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Physics Formula Booklet By Kerwin Springer 1

Physical Chemistry 1 (The University of the West Indies St. Augustine)

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THE PHYSICS
FORMULA
BOOKLET

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From Kerwin Springer

In 2005 days before the CSEC Physics exams I wrote out all the Physics definitions and formulae
on printing paper scattered across the floor of my living room. I drew all key diagrams.
Summarized all key labs.

Before the exams I beat those sheets of paper like they owed me money. I then practiced years
of Past Papers and when results came out, I was rewarded with a ONE and A’s in all profiles.

This booklet is my recreation of those sheets of paper. It is the Physics syllabus condensed into
formulae and definitions meant to work as a companion to your notes and past paper revision.
May it serve you as it did me and may you reap rewards on par or greater than mine.

You can find me by searching Kerwin Springer on YouTube or at www.kerwinspringer.com

Looking for the highest quality online lessons? Check out The Student Hub Ltd.
© www.thestudenthub.online
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No unauthorized distribution, resale, photocopying, digital reproduction.

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Physics Formula Booklet – Formulas and Definitions

Mechanics

Fundamental Quantities

Fundamental Quantities Base SI Units

Mass (m) kilogram (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)
length (𝑙𝑙) meter (𝑚𝑚)
time (𝑡𝑡) second (𝑠𝑠)
current (𝐼𝐼) ampere (𝐴𝐴)
Temperature (𝑇𝑇) kelvin (𝐾𝐾)
amount of substance (𝑛𝑛) mole (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙)
luminous intensity (𝑙𝑙𝑣𝑣 ) candela (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)

Prefixes

Prefix Factor Symbol

1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
10−1 deci d
10−2 centi c
10−3 milli m
10−6 micro 𝜇𝜇
10−9 nano n
10−12 pico p

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Density

Definition:

Density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume.

Formula:

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Density =
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣

𝑚𝑚
𝜌𝜌 =
𝑉𝑉

where

𝜌𝜌 = density (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−3 )

𝑚𝑚 = mass (kg)

𝑉𝑉 = volume (𝑚𝑚3 )

Unit Analysis:

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Density =
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣

𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Unit of Density =
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
=
𝑚𝑚3

= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−3

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Errors – Random Error vs. Systematic Error

Random Error

An error in measurement caused by factors which vary from one measurement to another.

• averages out over repeated readings.

• example: human response time, lack of uniformity in quantity being measured

Systematic Error

An error having a non-zero mean, so that its effect is not reduced when observations are
averaged.

• does not average out over repeated readings.

• arises due to a flaw in the equipment or the experiment’s design.
• example: calibration error, zero error

Precision vs. Accuracy

Precision

• how close the repeated readings are

Accuracy

• how close to the true value

Graphical Representation of Precision and Accuracy

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Graphs

Formula:

𝑦𝑦2 −𝑦𝑦1
𝑚𝑚 =
𝑥𝑥2 −𝑥𝑥1

where 𝑚𝑚 is the gradient and (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ), (𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) are the coordinates of two points on the line.

Forces
Types of forces:

• Gravitational
• Frictional
• Magnetic
• Centripetal
• Nuclear
• Mechanical
• Upthrust

Weight

Definition:

Weight is defined as a product of the body’s mass and the gravitational pull (acceleration) it
receives.

Formula:

Weight = mass × gravitational pull

𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘

where

𝑊𝑊 = weight (N)

𝑚𝑚 = mass (kg)

𝑘𝑘 = gravitational pull/acceleration (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

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Unit Analysis:

𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘

= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 × 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2

= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2

=N

Mass
Definition:

Mass is defined as the quantity of matter that makes up the body.

Unit: kilogram (kg)

Gravity

𝑘𝑘 − acceleration due to gravity

Unit: metre per second squared (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 ) OR Newton per kilogram (𝑁𝑁𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−1 )

Unit Analysis:

𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘

𝑊𝑊
𝑘𝑘 =
𝑚𝑚

𝑁𝑁
=
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

= 𝑁𝑁𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−1

On the Earth, 𝑘𝑘 = 9.81 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 .

For exams, this is sometimes rounded off to 10 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 .

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Parallelogram law of Forces

Parallelogram law:

If two forces acting on one point on the same object are represented in magnitude and direction
by the sides of a parallelogram, their resultant force is represented in magnitude and direction
by the diagonal drawn from the same point.

Formula:

V
𝐹𝐹2 𝑅𝑅
V

𝐹𝐹1

𝑅𝑅 = 𝐹𝐹1 + 𝐹𝐹2

Moment

Definition:

A moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
from the pivot to the line of action.

Formula:

Moment of a force = Force × perpendicular distance

𝑇𝑇 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐

where

𝑇𝑇 = moment of a force (𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚} 𝐹𝐹 = force (𝑁𝑁) 𝑐𝑐 = distance (𝑚𝑚)

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Unit Analysis:

𝑇𝑇 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐

= 𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚

Principle of Moments
Definition:

The Principle of Moments state that the sum of anticlockwise moments is equal to the sum of
clockwise moments about a pivot.

