Arab Academy for Science & Technology & Maritime Transport

Electronics & Communications Department

EC410 Electronic Measurement

Lecture: Introduction to Sensors and Transducers

Lecturer: Dr. Azza Kamal

1
Outline
• Why to study sensory systems?
• IoT and Sensory systems
• Transducers and Sensors
• Basic Requirements of Transducers
• Classification of Transducers
• Selection of Transducers
• Error minimization
• Types of Transducers

2
Why to Study Sensory System:
Origin and progress of IoT
The first idea of the IoT emerged in 1990s
1995
The Road Ahead (Bill Gates book),
everything is connected
2005
“ITU Internet Reports”, “The Internet of Things”
Towards ubiquitous IoT

2009 IBM “Smarter Planet”

2015

3
Origin and progress： • RFID
Diverse sources • In 1999, MIT Auto-ID center,

4
Pervasive Computing
ubiquitous computing, is the growing
trend of embedding computational
capability (generally in the form of
microprocessors) into everyday objects to
make them effectively communicate and
perform useful tasks in a way that
minimizes the end user's need to interact
with computers

Examples of pervasive computing

include electronic toll systems on
highways; tracking applications, such as
Life360, which can track the location of
the user, the speed at which they are
driving and how much battery life their
smartphone has; Apple Watch; Amazon
Echo; smart traffic lights;

5
 Embedded Systems

• In late 1990s, sensor

networks
• An embedded system is a
microcontroller or microprocessor-
based system which is designed to
perform a specific task. For
example, a fire alarm is an
embedded system; it will sense
only smoke. It has hardware. It has
application software

6
 What is IoT？
• Concept
• In computing, the Internet of Things refers to a network of objects, such
as household appliances. It is often a self-configuring wireless network.

7
Network Structure

Data analytics→
Interface layer

Data processing→
Service layer

Data transmission→
Networking layer

Data generation→
Sensing layer

8
Four layer model for the IoT

Interface layer
Smart Shipping Smart grid Green housing Smart traffic Environment Monitor

Interface layer
Service layer
Intelligent
Data center Search engine Decision Information security Data mining

Networking layer
Networking layer Wireless WAN Wireless LAN

Sensing layer
Internet

Wireless Personal Area Network Wireless LAN

Sensing layer

Smart device Sensor Sensor 9

 Sensing layer

RFID
• Sensing layer is the lowest layer
and is the foundation an IoT NW.
Heterogeneity
• Heterogeneity in the IoT
is one of the key characteristics. Wireless
sensor

Smart
device

10
 Sensing technology example: wireless sensor
networks
• The components of WSN system are sensor node,
rely node, actor node, cluster head, gateway
and base station.

▪ WSNs are typically used to collect data

from the environment, while IoT devices
control devices or provide information to the user.

What is the difference between WSN and IoT?

• WSN: Things (sensor nodes) connected without a wire to gather some data.
• IOT: WSN+Any physical object(Thing)+IP address+ Internet + App + Cloud computing+

11
wireless sensor networks: Applications
• VigilNet: A system developed by the University of Virginia for military surveillance.
Sensor nodes support ad hoc mode networking and multi-hop transmission.
• The VigilNet allows a group of cooperating sensor devices to detect and track the positions of moving vehicles in
an energy-efficient manner.

• Mercury: A wearable medical monitoring sensor developed by Harvard University.

The sensor has features such as humanized design, high-precision sensing,
continuous long-term data acquisition, etc.

• GreenOrbs：A forest monitoring sensor network system, can be used for long-term,
large-scale, automated environmental monitoring tasks.

Mercury

12
Sensing technology: Localization
• Existing approaches
• GPS
• Indoor Precise Positioning
• Challenges of localization for IoT
• Precise positioning in heterogeneous networks and complex
environments
• Large-scale deployment
• Location Based Services
• Information security and privacy issues derived by location information

13
 Why to deploy IoT networks?
• The increase in the number of users (corporations, companies, individuals)
who use IoT can be explained by the many benefits it offers such as:

• (1) improving the customer experience;

• (2) improving efficiency;
• (3) access to data/collection of new data;
• (4) reduction of labor cost/actual costs;
• (5) connectivity

14
What is a sensor? What is an actuator

An actuator uses energy to provide motion Therefore, an actuator is

a specific type of transducer.
15
 What is a Transducer?
Definition:
A transducer is a device that transforms a non-electrical physical quantity
(i.e. temperature, sound, or light) into an electrical signal (i.e. voltage,
current, capacity…)

Examples of common transducers include the following:

1- A microphone converts sound into electrical impulses and a loudspeaker

converts electrical impulses into sound (i.e., sound energy to electrical
energy and vice versa).
2- A solar cell converts light into electricity and a thermocouple converts
thermal energy into electrical energy
3- A light bulb produces light by passing a current through a filament. Thus,
a light bulb is a transducer for converting electrical energy into optical
energy.
4-An electric motor is a transducer for the conversion of electricity into
mechanical energy or motion.
16
 Example: Strain Gauge:
• A strain gauge measures the stress a material can
handle.
• Strain gauges are made from long, thin pieces of
metal conductor foil bonded to
a flexible backing material called the carrier.

• It consists of: a protective laminate top layer

A thin metallic sensing element, and a plastic film base

• Variations in the electrical resistance occur when

there are changes in the dimensions of the tested
surface.

17
 Example: Strain Gauge:
• The strain gauge is an application of the Wheatstone bridge circuit

• Imbalance is caused when the resistance changes across

the variable resistor, resulting in an electric potential
present across the gap.

This variable resistor is the strain gauge.

18
Example: Antenna

19
 Example: Accelerometer
• An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration, or acceleration of motion of a
structure.
• The force caused by vibration or a change in motion (acceleration) causes the mass to "squeeze"
the piezoelectric material which produces an electrical charge that is proportional to the force
exerted upon it.

