GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH

A REPORT ON

COURSE – PROJECT STAGE-I (416487)

TITLE – COOLING OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE BATTERY
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

PROF. A.J. BHOSALE

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNDER

FOURTH YEAR OF ENGINEERING

(2019 PATTERN)

SAVITRIBAI PHULE PUNE UNIVERSITY

 The report is submitted by,

Sr. no. Name of the group member Roll no.

1. Jadhav Ajay Vilas 20211082

2. Ghugarkar Akshay Navnath 20211083

3. Palkar Amit Bhaskar 20211095

4. Landge Ankitkumar Moreshwar 20211099

 Government College of Engineering and
Research Avasari (khurd), Pune

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that,

Ajay Vilas Jadhav, Akshay Navnath Ghugarkar, Amit Bhaskar Palkar, Ankitkumar
Moreshwar Landge, have successfully completed the dissertation entitled “Cooling of
Electric Vehicle Battery” under my supervision, in the partial fulfilment of Bachelors of
Automobile Engineering of Savitribai Phule Pune University.

Date:
Place: Avasari (Khurd), Pune

PROF. A.J. BHOSALE DR. M.J. PABLE

Guide Head of Department
Automobile Engineering

DR. D.R. PANGAVHANE

External Examiner Seal Principal,
Government College of Engineering &
Research Avasari Khurd
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It has indeed been a great privilege for us to be indebted to various people who directly or indirectly
contributed in the development of this work and who influenced our thinking, behaviour and our actions
during the course of study. We express our sincere gratitude towards our principal Dr. Pangavhane sir,
Government College of Engineering & Research Avasari (Khurd), Pune. We are highly grateful to Dr.
M.J. Pable, Head of Automobile Engineering Department, for providing necessary facilities and
encouraging us during the course. We would truly appreciate our guide Prof. A.J. Bhosale sir, his superb
guidance, constant encouragement and knowledge about trends in Automobile industry are the motive
force behind this project work.
We take this opportunity to express our utmost gratitude to him. We are also thankful to him for his
timely and valuable advice. We are also thankful to all technical and non-teaching staff of the
Department of Automobile Engineering for their constant assistance and co-operation during this phase
of project work.

Ajay Vilas Jadhav

Akshay Navnath Ghugarkar
Amit Bhaskar Palkar
Ankitkumar Moreshwar Landge
 ABSTRACT

The rise in popularity and uptake of electric vehicles specially bikes is increasing at an exponential rate.
Electric vehicles can be operated at significantly lower coasts and offer improved long-term prospects
compared to gasoline fuel bikes. However, the thermal management technology restricts the
development of electric bikes. When compared with internal combustion engine automobile, the battery
capacity and motor conversion efficiency for electric vehicles (EV) are limited, which means it requires
lower energy consumption. To this aim, EV specifically bikes need more complex thermal management
system and higher thermal management requirements.
This project proposes an active liquid cooling-based system cooling scheme where use of self-rewetting
fluid is proposed. Coolant circulation component’s models are built. The performance parameters for
the components are obtained by fitting the experimental data. To demonstrate the performance of the
proposed method, simulation experiments are conducted using analysis software like Ansys. The results
are expected to show that it is feasible and robust to cool and heat the battery using active cooling circuits
in low and medium temperature environments using the thermosyphon phenomena. During critical
conditions where the ambient temperature changes, the active and passive liquid cooling-based scheme
can not only guarantee the battery operating temperature, but also save energy.

Keywords: Thermosyphon, self-rewetting fluid, thermal management system, electric bike

 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page No.

1. Battery Cooling strategy - page 2

2. 3D view of a typical thermosyphon heat pipe - page 3

3. Thermosyphon heat pipe - page 4

4. Thermosyphon effect - page 5

5. Schematic of the experimental test rig for thermosyphon

characterization - page 6

6. Picture of the heat transfer characterization of thermosyphon test rig - page 7

7. Identification of Self-rewetting fluids - page 9

8. Surface tensions of different concentrations of butanol aqueous

solution as functions of temperature - page 12

9. Shows surface tension measurement results for 1-3% pentanol aqueous

solutions - page 13

10. Surface tensions of different concentrations of hexanol aqueous

solution as functions of temperature - page 13

11. Proposed model of the system - page 14

LIST OF TABLES
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr.no. Name of topic Page No

List of figures
List of Tables
Chapter 1. Introduction 01

1.1 Introduction 01

Chapter 2. Literature review 04

Review 1
2.1 Introduction to thermosyphon effect 04
2.2 Thermosyphon heat pipe 04
2.3 Construction of thermosyphon heat pipe 05
2.4 Operation of thermosyphon heat pipe 05
2.5 Difference between wick heat pipe and thermosyphon 06
2.6 Advantages of thermosyphon over wick heat pipe 06
2.7 Measurement of the performance of thermosyphon 06
2.8 Experimental study on the performance of thermosyphon 07
2.9 Factors affecting the operations of thermosyphon 08
Review 2
2.1 Self- rewetting fluid 10
2.2 Materials and methods 11
2.3 Wick manufacturing process 12
2.4
Different concentrations of self-rewetting fluids 13
2.5
Different solutes of self-rewetting fluids 14