For (Static) Equilibrium:

The two conditions for equilibrium are:

1. Upward Force = Downward Forces

Or
Net Forces = 0

2. “Principle of Moments” − the sum of anticlockwise moments is equal to the sum of

clockwise moments about a pivot.

Centre of Gravity
Definition:

The centre of gravity of an object is the point through which its whole weight acts for any
orientation of the object.

Types of Equilibrium

• Stable
 When displaced, centre of gravity rises then returns
 Centre of gravity remains over the base

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• Unstable
 When displaced, centre of gravity falls and keeps falling
 Centre of gravity falls outside the base

• Neutral
 When displaced, centre of gravity remains at the same height

Pendulum

Formula:

𝑣𝑣
𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋�
𝑘𝑘

Where: 𝑙𝑙 is the length of the pendulum and 𝑘𝑘 (= 10𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 ) is the acceleration due to gravity.

Hooke’s Law
Definition:

Hooke’s law states that the force applied to a spring is directly proportional to its extension,
provided that the force applied does not extend the spring beyond its elastic limit.

Formula:

Extension ∝ Stretching force

𝑒𝑒 = 𝐹𝐹𝑘𝑘

where

𝑒𝑒 = extension (m)

𝐹𝐹 = stretching force (N)

𝑘𝑘 = constant

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Elastic Limit

Definition:

Elastic limit is the point where the spring loses its elasticity and stops obeying Hooke’s law.

Plastic deformation – does not return to its original position.

Graphs

𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛

𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑒

𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑒

𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛

Formula:

Final length of spring = original length + extension

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Pressure

Can be thought of in terms of:

 Mechanical
 Liquids
 Gases

Mechanical Pressure

Definition:

Mechanical pressure is defined as a normal force acting on a surface per unit area.

Unit: Pascals (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)

Formula:

𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣
Pressure =
𝐴𝐴𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚

𝐹𝐹
𝑃𝑃 =
𝐴𝐴

where

𝑃𝑃 = pressure (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)

𝐹𝐹 = force (𝑁𝑁)

𝐴𝐴 = area (𝑚𝑚2 )

Unit Analysis:

𝐹𝐹
𝑃𝑃 =
𝐴𝐴

𝑁𝑁
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑚𝑚2

= 𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚−2 OR 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

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Pressure in Liquids

Definition:

Pressure in liquids is defined as a normal force acting on a surface per unit area. Pressure
increases with depth.

Formula:

𝑃𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝜌𝑘𝑘

where

𝑃𝑃 = pressure (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)

ℎ = height from surface (𝑚𝑚)

𝜌𝜌 = density (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−3 )

𝑘𝑘 = acceleration due to gravity (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

5 Facts on pressure in liquids:

1. Not affected by cross-section

2. All points on same horizontal depth = Same pressure
3. Acts equally in all directions (same depth)
4. Pressure is directly proportional to depth.
5. Pressure is directly proportional to density.

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Manometer

Formula:

𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑃2 + ℎ𝜌𝜌

Archimedes Principle
Definition:

Archimedes principle states that the upthrust force on an object wholly or partially immersed in
a fluid is equal (and opposite) to the weight of fluid displacement by the object.

Law of flotation

 Based on Archimedes Principle

Law of flotation:

A floating object displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it floats.

Work

Definition:

 Work done is when a force moves its point of application.

 Work done by a force is the product of the magnitude of a force and the distance
moved in the direction of the force.
 Unit: Joule (𝐽𝐽)

Formula:

Work done = Force × displacement

𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠

where 𝑊𝑊 = work done (𝐽𝐽) 𝐹𝐹 = force (𝑁𝑁) 𝑠𝑠 = displacement (𝑚𝑚)

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Unit Analysis:

𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠

𝑊𝑊 = 𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚

= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 𝑚𝑚 (since 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚2 𝑠𝑠 −2

= 𝐽𝐽

Power
Definition:

Power is defined as the rate of work done.

