Power System

Circuit Breakers and Substations

Lecture No. 1
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Lahore

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 1

 Text Books
Text Books
1. Omar Salah Elsayed Atwa, “Practical Power System and Protective Relays
Commissioning”, Elsevier, 2019
2. C.R. Bayliss and B.J. Hardy, "Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering”, 4th
Edition, Elsevier, 2012.
3. Charles H. Flurscheim, “Power Circuit Breaker Theory and Design” IET, 1982.
Reference Books
1. Ruben D. Garzon, “High Voltage Circuit Breakers: Design and Applications”, Taylor and
Francis, 2002.
2. Edward Wilson Kimbark, “Power system stability Volume II Power Circuit Breakers and
Protective Relays”, IEEE Press, 1995.
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 2
Course Learning Outcomes
• To understand the fundamentals of electric arc and short circuit
currents, transient and switching overvoltages
• To compare the functionalities of different types of power circuit
breakers.
• To analyze the mechanical and dielectric designs for power circuit
breakers
• To review the applications of power circuit breakers
• To analyze the design of power substations
• To review the details of testing and commissioning and maintenance
scheduling of substations

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Introduction
• Fundamentally, there are two ways by whch the flow of current can be stopped;
 one is to reduce the driving potential to zero, and
 the other is to physically separate a pair of contacts to create an open gap between the
conductor that is carrying the current.
• Hanz Christian Oersted, Andre-Marie Ampere, and Michael Faraday were among
the first known users of circuit breakers.
• The first circuit breaker was mercury switch that simply consisted of a set of
conducting rods immersed in a pool of mercury.
• Nowadays, under latest current interruption technology, the interruption process
begins at the very instant when a pair of electric contacts separate. It continues
as the contacts rejoins and as a plasma bridges the newly created gap.
• The interruption process is completed when the conducting plasma is deprived of
its conductivity.
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Basic Theory of Electrical Discharges

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Basic Theory of Electrical Discharges
• The principles that govern the conduction of electricity through either
a gas or a metal vapor, are based on the fact that:
 such vapors always contain positive and negative charge carriers and
 all types of discharges involve production, movement and final absorption of
the charge carriers as the means of conveying the electric current between
the electrodes.
• Three categories of electric discharge
 The non-self-sustaining discharge
 The self-sustaining discharge and
 The electric arc

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Non-Self-sustaining Discharges
• When voltage is applied across two electrodes a force proportional to the
electric field strength acts upon the charge carriers.
• This force establishes a motion of the ions toward the cathode and of the
electrons toward the anode.
• When the moving charges strike the electrodes they give up their charges
thus producing an electric current through the gaseous medium.
• A continuous flow of current can take place only if the carriers whose
charges are absorbed by the electrodes are continuously replaced.
• The replacement of the charge carriers can be made by a number of
ionizing processes such as photoelectric, or thermionic emissions.

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Non-Self-sustaining Discharges
• Initially, the discharge current is very small.
• However, as the voltage is increased, the current increases in direct
proportion to the voltage applied across the electrodes until a level is
reached where the charge carriers are taken by the electrodes at the
same rate as they are produced.
• Once this equilibrium state is attained, the current reaches a first
saturation limit.
• The value of the saturation current is dependent upon the intensity of
the ionization; it is also proportional to the volume of gas filling the
space between the electrodes and to the gas pressure.
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Non-Self-sustaining Discharges
• At the saturation limit, the current remains constant despite increases
of the supply voltage to levels that are several times the level
originally required to reach the saturation current limit.
• Because the saturation current is entirely dependent on the presence
of charge carriers that are supplied by external ionizing agents, this
type of discharge is called a non-self-sustaining discharge.

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Non-Self-sustaining Discharges
• Shock Ionization
• Whenever the current reaches its saturation value, the voltage
applied across the electrodes (and hence the electric field) may be
substantially increased without causing any noticeable increase in the
discharge current.
• However, as the electric field strength increases, so does the velocity
of the charge carrier.
• Since an increase in velocity represents an increase in kinetic energy,
it is logical to expect that when these accelerated charges collide with
neutral particles new electrons will be expelled from these particles
and thus create the condition known as shock ionization.
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Non-Self-sustaining Discharges
• Corona
• In other cases, where the electric field strength decreases rapidly as
the distance between the electrodes increases, the discharge takes
the form of a partial flashover.
• In this case, the dielectric strength of the gas space is exceeded only
near the electrodes and as a result a luminous discharge known as
"corona" appears around the electrodes.