Chapter 3. Proposed Work 16

3.1 Problem Statement 16

3.2 Objectives 16
3.3 Parameters of study 16
3.4 Methodology 17
3.5 Action plan 18

References 19
 CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT

• Introduction

This project proposes an active liquid cooling-based system cooling scheme which utilizes the self-
rewetting fluid. The performance parameters for the components are obtained by fitting the
experimental data. To demonstrate the performance of the proposed method, simulation experiments
were conducted using analysis software like Ansys. During critical conditions where the ambient
temperature changes, the active and passive liquid cooling-based scheme can not only guarantee the
battery operating temperature, but also save energy.
The high fuel consumption and exhaust emissions of internal combustion engine automobile have
exacerbated the global energy crisis and environmental pollution, which causes the transportation
industry faces severe energy and environmental problems. With higher requirements for fuel
economy and emission standards, auto companies are trying to update and improve traditional
vehicles and developing new energy-saving and environmentally-friendly vehicles. Electric vehicles
(EV) are currently the most likely to replace traditional vehicle. However, the thermal management
technology restricts the development of EV. Compared with internal combustion engine automobile,
EV need to not only cool the motor, but also consider the different requirements of the battery at low
and high temperatures, and the energy utilization efficiency under the battery capacity limited.
High temperature affects motor output torque, cogging torque, power, overload characteristics and
motor life. Severe thermal runaway of the motor has even caused the essential transformation of the
motor insulation material to lose its insulation ability, which has reduced the strength and hardness
of the motor metal components. There is no reasonable control of the battery thermal load, which
easily causes large problems such as excessive temperature, uneven heat production, and uneven
temperature distribution. Temperature not only affects the performance of the battery, but even the
risk of spontaneous combustion and explosion of electric vehicles when the thermal runaway occurs.
In the current research, the way for the driving motor cooling is mainly liquid cooling, however, there
are many cooling methods for battery, including air, liquid, heat pipe and phase change material

Fig. 1.: Battery Cooling strategy [1]

[1]
 Fig. 2: 3D view of a typical thermosyphon heat pipe [1]

Heat pipes play vital roles in increasing heat transfer performance of many engineering systems such
as solar collectors and this leads to an increase in their usage. Investigation on the performance of
heat pipes under different operation conditions and inclination angles is required for effective
utilization.
In this report, a general overview on the construction, operation, advantages, and classifications of
heat pipes is presented. Particular attention is given to the heat pipe without wick material in the inner
diameter (thermosyphon). Intensive discussions are presented on the construction, operations,
advantages and applications of thermosyphon heat pipe. The experimental and numerical approaches
on the performance evaluation and characterization of thermosyphon are discussed. A detailed
procedure on how experimental work is carried out on thermosyphon is discussed including
instrumentation and calibration of the devices. Modelling and simulation of the performance of
thermosyphon are discussed, including the model set-up procedure. Factors affecting the performance
of thermosyphon such as fill ratio, working fluid, heat input, inclination angles, are analysed based
on the overall thermal resistance and thermosyphon performance.

[2]
 CHAPTER-2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

Review - 1

2.1 Introduction to thermosyphon effect:

The world’s needs for effective heat transfer devices/mechanisms are increasing so as to minimize
heat losses, minimize systems cost, enhance heat removal and transportation as well as to increase
lifespan of some devices. In some instances, heat is required to be removed from a system (like solar
photovoltaic, electrical devices, turbine blades, etc.) in order to keep it at a certain operation
temperature, while in other cases, it is required to be transferred to a certain region to keep it at high
temperature. Some elements/metals such as copper and aluminium are found to be good conductors
of heat as they transfer heat effectively from one region to another. Their ability to transfer heat
effectively is due to their molecular arrangements and type of bonds between their molecules. Various
systems such as aircraft, electronics, heat exchangers, solar collectors, etc. require effective means of
heat transfer. One of the devices recognized as effective means of heat transfer is heat pipe, whose
idea was introduced by Graugler in 1942[1], but its first unit was invented by Grover in 1962, then,
its important properties were studied and identified, and its development started. Hence, with the
growing need for efficient heat transfer devices, interest in the use of heat pipes for various
applications is increasing due to the roles they play in improving the thermal performance of solar
collectors and heat exchangers particularly in energy savings and increasing efficiency of the systems.

2.2 Thermosyphon heat pipe:

The working principles of thermosyphon are similar to that of the wick heat pipe[1], but differ in the
process of the return of the condensed liquid in the condenser due to the absence of wick structure.
For proper operation of thermosyphon, the condenser is placed at the top of the evaporator so that the
condensed liquid will return to the evaporator by gravity. Figures 4 and 5 show a schematic diagram
and a model of a typical thermosyphon (constructed in the University of Birmingham, UK) with heat
supplied by coil of wire and heat rejected to the flowing water in the water jacket provided on the
condenser section.

Fig. 3: Thermosyphon heat pipe [1]

[3]
2.3 Construction of thermosyphon heat pipe:

Thermosyphon is a vessel closed at both ends and attached with a small charging pipe placed at one
of the ends. The air in the vessel is evacuated creating a vacuum, then charged with working fluid
through the charging pipe. The pipe is usually divided into the following sections

i. Evaporator, where heat is supplied to the working fluid.

ii. Adiabatic section (optional): space between evaporator and condenser, where no heat or
cooling is applied.
iii. Insulation: the evaporator section is insulated to minimize heat losses.

The materials for the manufacturing of thermosyphon are carefully selected to ensure its effective
performance. Other considerations are the type and the quantity of working fluid to be charged into
the pipe.

2.4 Operation of thermosyphon heat pipe:

This is a natural fluid circulation heat pipe which has no wick material presence[1]. It is a simple heat
pipe consisting of a sealed vessel charged with working fluid under a vacuum condition. It is made
up of evaporator and condenser sections, sometimes with adiabatic section in between them. The
vessel is usually made from aluminium or copper to facilitate high conduction of heat. Unlike wick
heat pipe, the condenser of thermosyphon must be at the top, for the condensed liquid to return to the
evaporator under gravity. Furthermore, some applications of thermosyphon require that the pipe be
tilted to an angle from the horizontal for it to have maximum exposure to solar radiation.

Fig. 4: Thermosyphon effect[1]

However, in some operation set ups, the heat can be supplied by hot water surrounding the evaporator
of the pipe. Current researches on the effects of major factors affecting the operation of thermosyphon

[4]
are presented, as well as their current development and various applications in engineering systems
[1].

2.5 Difference between wick heat pipe and thermosyphon:

The wick and wickless (thermosyphon) heat pipes have many features in common in their
construction, operation and applications. However, they differ in some aspects such as:

• Wick material: unlike in thermosyphon, wick materials are lined on the inner parts of the wick
heat pipe. This enables the return of the condensed liquid even against gravity.
• Orientation of the pipes: the condenser section of the thermosyphon must be located at the top of
the evaporator because the return of the condensate is basically by gravity, while in the case of
the wick heat pipe, the evaporator can be placed at the top because the return of the condensate is
based on the capillary effects due to the presence of the wick materials.
• Need of adiabatic section: thermosyphon may or may not have adiabatic section whereas most of
the wick heat pipes have it, as to separate the evaporation and condensing sections.
• When working fluid is charged into the sealed container, it forms a liquid pool (in case of
thermosyphon) while in case of wick heat pipe, it saturates the wick materials.

