a) Frequency distribution

The values in a set of ungrouped data constitute a distribution. The values that we have in a set of
ordinal data and the values we generate by converting ungrouped data into grouped form, constitute
a frequency distribution.

(b) Measure of central tendency

Measure of central tendency are numbers that define the location of a distribution’s centre. For
example, if we regard all measurements as being attempts to give us the ‘true’ value of a particular
phenomenon, we can regard the centre of the distribution of a set of measurements an estimate of
that ‘true’ value.

Mean: is the average. It is the arithmetic average of a set of scores. It is found by the sum total dived
by the number.
Median: It is a set of ungrouped data. If the data is arranged in ascending or descending order, in
general, the median is the value that has half of the data less than it, and half greater than it. If the
sample size (n) is an old number, the median is the middle value of the entire distribution. If (n) is an
even number, the median is the mean of the two ‘middle’ values.

Mode: This is the value that occurs most often. It is possible to have no mode, this is no value occurs
more than once. Most frequently occurring score in a set of scores. It is possible to have more than
one mode. A distribution may be bimodal, trimodal or multi-modal.

(c) Measures of dispersion

This type of statistic describes how much the distribution varies around the central point. We can
describe this spread as measures of dispersion. These measures quantify the variability of the
distribution.

Range: This is the lowest and highest scores in a set of scores. The simplest measure of dispersion of
data. The difference between the highest and the lowest values in the data (maximum/minimum).

Variance: It is the standard deviation squared. It is the measure that indicates the distribution of
data. The idea is that each observation differs from the mean by some amount which is referred to as
the difference from the mean.

Standard deviation: This is the square root of the variance. It is the approximate average amount by
which each score in a set of scores differs from the mean.

Coefficient of variability: this is calculated by expressing the standard deviation as a percentage of

the mean.

Graphical techniques

This is where grouped data is presented in form of a table, the information can also be represented
diagrammatically. Data can be graphically presented by a histogram or polygon.

Histogram- this can be shown as a series of vertical or horizontal bars, their length indicating the
frequency of the particular class.

Polygon- Data can also presented as polygons. The polygon is closed by connecting the midpoint of
the end class to the mid-points of ‘imaginary’ classes of each side, which have a notional frequency of
zero.

Bars- The cumulative frequency distribution can also be plotted as a series of bars or lines joining the
midpoints of the classes.

Pie chart- A pie chart can also be used for presenting results.

Activity

1. Define mean, mode and range.

2. Give examples of data representations of:
A pie chart, bar graph, histogram and a curve.

18. Format of research proposal

To propose means to put forward, suggest, or advise. Proposal therefore refers to suggestions,
intentions, plans or schemes. A research proposal can be referred to as a research plan, suggestion or
request.

Many departments of education follow the writing style of the American Psychological Association.
There are several advantages of using this American Psychological Association, the most helpful of
which is that the use of footnotes is almost completely eliminated.

A research proposal has three main chapters as shown below:

Outline of research proposal

1. Chapter: 1 (this is the introduction it consists of:)

 The background of the study
 Statement of the research problem
 Purpose of the study
 Objectives of the study
 Hypothesis
 Conceptual or theoretical framework
2. Chapter: 2
 Review of related literature
3. Chapter: 3
 Research methodology
4. References and appendices are included after chapter 3.

Qualities of an effective research proposal are as follows:

1. It states what is being proposed

2. What the project is about
3. How it will be carried out
4. When it will be carried out
5. How much it will cost

Activity

Think of a research problem and come up with a format of a research proposal

References

John, W. Best, and James, V. Kahn, (1989). Research in Education. New Jersey: Prentice Hall

Kombo, D.K. and Tromp, D.E.A. (2014). Proposal and Thesis Writing: An Introduction. Nairobi:
Paulines Publications Africa

Thomas, K. Crowl, (199). Fundamentals of Educational Research. Australia: Brown and Benchmark
REFERENCES
Denscombe. M.(2010). The Good Research Guide; for small-scale social
researchProject.
New York: Mc Graw-Hill Education.

Mwansa M. (2005). Introduction to Research part 11 Qualitative Research.

Lusaka : Zambian Open University Press.

Kasonde S. N.(2014). Writing a Research Proposal in Educational Research.

Lusaka: UNZA Press.