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Self-Sustaining Discharges
• The transition from a non-self-sustaining discharge to a self-sustained
discharge is characterized by an increase in the current passing
though the gas, whereas the voltage across the electrodes remains
almost constant.
• When the electrode potential is increased to the point that ionization
occurs freely, the positive ions produced in the gas may strike the
cathode with a force that is sufficient to eject the number of electrons
necessary for maintaining the discharge.
• Under these circumstances no external means of excitation are
needed and the discharge is said to be self-sustaining.

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Electric Arc
• The electric arc is a self-sustained electrical discharge that exhibits a low
voltage drop, is capable of sustaining large currents, and behaves like a
non-linear resistor.
• Though the most commonly observed arc discharge occurs across air at
atmospheric conditions, the arc discharge is also observed at high and low
pressures, in a vacuum environment, and in a variety of gases and metal
vapors.
• The gases and vapors that serve as conductors for the arc originate partly
from the electrodes and partly from the surrounding environment and
reaction products.
• The description of the electric arc will be divided into two arcs.

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Electric Arc
• High Pressure Arcs
• exist at, or above atmospheric pressure.
• appears as a bright column characterized by a small, highly visible, brightly
burning core that consists of ionized gases that convey the electric
current.
• Low Pressure Arcs
• occur at or above atmospheric pressure
• an average arc voltage (40V) is lower than the high pressure arcs.
• the positive column of arc is of electrode material because the positive
column is of metal vapors that boiled off from the electrodes.
• Arcs exist in either a diffuse mode or in a coalescent or constricted mode.

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Electric Arc
• Voltage Drop Across an Arc
• The voltage drop across an
arc can be divided into the
three distinct regions.
 VA represents the anode
voltage
 Vc represents the cathode
voltage, and
 Vp represents the positive
column voltage.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT ARC
• As the arc current increases, the arc resistance decreases due to the
increase in temperature which enhances the ionizing process.
• When the current decreases, the ionization level also decreases while the
arc resistance increases.
• Thus, there is a collapse of the arc shortly before the alternating current
reaches its normal zero value at the end of each half cycle.
• The arc will re-ignite again when the current flows in the opposite
direction, during the subsequent half cycle, provided that the conditions
across the electrodes are available for the existence of the arc.
• The transition time between the two half cycles is greatly influenced by:
 the medium on which the arc is being produced and
 the characteristics of the external circuit.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT ARC
• The arc current, as it approaches zero, is slightly distorted from a true sine
wave form due to the influence of the arc voltage, and therefore the arc is
extinguished just prior to the nominal current zero crossing.
• The current zero transition is accompanied by a sharp increase in the arc
voltage, and the peak of this voltage is defined as the peak of extinction
voltage.
• When the peak of the extinction voltage reaches a value equal to the
instantaneous value of the voltage applied to the arc by the circuit, the arc
current cannot be maintained and thereafter, the current in the opposite
direction cannot be re-established immediately.
• Thus, at every current zero there is a finite time period when there cannot
be any current flow.
• This is the time period generally referred as the "current zero pause."

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ALTERNATING CURRENT ARC
• During the zero current period, the discharge path is partially de-
ionized on account of the heat losses and, therefore, the electric field
needed to re-establish the arc after the reversal of the current
becomes greater than the field required to maintain the arc.
• This means that the required re-ignition voltage is higher than the
voltage that is necessary to sustain the arc, and therefore the current
will remain at its zero value until the re-ignition voltage level is
reached.
• The re-ignition process represents the relationship between the rate
of recovery of the supply voltage and the rate of deionization or
dielectric recovery of the space across the electrode gap.