2.6 Advantages of thermosyphon over wick heat pipe:

Apart from the general advantages of heat pipe, thermosyphon has other advantages over wick heat
pipe, some of which are listed below:

1. Relatively low-temperature difference between the heat source and heat sink.
2. More compactness.
3. High durability and reliability.
4. Cost-effectiveness.
5. Less weight due to the absence of wick materials.
6. Simplicity in construction

2.7 Measurement of the performance of thermosyphon:

The performance of thermosyphon under different conditions is evaluated based on the overall
thermal resistance Rth, given by,

where Tae and Tac are respectively the average temperatures on the evaporator and condenser while
Qin is the heat supplied to the evaporator. However, the performance of the thermosyphon can also
be calculated as the ratio of the heat transfer to the cooling water to the heat input as

[5]
The rate of heat transfer to the cooling water, Qout, can be evaluated by,

where Tin and Tout are respectively the inlet and outlet temperatures of the cooling water, while m:
and Cp are the mass flow rate, kg/s and the specific heat capacity of water, kJ/kg-K respectively. Two
approaches are usually employed in the performance characterization of thermosyphon, namely,
• Experimental
• Numerical

2.8 Experimental study on the performance of thermosyphon:

The thermosyphon heat pipe can be experimentally characterized and the effects of some parameters
on its performance evaluated. Figures 5 and 6 show a schematic diagram and picture of a typical test
rig for the performance characterization of thermosyphon constructed at the University of
Birmingham, UK, for analyzing the performance of a two-phase closed thermosyphon [1]. It consists
of a 0.4-m-long two-phase closed thermosyphon heat pipe, heating coil, water jacket and other
instrumentations.

Fig. 5: Schematic diagram of the experimental test rig for thermosyphon characterization [1]

The heat can be supplied by hot water circulating around the evaporator or by electric power supply.
In Figures 6 and 7, the evaporator section is wrapped evenly with electric wire with electric energy
supplied and controlled by TSx1820P Programmable DC PSU 18 V/20A power regulator to provide
the heat required for boiling the working fluid inside the pipe. A multi-meter is used for measuring
the voltage input which is connected close to the pipe to account for the voltage drop while the current
was read from the power regulator.

[6]
 Fig. 6: Picture of the heat transfer characterization of thermosyphon test rig

The evaporator section is also insulated with 25-mm-thick pipe insulator to reduce the heat loss to the
ambient environment (Figure 6). For measuring the temperature distribution along the pipe, 12
surface thermocouples were placed at different locations on the test pipe; 4 on the evaporator wall (at
0.02, 0.07, 0.12 and 0.17 m from the tip of the evaporator) and 2 on the condenser wall at 0.25 and
0.35 m as shown in the figures. The electric wires were wrapped in such way that they are not directly
on the thermocouples so as to not affect their readings. Two probe thermocouples were installed at
the inlet and outlet of the manifold to measure the temperatures of the cooling water. Three other
thermocouples were used on the water jacket and one on the insulator to measure the effectiveness of
the insulation and the jacket. All the readings were sent to Pico TC-08 data loggers connected to a
PC.

2.9 Factors affecting the operations of thermosyphon:

Considerable experimental research works were published on the investigation of the effects of
parameters like the geometry, working fluid, fill factor and inclination on the thermosyphon heat pipe
performance. Hence, apart from the material of the thermosyphon, other important parameters affect
its performance, such as:

I. Type of working fluid charged: The common liquid used in thermosyphon is water due to its
availability, low cost, safety, etc. Below are some of the prime requirements for a liquid to be
used in heat pipe

i. Compatibility with wick and wall materials

ii. Good thermal stability
iii. Wettability of wick and wall materials: it is necessary for the working fluid to wet the wick
and the container material, that is contact angle should be zero or very small
iv. High latent heat: a high latent heat of vaporisation is desirable in order to transfer large
amounts of heat with minimum fluid flow, and hence to maintain low pressure drops within
the heat pipe

[7]
v. High thermal conductivity: the thermal conductivity of the working fluid should preferably
be high in order to minimize the radial temperature gradient and to reduce the possibility of
nucleate boiling at the wick or wall surface
vi. Low liquid and vapour viscosities: the resistance to fluid flow will be minimized by choosing
fluids with low values of vapor and liquid viscosities
vii. High surface tension: in heat pipe design, a high value of surface tension is desirable in order
to enable the heat pipe to operate against gravity and to generate a high capillary driving force
viii. Acceptable freezing or pour point

[8]
Review - 2

2.1 Self-rewetting fluid:

In 1865, the following was proposed by Italian physicist Carlo Marangoni [7]: when two liquids are
in contact, the liquid with strong surface tension will pull the liquid with weak surface tension a
phenomenon later academically named the Marangoni effect. In 1973, Vochten [2] measured the
surface tensions of high carbon (at least four) alcohol aqueous solutions, finding that, contrary to pure
substances, there is a non-linear relationship between the surface tensions of these fluids and
temperature; instead of lower surface tension with higher temperature, at a certain temperature, an
alcohol aqueous solution's surface tension starts increasing with increasing temperature. Since these
types of alcohol aqueous solutions increase the wettability of higher temperature surfaces, preventing
the surfaces from drying, they were given the term” self-rewetting fluids[7/3].The working fluids
often used as two-phase heat transfer devices, such as pure water, ethanol, acetone, etc., are generally
pure material fluids.

Fig. 7 – Identification of Self-rewetting fluids [7]

Figure 2.3 shows that the surface tension of ordinary fluids (ordinary liquid) will gradually decrease
with the increase in operating temperature. In 1973, scholars Vochten and Petre [3]and in 2004,
scholars Abe et al measured the surface tension of different alcohol aqueous solutions, and found that
alcohol aqueous solutions with high carbon chain (carbon chain number ≥ 4) have a different surface
tension curve, such as the self-rewetting fluid of the red line in Figure 1.