• The accelerometer is a sensor that enables users with an

upgraded experience by adjusting an orientation of the app
screen in the smartphone and tablet.

20
 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A TRANSDUCER:
Transducers should meet the following basic requirements:

1-Ruggedness
2-Linearity
3-Repeatability
4-High Output Signal Quality
5-High Reliability and Stability
6-Good Dynamic Response
7-No Hysteretic

21
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A TRANSDUCER:

• Ruggedness: It should be capable of withstanding overload and some

safety arrangement should be provided for overload protection.

• Linearity: Its input-output characteristics should be linear and it should

produce these characteristics in symmetrical way.

• Repeatability: It should reproduce same output signal when the same input
signal is applied again and again under fixed environmental conditions e.g.
temperature, pressure, humidity etc.

22
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A TRANSDUCER:
• High Output Signal Quality The quality of output signal should be good i.e
the ratio of the signal to the noise should be high and the amplitude of
the output signal should be enough.

• High Reliability and Stability It should give minimum error in

measurement for temperature variations, vibrations and other various
changes in surroundings.

• Good Dynamic Response Its output should be faithful to input when taken
as a function of time The effect is analyzed as the frequency response

23
The linear model of a Sensor

24
Sensitivity

25
Resolution
It is the smallest possible change that a sensor can perceive. For a laser light grid, for
example, this is a shift in position.

26
 Accuracy
Vs.
Resolution

27
Range and Span (Dynamic Range)

28
Range and Span (Dynamic Range)

29
Hysteresis
• The term "hysteresis" is derived from an Ancient Greek word meaning
"deficiency" or ‘’lagging behind’’.

• As a general term, hysteresis means a lag between input and output in a

system upon a change in direction.

• Hysteresis occurs in a system that involves a magnetic field.

• Hysteresis is a common property of ferromagnetic substances.

• Generally, when the magnetization of ferromagnetic materials lags behind

the magnetic field, this effect can be described as the hysteresis effect.
30
Classification of Transducers

➢Primary and Secondary Transducers

➢Active and Passive Transducers

➢Analog and Digital Transducers

➢Transducers and Inverse Transducers

31
 Classification of Transducers
• Primary Transducer: The input signal is directly sensed by the
transducer and physical phenomenon is converted into the electrical
form directly.

Example: a thermistor used for the measurement of temperature .The

thermistor senses the temperature directly and causes the change in
resistance with the change in temperature

32
Classification of Transducers

Secondary Transducers:
• The input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output signal
being of some form other than input signals given to transducer for conversion into
electrical form.

Example:
A pressure measurement, bourdon tube is a primary sensor which converts pressure first
into displacement, and then the displacement is converted into an output voltage by an
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).

33
Active and Passive Transducers
• On the basis of methods of energy conversion used, transducers, may be classified into active and
passive transducers.

• The active transducers

➢It develops their output the form of electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary source

➢It draws energy from the system under measurement. Normally, such transducers give very small output
and, therefore, the use of amplifier becomes essential.

• The passive transducers

➢It requires external power source for energy conversion.
➢It including resistance, inductance or capacitance causes a change in voltages, current or
frequency of the external power source.
➢It may draw their energy from the system under measurement. Resistive, inductive and
capacitive transducer falls in this category.
34
Analog and Digital Transducer
On the basis of nature of output signal, transducers may be classified into analog and digital
transducers.

The Analog transducer

➢It converts input signal into output signal, which is a continuous function of time such as thermistor , strain gauge,
LVDT, thermo-couple etc.

The Digital transducer

➢It converts input signal into the output signal of the form of pulse e.g. it gives discrete output.
➢these transducers is widely used due to the fact that digital signals can be transmitted over a long distance without
causing much distortion due to amplitude variation and phase shift.
➢Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an ADC (analog-digital convector) is called a digital transducer

35
36
37
An inverse transducer:

• It is a device that converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity.

• It is a precision actuator having an electrical input and a low-power non-electrical
output.

Examples:
1) Piezoelectric crystal and transnational and angular moving-coil elements.
2) Data-indicating and recording devices.
3) As Analog ammeter or voltmeter
4) Feedback measuring systems.

38
Selection of Transducers
Parameters to be considered in determining a transducer for a specific application:

1-Range:The range of the transducer should be large enough to encompass all the expected
magnitudes of the measurand.
2-Sensitivity:The transducer should give a sufficient output signal per unit of measured input
in order to yield meaningful data.
3-Electrical:Output Characteristics: The electrical characteristics-the output impedance, the
frequency response, and the response time of the transducer output signal should be
compatible with the recording device and the rest of the measuring system equipment.
4-Physical Environment: The transducer selected should be able to withstand the
environmental conditions to which it is likely to be subjected while carrying out
measurements and tests. Such parameters are temperature, acceleration, shock and vibration,
moisture, and corrosive chemicals might damage some transducers but not others.
5-Errors:The errors inherent in the operation of the transducer itself, or those errors caused
by environmental conditions of the measurement, should be small enough or controllable
enough that they allow meaningful data to be taken.
39
How to reduce the transducer errors
In a transducer-activated system may be reduced to fall within the required accuracy
range by adopting the following techniques:

1-Calibrating the transducer output against some known standards while in use under actual test
conditions. This calibration should be performed regularly as the measurement proceeds.

2-Continuous monitoring of variations in the environmental conditions of the transducer and correcting
the data accordingly.

3- Controlling the measurement environment artificially in order to reduce possible transducer errors
Artificial environmental control includes the enclosing of the transducer in a temperature controlled
housing and isolating the device from external shocks and vibrations

40
Types of Transducers

41
42