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The Current Interruption Process

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Interruption of Direct Current

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Interruption of Direct Current
• The interruption of direct current sources differs in several respects
from the interruption of alternating currents.
• The big difference is that in direct current circuits there are no natural
current zeroes and consequently a current zero must be established
forcefully for successful current interruption.
• The forcing of a current zero is done either
 by increasing the arc voltage to a level that is equal to, or higher than the
system voltage, or
 by injecting into the circuit a voltage that has an opposite polarity to that of
the driving voltage. This is the equivalent of forcing a reverse current flow into
the source.

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Interruption of Direct Current
• Generally the methods used for increasing the arc voltage consist of
 Simply elongating the arc column,
 constricting the arc by increasing the pressure of the arc's surroundings to
decrease the arc diameter and increase the arc voltage,
 introducing a number of metallic plates along the axis of the arc in such a way
that a series of short arcs are developed.
• The characteristics of the arc voltage are shown as a function of the
current for two different arc lengths.
• It is seen that the arc voltage 𝑒𝑜 is smaller than the supply voltage E by
an amount equal to 𝑖𝑅, so that 𝑒𝑜 = 𝐸 − 𝑖𝑅.

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Interruption of Direct Current
• If the straight line that represents this
voltage is plotted, it is seen that this line
intercepts the curve representing the arc
characteristics for arc length 1 at the points
indicated as 1 and 2.
• Only at the intersection of these points, as
dictated by their respective currents, is it
possible to have a stable arc.
• If the current corresponding to point 2
increases, the arc voltage is too low, and if
the current decreases the corresponding arc
voltage is too high.
• In order to obtain a stable condition at point
1, it will be necessary for the circuit to have a
very high series resistance and a high supply
voltage.

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Interruption of Direct Current
• The net result of lengthening the arc is an increase in the arc resistance and
a reduction in current, provided that the supply voltage remains constant.
• However, in practical applications, some resistance is always included in
the circuit and the reduction of the current will produce a corresponding
reduction in the voltage across the series resistance.
• The electrode voltage is thus increased until eventually, when the arc is
extinguished, it becomes equal to the system voltage.
• If the arc characteristics of the longer arc represented by the curve labeled
arc length 2 have reached a position where it no longer intercepts the
circuit characteristics that are represented by the line 𝐸 − 𝑖𝑅 , and
therefore the condition where the arc can no longer exist has been
reached.
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Interruption of Direct Current
• When inductance is added to the circuit we find that the fundamental
equation for this inductive circuit can we represented as follows:
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 = 𝐸 − 𝑖𝑅 − 𝑒𝑎 = ∆𝑒
𝑑𝑡
• This equation indicates that
 the inductive voltage produced during interruption is equal to the source
voltage E reduced by the voltage drop across the inherent resistance of the
circuit, and by the arc voltage.
• For the arc to be extinguished, the current i must continually
decrease.
• It means that the derivative of the current (di/dt) must be negative.
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 25
Interruption of Direct Current
• Moreover, the arcing conditions at the time of interruption are
significantly changed with respect to inductance L.
• Since the inductance opposes the current changes, the falling current
results in an induced electro-motive force (e.m.f.), which is additive to
the source voltage.
• The relationship between the source voltage and the arc voltage still
holds for the inductive circuit.
• Therefore, it is necessary to develop higher arc voltages, which
require that the rupturing arc length be increased to provide the
additional voltage.
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 26
Interruption of Alternating Currents

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Interruption of Alternating Currents
• In an alternating current circuit, the instantaneous value of the current
passes through zero twice during each cycle.
• Therefore the zero current condition is already self fulfilled consequently,
to interrupt an alternating current.
• It is only necessary to prevent the re-ignition of the arc after the current
has passed through zero.
• It is for this reason that de-ionization of the arc gap close to the time of a
natural current zero is of utmost importance.
• Successful current interruption depends on whether the dielectric
withstand capability of the arc gap is greater than the increasing voltage
that is being impressed across the gap by the circuit in an attempt to re-
establish the flow of current.