In particular, when the temperature increases to the β point, the surface tension of the aqueous solution
will increase with the temperature. With an increase to the γ point domain, it can be observed that the
(β-γ) domain has a reverse gradient of surface tension that is reversed by the temperature rise. Fluids
with this characteristic are different from ordinary fluids and are called self-rewetting fluids (SRF).
When the self-rewetting fluid enters the reverse surface tension gradient region (β-γ), due to the
Marangoni effect, it means that the fluid at the vapor–liquid two-phase interface will flow from the
place with low surface tension to the place with high surface tension, and the temperature will be
lower. The liquid is brought to a place with a higher temperature and thus wets the surface with a
[9]
high temperature, which has to delay the occurrence of drying out and enhance the heat transfer
efficiency.

In 1999, Ahmed pointed out that a very strong Marangoni effect due to concentration gradient was
expected in dilute aqueous solutions of 2-propanol; they reported the CHF (Critical Heat Flux) of 1.5
mol% of 2-propanol aqueous solution can be at least twice of that of water and also has a considerably
higher nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient. In 2001, Zhang said that decreasing surface tension
of the working fluid with increasing temperature is detrimental to the wettability of the heated surface,
thus suggesting the use of self-rewetting fluids, whose surface tensions increase with increasing
temperature. From 2004 to 2007, Abe [2] performed a series of studies and showed that the Marangoni
effect is caused by the combined effects of the surface tension gradient due to temperature differences
and concentration gradient. The fluid would flow to a higher surface tension region due to the flow
motion affected by the surface tension gradient, which causes the Marangoni flow.

By inducing the liquid-phase working fluid to flow from lower temperature region to higher-
temperature region, the wettability of the surface can be increased, thereby delaying occurrence of
dry-out, decreasing the operating temperature, and increasing the heat transfer performance. In
addition, from 2007 to 2010, Savino [2] made a series of reports concerning the application of self-
rewetting fluids to heat pipes. Figure shows that the self-rewetting fluid's concentration and
temperature are important indexes for its surface tension; results from experiments also showed that
self-rewetting fluids effectively enhanced the heat transfer performance compared to water, lowering
the overall operating temperature.

In 2008, Francescantonio [2] applied heptanol aqueous solution to heat pipe and found that, compared
to using pure water, the critical heat load was increased by a factor of two and the total thermal
resistance significantly decreased; the study further suggested that, with the proper choice of binary
mixture, the performance of the heat pipe can be further enhanced. In 2009, Abe [2] applied,
separately, butanol, pentanol, heptanol, and propanol aqueous solutions to heat pipe performance
tests; results showed that butanol aqueous solution yielded the best results. In 2009 and 2010, Fumoto
[3] applied butanol and pentanol aqueous solutions to heat pipe to investigate the effects of different
working fluid filling ratios on the heat transfer performance, yielding clear enhancements to heat
pipe's performance.

In 2001, Morovati [2] used butanol aqueous solution as working fluid at different concentrations to
investigate the pool boiling heat transfer phenomenon under different pressures; the critical heat flux
enhanced varied from 20% increase to 270% increase, and the vapor sizes produced during boiling
were much smaller in butanol aqueous solution than in pure water. Summing up the above literature
survey, self-rewetting fluids can increase the critical heat flux during pool boiling heat transfer. Self-
rewetting fluids, when applied to traditional wick-less heat pipes, can also lower the operating
temperature and enhance the heat transfer performance; however, to-date reports on self-rewetting
fluids applied to LHPs have yet to be seen, and detailed information concerning the concentrations
and solute of the self-rewetting binary mixtures still need to be further verified. Therefore, this study
investigated different self-rewetting fluids including butanol, pentanol, and hexanol aqueous
solutions at different concentrations; the best self-rewetting fluid was determined from surface
tension measurements and applied to LHP for heat transfer performance testing.

[10]
2.2 Materials and methods:

1. Working fluid choices: The choice of working fluid is an important factor in the heat transfer
performance of the LHP. This study focused on self-rewetting fluids; both the concentrations and
solutes of self-rewetting fluids were investigated. The different solutes in this study were butanol,
pentanol, and hexanol.

2. Different concentrations: Since the surface tension curves as functions of temperature for alcohol
aqueous solutions vary for different concentrations, changing the concentrations of alcohol aqueous
solutions can have significant impact on the surface tensions. In addition, as suggested by literature
[2], the best concentration should be around the saturation concentration; under standard conditions,
the saturation concentrations for butanol, pentanol, and hexanol aqueous solutions are 6%, 2%, and
0.6%, respectively. Therefore, in this study, the following concentrations were chosen for surface
tension measurements to find the best concentrations: 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8% for butanol aqueous
solutions; 1%, 2%, 3% for pentanol aqueous solutions, and 0.3%, 0.6%, and 0.9% for hexanol
aqueous solutions.

3. Different kinds of solutes: Concerning the different solute choices for alcohol aqueous solutions,
since the surface tension trend reversal becomes less obvious the longer the carbon chain in an alcohol
is, butanol, pentanol, and hexanol were chosen as the solutes in this study. The best concentration for
each alcohol aqueous solution determined was applied to LHP for performance testing to find the best
solute choice for self-rewetting fluid [2].

4. Surface tension measurements: The properties of the working fluid greatly influences the heat
transfer performance of LHP, especially the surface tension's impact on the wettability of the wick's
surface tension; to compare the differences between the properties of water and self-rewetting fluids,
the surface tension of each working fluid was measured using Wilhelmy plate method in this study.
Fig. 1 illustrates the theory used to measure the surface tension; the flat plate was brought into contact
with the fluid, and the force F needed to let the flat plate detach itself from the fluid was measured.
To avoid measurement errors caused by volatilized vapor, we used the open measurement system of
Wilhelmy plate tensiometer (K20S, Oldinbvrgh Co. LTD) to measure the surface tension. Due to the
sensitivity of measurement of surface tension, it is necessary to clean the platinum plate thoroughly.
We used water and alcohol to clean the plate and then sterilized it with alcohol burner before
measurement.

2.3. Wick manufacturing process:

Nickel powder was chosen as wick sintering material in this study; Fig. 2 shows the manufacturing
process of a nickel wick. The nickel powder was chosen according to Tracey [2], using Type-255
nickel powder manufactured by Inco., with powder average diameter ranging from 2.2e2.8 mm. The
sintering parameters were suggested by Wu [2], with sintering temperature of 600e650 C and
sintering time of 60 min. After sintering and cooling (to prevent oxidation of nickel wick), a nickel
wick was obtained by taking it out of the mold.

2.4 Different concentrations of self-rewetting fluids:

Fig. shows surface tension measurement results for butanol at different concentrations (2-8%). For
2%, 4%, and 6% butanol aqueous solutions [2], the surface tension for each one initially decreased
[11]
with increasing temperature, then the trend reversed around 50 C and the surface tension started
increasing, which is a clear property of self-rewetting fluid; however, 8% butanol aqueous solution
did not have this behaviour. In addition, after the reversal point around 50 C, the surface tension
gradient for 6% butanol aqueous solution was greater than that for 4% butanol, which was greater
than 2% butanol; thus, 6% butanol aqueous solution possessed superior surface tension gradient and
should be able to more effectively induce colder liquid to flow towards the heated surface. Therefore,
for butanol aqueous solution, the best concentration was 6%, which is its saturated concentration
under standard conditions.

Fig. 8 - Surface tensions of different concentrations of butanol aqueous solution as

functions of temperature. [376/380]

Fig. 9 shows surface tension measurement results for 1-3% pentanol aqueous solutions. [2]

[12]
For 1% and 2% pentanol aqueous solutions, the surface tension for each one initially decreased with
increasing temperature, then at the reversal point around 40 C the surface tension started increasing
with increasing temperature. The slope of the surface tension gradient after the reversal point indicates
how much surface increases with temperature; with greater surface tension at higher temperatures,
the wettability of the heated surface can be increased, delaying the occurrence of dry-out. However,
since 3% pentanol aqueous solution's reversal in surface tension trend wasn't as obvious, 2% pentanol
aqueous was determined to be the best concentration, and this concentration is also the saturation
concentration.

Fig. 10 shows surface tension measurement results for 0.3-0.9% hexanol aqueous solutions. 0.3% and
0.6% hexanol aqueous solutions displayed surface tension trend reversals typical of self-rewetting
fluids; however, 0.9% hexanol aqueous solution did not have this behaviour. Thus, the best
concentration for hexanol aqueous solution was determined to be 0.6%, which is also its saturation
concentration. Summarizing the above findings, results showed that each alcohol aqueous solution
has a best concentration, and each one's best concentration is around its saturation concentration.

Fig.10 Surface tensions of different concentrations of hexanol aqueous solution as

functions of temperature. [2]

2.5 Different solutes of self-rewetting fluids:

Concerning the surface tension measurements of different solutes of alcohol aqueous solutions, the
ones at their best, or saturation, concentrationsd6% butanol, 2% pentanol, and 0.3% hexanol aqueous
solutions were chosen for comparison [2]. The surface tension measurement results are listed in Table
2. Fig. 7 plots the surface tension as a function of temperature for each alcohol aqueous solution
according to the results shown in Table 2. Each fluid in this plot shows the typical curve for self-
rewetting fluid; when the temperature increases past the reversal point, the 6% butanol has the greatest
surface tension gradient; 6% butanol (0.2 mN/m C) > 2% pentanol (0.175 mN/ m C) > 0.6% hexanol
(0.165 mN/m C). Of these self-rewetting fluids, 6% butanol demonstrated the steepest surface tension
gradient after the reversal point, indicating it should have sharpest increase in surface tension with
temperature after the reversal point.
[13]
Since heptanol aqueous solution, with longer carbon chains and thus lower saturation concentration,
did not show very sharp reversal in surface tension compared to other three self-rewetting fluids, it
was not further investigated in this study. However, compared to surface tension measurement results
for heptanol aqueous solution from literature [7], as shown in Fig. 8, the plots from the results of this
study line up reasonably with those reported in literature. It was also observed that 6% butanol is the
best self-rewetting fluid in solute and concentration, and thus possesses great potential as working
fluid for heat transfer enhancement of LHP.

In 2017, Naresh et al. [7] applied the SRF of aqueous solutions of different alcohols (butanol,
pentanol, hexanol, and heptanol) to thermosyphon, and also pointed out that the optimal concentration
of SRF for different alcohol aqueous solutions is its saturation concentration. In 2018, Hu et al. used
two SRFs, ethanol 5% and butanol 5% plus water, for the study of pool boiling. It was found that the
critical heat flux (CHF) increase in the butanol 5% aqueous solution was 1.91 times higher than that
of water due to the Marangoni effect caused by the surface tension gradient. It was pointed out that
the Marangoni effect should be the key factor to enhance the heat transfer of pool boiling.

In 2019, Boubaker et al. [7] soaked the wick itself with the SRF butanol 3% aqueous solution and
pure water, respectively, and conducted evaporation visualization experiments. It was found that with
the increase in applied power, the vapor film formed by the wick when the working medium was pure
water also changed. However, the shape of the vapor film formed by SRF decreases with the increase
in the applied power, which more effectively solves the obstacle of the vapor film. In 2021, Zaaroura
et al. [7] applied the mixed fluid of the butanol 3% aqueous solution and gold nanofluid to the
capillary heat pipe (CHP), pointing out that the butanol aqueous solution using SRF can reduce the
evaporator temperature. Using visualization to observe the internal phase change, it was found that
SRF can improve the vapor film barrier and effectively improve the heat transfer performance.

[14]
 CHAPTER 3 – PROPOSED WORK

3.1 Problem Statement: Thermal analysis and experimental investigation of EV battery using liquid
cooling system using thermosyphon phenomenon.