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Interruption of Alternating Currents
• The dielectric strength of the arc gap is primarily a function of the
interrupting device.
• The voltage appearing across the gap is a function of the circuit constants.
• Effect of Frequency
• An alternating current arc, supported by a 50 Hz system of 30 kilovolts that
is burning across a pair of contacts in open air and up to 1 meter in length,
cannot be self-extinguished.
• Special measures need to be taken if the effective current exceeds about
10 amperes.
• This is due to the fact that at these frequencies when the current reaches
its peak value, the electric conductivity of the arc is relatively high.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 29

Interruption of Alternating Currents
• Since the current zero period is very short, the conductivity of the arc,
if the current is relatively large, can not be reduced enough to prevent
re-ignition.
• Arc Hysteresis
• However, since the current oscillates between a maximum positive
and a maximum negative value, there is a tendency to extinguish the
arc at the current zero crossing due to the thermal lag.
• The time lag between temperature and current is commonly referred
to as the "arc hysteresis".

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 30

Interruption of Alternating Currents
• When the alternating current passes through its zero, the arc voltage
takes a sudden jump to a value equal to the sum of the instantaneous
peak value of the extinguishing voltage from the previous current
loop, plus the peak value of the re-ignition voltage of the next current
loop, which is associated with the reversal of the current.
• Re-ignition Process
• In the event that the arc is re-ignited, immediately after the re-
ignition has taken place. The arc voltage becomes relatively constant
and of a significantly lower magnitude, as illustrated in Figure.
• In order for a re-ignition to occur, the applied voltage must exceed the
value of the total re-ignition voltage (e_t).
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 31
Interruption of Alternating Currents
• This figure shows typical
variations of current and
voltage showing the
peak of extinction
voltage e_s, and peak of
re-ignition voltage e_t.
• If re-ignition does not
happen, the flow of the
current will cease.
• Therefore, interruption
will be accomplished.
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 32
Interruption of Resistive Circuits

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Interruption of Resistive Circuits
• In an alternating current circuit containing only resistance, the current
is practically in phase with the voltage.
• During steady state operating conditions, both the current and the
voltage reach their zero value simultaneously.
• But when a pair of contacts separate and an arc is developed
between the contacts, the phase relationship still exists in theory, but
in practice the current will reach the zero value slightly ahead of the
voltage.
• As the current (I) passes through zero, the instantaneous value of the
peak of extinction voltage is equal to the instantaneous value of the
applied voltage (E).
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Interruption of Resistive Circuits
• From this point, no new charges are produced in the gas space
between the contacts and those charges still present in the gas space
are being neutralized by the de-ionized processes that are taking
place.
• The gas space and the electrodes continue to increasingly cool down.
• Therefore, the minimum voltage required for the arc to re-ignite is
increasing with time.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 35

Interruption of Resistive Circuits
• If the applied voltage E rises at a higher rate
than the re-ignition voltage e_t, then the arc
will be re-established and will continue to
burn for an additional half cycle, at the end
of which the process will be repeated.
• The increase in the gap length will also
provide an additional withstand capability
and if the supply voltage is less than the re-
ignition voltage, then a successful
interruption of the current will be achieved.
• This figure shows interruption of a purely
resistive circuit showing the current,
voltages, and recovery characteristics for the
electrode space (1) and for the system
voltage (2).

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 36

Interruption of Inductive Circuits

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Interruption of Inductive Circuits
• In an inductive circuit, the resistance is rather small in relation to the
inductance.
• Therefore, there is a large phase angle difference between the voltage and
the current.
• The current zero no longer occurs at the point where the voltage is
approaching zero but instead when it is close to its maximum value.
• This implies that the conditions favor the re-striking of the arc immediately,
after the current reversal point.
• In actual practice, all inductive circuits have a certain small amount of self
capacitance such as that found between turns and coils in transformers
and in the self-effective capacitance of the device itself in relation to the
ground.
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 38
Interruption of Inductive Circuits
• When the arc is extinguished, the electromagnetic energy stored in
the inductance is converted into electrostatic energy in the
capacitance and vice versa.
• The natural oscillations produced by the circuit are damped gradually
by the effects of any resistance that may be present in the circuit.
• Since the oscillatory frequency of the inductance and the capacitance
is much greater than the frequency of the source, the supply voltage
may be regarded as being constant during the time duration of the
oscillatory response.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 39

 Interruption of Inductive Circuits
• Why Transient Response in Observed
• During the interruption of inductive
alternating circuits, the recovery voltage
can be expected to reach its maximum
value at the same time the current is
interrupted.
• However, due to the inherent capacitance
to ground, the recovery voltage does not
reach its peak at the same instant the
current is interrupted.
• Therefore, during this brief period, a
transient response is observed in the
circuit.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 40

Interruption of Capacitive Circuits

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 Interruption of Capacitive Circuits
• When interrupting a capacitive circuit,
effective interruption takes place at the
instant of current zero because the
supply voltage that appears across the
electrodes is increased at a very slow
rate.
• At the normal current zero, when the
arc interruption has taken place, the
capacitor is charged to, approximately,
the maximum value of the system
voltage.
• The small difference that may be
observed is due to the negligible arc
voltage with respect to supply voltage.
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 42
Interruption of Capacitive Circuits
• At interruption, and in the absence of the current, the capacitor will
retain its charge, and the voltage across the gap will be equal to the
algebraic sum of the applied voltage and the voltage trapped in the
capacitor.
• The total voltage increases slowly from an initial value equal to zero,
until one half of a cycle, later the voltage across the gap reaches twice
the magnitude of the supply voltage.
• There is a relative long recovery period, however, that may enable the
gap to recover its dielectric strength without re-igniting.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 43

MAIN THEORIES OF AC INTERRUPTION

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MAIN THEORIES OF AC INTERRUPTION
• Slepian's Theory
The Slepian theory, also known as the "race theory", simply states that
successful interruption is achieved whenever the rate at which the
dielectric strength of the gap increases faster than the rate at which the
reapplied system voltage grows.
• Prince's Theory
This theory, also known as the displacement or wedge theory, states
that the circuit is interrupted if the length of the gas discharge path
introduced into the arc increases during the interrupting period to such
an extent that the recovery voltage is not sufficiently high to produce a
breakdown in this path.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 45

MAIN THEORIES OF AC INTERRUPTION
• Cassie's Theory
Cassie developed his equation for the conductivity of the arc based on the
assumption that a high current arc is governed mainly by convection
[process by which heat is transferred by movement of a heated fluid such
as air or water] losses during the high current time interval.
2
𝑑 2
2 𝐼
𝐺 = ,
𝑑𝑡 𝜃 𝐸𝑜
Where: G = steady state conductance, I is instantaneous current, E_o is
steady state voltage gradient, θ is arc time constant and is ratio of energy
storage capacity Q and finite rate of energy losses N.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 46

MAIN THEORIES OF AC INTERRUPTION
• Mayr's Theory
Mayr considered an arc column where the arc diameter is constant and
where the arc temperature varies as a function of time and radial dimension.
He further assumed that the decay of the temperature of the arc was due to
thermal conduction [the movement of heat through a medium] and that
the electrical conductivity of the arc was dependent on temperature.
𝐼 𝑑𝐺 1 𝐸𝐼
= −1 ,
𝐺 𝑑𝑡 𝜃 𝑁𝑜
Where: G = steady state conductance, I is instantaneous current, E is supply
voltage, θ is arc time constant and is ratio of energy storage capacity Q_o
and constant power losses N [independent of temperature or current].

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 47

MAIN THEORIES OF AC INTERRUPTION
• Browne's Combined Theory
Browne developed a composite model using an equation similar to
Cassie's to define the current controlled arc regime, and then
converting it to a Mayr-like equation for the temperature controlled
regime, and in the event that interruption did not occur at the intended
current zero, he reverted again to the Cassie model.
• The transition point where each of these equations was considered to
be applicable was assumed to be at an instant just a few
microseconds around the point where the current reached its normal
zero crossing.

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MAIN THEORIES OF AC INTERRUPTION
• Browne reduced the Cassie and the Mayr equations to the following
two expressions:
• For the Cassie's period prior to current zero
𝑑 1 2 1 2 1 2
2
+ 2
= ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝜃 𝑅 𝜃 𝐸𝑜

• For the May's period around current zero

𝑑𝑅 𝑅 𝑒2
− =−
𝑑𝑡 𝜃 𝜃𝑁𝑜

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 49

Thank You

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