3.2 Parameters of study:7

1. Temperature across the system

2. Total thermal load
3. Area exposed to loss of heat to the atmosphere
4. Accurate alcohol (Self-rewetting) percentage to be used as cooling liquid

3.3 Proposed System:

Fig. 11 Proposed model of the system

The system which is going to be utilized for the thermal analysis of the EV battery consists of many
components such as the thermosyphon loop heat pipe made of copper as copper has good thermal
conductivity, lithium ion NMC 3.7V battery cells (15 nos), a fan for cooling purpose and a radiator
so as to provide cooling to the liquid which will give out its heat. The self-rewetting fluid to be used
in the system as a cooling medium shall be decided on the basis of experimentation on the system
and after determination of results when compared with other aqueous solutions. The other solutions
like heptanol, hexanol, when taken in percentage for forming a self-rewetting fluid have poor
characteristics when compared with butanol for a given temperature and surface tension as per given
literature survey. Henceforth it is proposed to carry experiments to check the results and use correct
self-rewetting fluid accordingly.

[15]
3.4 Methodology:

1. Literature survey.
2. Selection of aqueous solution (self-rewetting fluid)
3. Experimental Set-up and Experimentation on self-rewetting liquid coolant and parametric study.
4. Numerical Analysis of thermosyphon pipe heat
5. Comparison of Results
6. Conclusion.

3.5 Action plan:

S Approximate Time

Sr.no Action July 22 Aug 22 Sept 22 Oct 22 Nov 22 Dec 22 Jan 23 Feb 23
to to to to to to to to
Aug 22 Sept 22 Oct 22 Nov 22 Dec 22 Jan 23 Feb 23 March 23

Working on
1. the
Problem
statement.

Literature
2.
survey

Study of
3. the literature
and work on
the system

Group
discussion
x 4.
and report
preparation

[16]
 Analysis of
required
5. components &
collecting the
components

Assembling
the system &
6. testing the
system for
final
submission

[17]
 CHAPTER 4: DESIGN AND SELECTION OF COMPONENTS

4.1 Battery selection:

1. Lithium-Ion-cells-

The first commercial lithium-ion chemistry was introduced to the market in 1990 based largely on
the work of Dr John Goodenough of the University of Texas. From its introduction in 1991 to the
early 2000s, sales of lithium-ion grew in demand to become the highest volume cell manufactured in
the world with about 660million small cylindrical cells and another 700 million small polymer
(pouch)-type cells manufactured annually in 2013 (TrendForce, 2013). Lithium-ion quickly became
the battery of choice for most small electronics because it contained much higher energy density than
comparable cells on the market. This meant that you could create a battery with the same energy as
NiMh but it would be about half the size and half the weight. For portable power applications such
as laptops and cell phones, this meant longer run times and longer life batteries.

2. Working of Lithium-ion cell-

Lithium-ion battery works much like any other battery type, as a current is applied ions are forced
from the anode to the cathode. In the lithium-ion battery, energy flow is created as the lithium-ions
within the cathode are transferred through an electrolyte medium into the anode, this represents a
charging event. A discharging event is represented by the lithium-ions being transferring through an
electrolyte medium from anode into the cathode (Figure 3 below). This does seem counterintuitive
for most of us but when the battery is discharging the ions are passing from anode to cathode. In the
diagram below a charging event is being shown, with the lithium-ions passing from the cathode
material through the electrolyte to the separator and then again through the electrolyte and to the
anode material. This action creates a voltage flow up the copper current collector and, in a closed-
circuit loop, to the positive current collector[13].

One of the other benefits of lithium-ion chemistries over nickel- and lead-based batteries is the higher
voltage. Typical NiMh and NiCd rechargeable cells operate at about 1.2–1.5V nominal, whereas
lithium-ion cells typically operate between 3.2 and 3.8V nominal. Having a higher voltage is
important in that it means that you need to connect fewer cells together in series in order to achieve
your desired pack voltage. For instance, a NiMh battery pack with 350V may require 292 cells to
achieve that voltage (350V/1.2V = 292 cells). Whereas a lithium-ion-based battery pack would only
require about 98cells to achieve the same system voltage (350V/3.6V = 98cells)[13].

In addition to having higher voltage and energy density, lithium-ion also has a lower rate of self-
discharge. This means that its natural capacity loss over time when the batteries are in storage is less
than that of other chemistries with many lithium-ion chemistries losing only 1–5% per month.
Capacity loss during storage comes in two types, reversible and permanent. Reversible capacity loss
is that energy that is lost during storage but will be regained once the battery is cycled again.
Permanent loss is that portion that will never be regained again.

[18]
 Fig. Lithium-ion cell ion flow[13]

Fig. Lithium-ion cell components

Virtually all lithium-ion chemistries have some amount of reversible capacity loss over time, some
of which is generally always permanent. Finally, lithium-ion chemistries tend to have much better
cycle life than the other chemistries. Where PbA may only get 300–500 cycles before it reaches its
end of life (EOL), lithium-ion can achieve thousands of full discharge cycles before reaching its EOL
during 100% depth of discharge (DOD) cycles. If we look at partial cycles, the lithium-ion battery
will be able to achieve tens of thousands of cycles as the DOD is reduced. For example, if we look at
a typical lithium-ion chemistry, it may achieve 1000 cycles using 100% DOD, but if we take that
same cell and use only 80% of its total usable energy, we will find that we can now get several
thousand cycles.

[19]
Table 2. below summarizes some of the general performance characteristics of some of the most
common lithium-ion chemistries that are in use today, including nickel manganese cobalt (NMC),
nickel cobalt aluminium (NCA), lithium iron phosphate (LFP), lithium titanate (LTO), lithium
manganese oxide (LMO), and lithium cobalt oxide (LCO).

Cathode Lithium Lithium Lithium Lithium Lithium

chemistry Iron Manganese Lithium Cobalt Nickel Nickel
descriptor Phosphate Oxide Titanate Oxide Cobalt Manganese
Aluminium Cobalt
LFP LMO LTO LCO NCA NMC

Specific energy 80-130 105-120 70 120-150 80-220 140-180

(Wh/kg)

Energy density 220-250 250-265 130 250-450 210-600 325

(Wh/L)

Specific power 1440-2400 1000 750 600 1500-1900 500-3000

(W/kg)

Power density 4500 2000 1400 1200-3000 4000-5000 6500

(W/L)

Volts (per cell) 3.2-3.3 3.8 2.2-2.3 3.6-3.8 3.6 3.6-3.7

(V)

Cycle life 1000-2000 >500 >4000 >700 >1000 1000-4000

Self-discharge <1% 5% 2-10% 1-5% 2-10% 1%

(% per month)

Cost (per KWh) 33,000/- 41,000/- 49,602/- 28,934/- 66,136/- 57,869/-

Operating
temperature -20 to +60 -20 to +60 -40 to +55 -20 to +60 -20 to +60 -20 to +55
range (°C)

Lithium-ion batteries have relatively few components in them, in fact there are really only about five
major components and a typical bill of materials for a cell may have only between 10 and 20 line
items (Figure ). Regardless of form factor, the major components of the cell are the cathode, an
aluminium foil in many designs that is coated with the active cathode material. The second component
is the anode, a copper foil that is coated with the active material of the anode. These two coated foils
are kept separate through the use of a separator material most often made of some type of
polypropylene (PP) or polyethylene (PE) plastic. This forms the jellyroll, which is then inserted into
the container or housing. This can be either a metal can, a plastic enclosure, or a metal foil-type pouch.
[20]
Into this assembly is then injected the electrolytic liquid. The entire assembly is then hermetically
sealed and is ready to move into the next stage of cell manufacturing. Figure shows a high-level
descriptor of the main components of a lithium-ion cell in relation to its cost.

Fig. Prismatic Lithium Cell Components

3. Cathode Chemistries-

Lithium-ion is a very general term that refers to a wide variety of different chemistries, each of which
has very different performance characteristics. The most common chemistry combinations used in
lithium-ion cells include: LFP, NMC, LCO, NCA, and LMO. And of these five major chemistries,
each cell manufacturer may use them in different combinations to achieve different performance
results or in some cases the cell manufacturer may actually combine different chemistries in order to
get the different benefits of each chemistry into one-cell design.

LFP is one of the most common chemistries in automotive applications due to its having a high power
capability and relatively low cost. This means that it can accept a regenerative braking charge and
can provide an acceleration discharge very quickly. The other reason that LFP is frequently used is
due to its relatively low cost. In relation to some of the other rare materials used in lithium-ion cells,
iron phosphate is quite common and low cost. Another reason that LFP has gained a high level of
usage is that is has been deemed a “safer” chemistry than others. However, this is somewhat of an
inaccuracy. All lithium-ion chemistries have similar failure modes; it is only a matter of at what
temperature they fail. In this case, as LFP has lower energy density than the other chemistries on the
market and that means that there is less energy to discharge in the event of a failure. However, it is
fair to say that LFP is more tolerant of abusive conditions such as overcharging the cell and high
temperatures.

[21]
With the introduction of production EVs, lithium NMC chemistries have begun to gain a strong
foothold due to its higher energy density and higher voltage. Depending on the combination of
materials, it is also sometimes referred to as nickel cobalt manganese (NCM) if there is a higher
percentage of cobalt than manganese in the chemistry. NMC shows a relatively high nominal voltage
of about 3.6–3.8V per cell and has a one of the highest energy densities in a production cell today of
between 140 and 180Wh/kg in production applications with some chemistries exceeding 200Wh/kg.

LCO is most commonly used in handheld electronics such as cell phones, cameras, and laptop
computers. While LCO offers generally higher energy density and long cycle life, it suffers from
being less stable at higher temperatures and more reactive than other chemistries. This means that
above about 130 °C the cell will enter the thermal runaway stage, a lower temperature than other
lithium-ion chemistries. For this reason, LCO has not seen wide use in large application but continues
to see use in small consumer electronics and in fact has been outright rejected by some automotive
manufacturers. LCO is also a somewhat higher cost chemistry due to the high amount of cobalt, a
relatively precious material that it contains.

NCA is frequently used in portable power applications but is being evaluated for automotive
applications due to its high power, however, it does have some drawbacks that are keeping it from
gaining a foothold in the vehicle space—high cost and low safety. Finally, LMO offers high energy
and high power, however, suffers from shorter cycle life thus making it an appropriate chemistry to
be used in portable power applications where you want long run time but not necessarily in
automotive applications where you want long life[13].

4. Anode Materials-

The negative side of the electrode is known as the anode. Today, most anodes are made of a mixture
of one of two materials either graphite, or soft or hard carbons. There are many different grades and
types of graphite, with graphene forming the basis for most of it. But the quality and selection of the
material will play a very important role in the performance of the cells. One other lithium-ion anode
that is gaining a lot of interest is the lithium-ion titanate cell. An LTO cell offers the advantage that
it can operate at a lower temperature than other chemistries and offers a high-power density. However,
LTO suffers from having a lower nominal voltage, in the range of about 2.2–2.3V per cell.

In addition, current LTO offerings tend to be much higher cost than comparative NMC or LFP cells.
This means that not only do you need more of them to achieve the desired system voltage, they will
also cost more. However, there are several manufacturers that are working on improving the cost of
LTO which may make it a good fit for many low-energy and high-power applications such as micro-
HEVs and some are working hard to integrate LTO into fully EVs. There does not appear to be any
technological reason that LTO will remain as a high-cost solution, as volumes begin to increase the
costs should also decrease at a relatively stable rate.

Much research is being done into several different new anodes including silicon, tin, germanium,
carbon nanotubes, and other nanocomposite materials. However, most of these are still in the
laboratory and none are currently commercialized for high-volume products. As can be seen in Figure
below, there are some very big opportunities to increase energy density by moving to silicon, tin, or

[22]
 Fig. Anode Material Performance Comparison

some of these other types of anode materials. There are still some major hurdles that need to be
addressed before they can be commercialized. For instance, both tin and silicon cause a volumetric
growth of between 250 and 300% during cycling which causes reduced cycle life. Today, these are
all still in the early development stages but there is good hope that in the not-too-distant future we
will be able to overcome some of the obstacles to make these anode chemistries realities.

5. Separators-

The next component within the lithium-ion cell for us to consider is the separator. A separator is a
thin piece of material, often a plastic or ceramic, which separates the anode from the cathode. In use,
the separator material must be able to withstand the often-corrosive hydrocarbon (HC)-based
electrolytes that are used in lithium-ion cells while still maintaining the isolation of the two electrodes
within the cell. The main purpose of the separator is to do just that, to separate the anode from the
cathode. If the two halves of the electrode come into contact, an internal short circuit will occur,
causing a cell failure. Therefore, the separator is of key importance in any lithium-ion cell design.

Some cells use a multilayer PP or PE plastic to separate the anodes and cathode. This material allows
the lithium-ions to pass from anode to cathode while still protecting the cell from short circuiting.
Some cell manufacturers use a trilayer PP/PE/PP in order to allow the middle layer to melt at higher
temperatures (∼135°C) while still ensuring the separation of anode and cathode by ensuring that the
outside PP layers do not melt until they reach a higher temperature (∼155 °C). At high temperatures,
the pores in the PP begin to melt which prohibits the flow of lithium-ions. However, for many
separators the plastic begins to shrink and entirely melt at somewhat lower temperatures causing an
internal short circuit in the cell and thereby permanent failure above temperatures of about 90°–
110°C. Some lithium-ion cell manufacturers are beginning to integrate ceramic-layered separators in
[23]
their cells as it enables higher temperatures and increases the safety of the cell, especially during nail
penetration testing events. This also tends to improve the power rate capability of the cells by reducing
the internal resistance.

6. Electrolytes-

The electrolyte is usually a liquid- or gel-based solution that the anode and cathodes are emerged in
which acts as a conductor allowing the lithium-ion cells to move between the anode and the cathode.
The electrolyte is typically a HC-based mixture that includes multiple additives which provide
different functionality within the cell. The use of additives is the cell manufacturer’s “secret sauce”
and is one of the key areas of intellectual property of the cell makers. Typical electrolytes may include
a mixture of alkyl carbonates such as ethylene carbonate, dimethyl, diethyl, and ethylmethyl
carbonates and lithium salts (LiPF6)

These additives offer various different benefits during operation. The main functions of the additives
are to facilitate the formation of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer, to reduce the irreversible
capacity and gas generation of the SEI formation and long-term cycling, and to enhance the thermal
stability of the cell (Zhang, 2006). For example, in cylindrical- and can-type cells, an additive may
enable “gassing” or gas generation at predefined temperatures in order to engage the CID, a resettable
fuse internal to the cell.

SEI layer formation is another important function performed by the electrolyte. As the first
electrochemical reactions begin to occur inside the cell, the electrolyte begins to react with the
graphite or carbon anodes. Some of the lithium begins to form a passivation layer on the surface of
the anode; this is referred to as the SEI layer. It results in an irreversible loss of capacity during the
formation of the cells and generally during the very first cycle. However, this nonactive layer of
lithium now begins to protect the graphite or carbon surface from further chemical reactions with the
electrolyte.

One of the challenges associated with the electrolyte is during the failure and cell venting. As an HC-
based liquid, the electrolyte will burn when ejected from the cell during a thermal runaway event.
Due to this, there has been much interest in both gel electrolytes and solid electrolytes as well as in
aqueous-based electrolyte solutions that are non-flammable. Gel electrolytes have many of the same
features as a liquid but as they are a gel-type material they have less potential to “flame” up during a
failure event. Solid electrolytes are being evaluated by many manufacturers as well, but most are not
yet ready for high-volume production. The solid electrolytes are generally being deposited onto either
a separator layer or directly onto the cathode material.

[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
[43]
[44]
 References

1. Thermosyphon Heat Pipe Technology, Bala Abdullahi, Raya K. Al-dadah and Sa’ad Mahmoud.
2. Study of self-rewetting fluid applied to loop heat pipe, Shen-Chun Wu, Dept. of Aviation
Mechanical Engineering, China University of Science and Technology, Taipei City, Taiwan,
ROC.
3. New alcohol solutions for heat pipes: Marangoni effect and heat transfer enhancement, Nicola di
Francescantonio, Raffaele Savino, Yoshiyuki Abe, University of Naples, ‘‘Federico II”, Space
Science and Engineering Department, ‘‘Luigi G. Napolitano”, Naples, Italy b AIST, National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan.
4. Study of self-rewetting fluid applied to loop Heat Pipe with PTFE wick, Shen-Chun Wu, Tien-Ju
Lee, Wei-Jhih Lin, Yau-Ming Chen.
5. An experimental study on a pulsating heat pipe with self-rewetting fluid, Koji Fumoto, Masahiro
Kawaji & Tsuyoshi Kawanami.
6. Research on Electric Vehicle Cooling System Based on Active and Passive Liquid Cooling,
Changhao Piao, Tao Chen, Anjian Zhou, Pingzhong Wang, Junsheng Chen1
7. The Study of Novel Self-Rewetting Fluid Application to Loop Heat Pipe Jhih-Huang Gao, Shen-
Chun Wu, Ya-Wei Lee 1, Ta-Li Chou and Yan-Chun Chen
8. An Experimental Study on a Pulsating heat pipe with self-rewetting fluid Koji Fumoto, Masahiro
Kawaji & Tsuyoshi Kawanam.
9. Self-Rewetting Fluids Beneficial Aqueous Solutions, Yoshiyuki Abe
10. Thermal Management with Self-Rewetting Fluids, Yoshiyuki Abe, Akira Iwaski, Kotaro Tanaka.
11. Inverse-thermocapillary evaporation in a thin liquid film of self-rewetting fluid Elaine Lim
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Multimedia University, Melaka, Malaysia, and Tze
Cheng Kueh and Yew Mun Hung Advanced Engineering Platform, School of Engineering,
Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.
12. CFD Analysis of Cryogenic Pulsating Heat Pipe with Near Critical Diameter under Varying
Gravity Conditions, Kalpak R. Sagara, H. B. Naika , and Hemantkumar B. Mehta.
13. The Handbook of Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Design Chemistry, Components, Types and
Terminology by John Warner.

[45]