Unit: Watts (𝑊𝑊)

Formula:

𝑊𝑊𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈𝑣𝑣 𝐸𝐸𝑈𝑈𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦 𝑈𝑈𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑

𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝐹𝐹 = =
𝑇𝑇𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈 𝑇𝑇𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈

𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑈𝑈

where

𝑃𝑃 = power (𝑊𝑊)

𝑊𝑊 = work done (𝐽𝐽)

𝑡𝑡 = time taken (𝑠𝑠)

Unit Analysis:

𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑈𝑈

𝐽𝐽
=
𝑚𝑚

= 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 −1

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Simple Machines

Mechanical Advantage

Formula:

𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑
𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐𝐴𝐴𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑃𝑃𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 =
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹𝑈𝑈

Velocity Ratio

Formula:

𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑈𝑈𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑

𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑦𝑦 𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚 =
𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑈𝑈𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹𝑈𝑈

Efficiency

Formula:

𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑊𝑊𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹𝑘𝑘 𝑂𝑂𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈𝑂𝑂𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈

% 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑦𝑦 = × 100
𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 𝐸𝐸𝑈𝑈𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦 𝐼𝐼𝑈𝑈𝑂𝑂𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈

Motion Laws

Acceleration

Formula:

𝑣𝑣−𝑣𝑣
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑈𝑈

where

𝑃𝑃 = acceleration (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

𝐴𝐴 = final velocity (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

𝑢𝑢 = initial velocity (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

𝑡𝑡 = time taken (𝑠𝑠)

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Velocity

Formula:

𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝐴 =
𝑈𝑈

where

𝐴𝐴 = velocity (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

𝑠𝑠 = displacement (𝑚𝑚)

𝑡𝑡 = time taken (𝑠𝑠)

Average Velocity

Formula:

𝑣𝑣+𝑣𝑣
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑃𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑦𝑦 =
2

where

𝐴𝐴 = final velocity (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

𝑢𝑢 = initial velocity (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

Additional Formulas:

𝐴𝐴 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡

𝐴𝐴 2 = 𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠

1
𝑠𝑠 = 𝑢𝑢𝑡𝑡 + 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 2
2

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Motion Graphs

Displacement-Time Graph

𝑠𝑠
at rest
no movement

constant
velocity

𝑡𝑡

• Gradient = velocity

Speed-Time Graph

𝐴𝐴
constant speed

constant
acceleration

𝑡𝑡

• Gradient = acceleration
• Area under graph = displacement

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Newton’s Laws

 Newton’s 1st law of motion

 Newton’s 2nd law of motion
 Newton’s 3rd law of motion

Newton’s 1st law of motion

Newton’s first law of motion states that a body remains in a state of rest of uniform
motion/velocity unless acted upon by a resultant force.

Newton’s 2nd law of motion

Newton’s second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is
proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction of a force.

Formula:

𝐹𝐹 ∝ 𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃

𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃

where

𝐹𝐹 = force (𝑁𝑁)

𝑚𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)

𝑃𝑃 = acceleration (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

Unit Analysis:

𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃

= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 × 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2

= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2

=N

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Momentum

Formula:

Momentum = mass × velocity

𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴

where
𝑝𝑝 = momentum (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )
𝑚𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)
𝐴𝐴 = velocity (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

𝑣𝑣−𝑣𝑣
Substituting 𝑃𝑃 = into 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃 gives:
𝑈𝑈

𝑣𝑣−𝑣𝑣
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚 � �
𝑈𝑈

𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 − 𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢

change of momentum

Note: 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒 = 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡

Conservation of Momentum

Principle of Conservation of Momentum

Total Momentum before collision = Total Momentum after collision

Newton’s 3rd law of motion

Newton’s third law of motion states that if body A exerts a force on body B, body B will

exert an equal and opposite force on body A.

Energy
Energy means the ability to do work.

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Principle of conservation of energy:

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; if energy disappears in one form, it re-appears in another.

Kinetic Energy

Formula:

1
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 2
2

where

𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = kinetic energy (𝐽𝐽)

𝑚𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)

𝐴𝐴 = velocity (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )

Unit Analysis:

1
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 2
2

𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )2

= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚2 𝑠𝑠 −2

= 𝐽𝐽

Potential Energy
Formula:

𝐸𝐸𝑂𝑂 = 𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘ℎ

where

𝐸𝐸𝑂𝑂 = potential energy (J)

𝑚𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)

ℎ = height (𝑚𝑚)

𝑘𝑘 = acceleration due to gravity (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 )

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Unit Analysis:

𝐸𝐸𝑂𝑂 = 𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘ℎ

𝐸𝐸𝑂𝑂 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −2 𝑚𝑚

= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚2 𝑠𝑠 −2

= 𝐽𝐽

Types of Energy
 Nuclear
 Thermal
 Light
 Kinetic
 Potential
 Sound
 Mechanical
 Chemical

Heat and Matter

 Caloric Theory
 Kinetic Theory

Caloric Theory

- Heat was a fluid called caloric.

- Caloric moved from hot bodies to cold bodies (in contact).
- Friction creates particles that create caloric.

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Kinetic Theory

- All matter is made up of small particles in continual state of motion.

- Heat is a result of the particle motion.
- Heat caused by friction is a result of Mechanical Energy being converted to 𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻 in the
substance.

Evidence of Kinetic Theory

1. Brownian Motion – the haphazard (or erratic) movement of microscopic particles

(example smoke particles) because of interaction/bombardment with air molecules.
2. Diffusion in Liquids – movement of particles from a place of high concentration to a low
concentration along a concentration gradient.

States of matter

Phases

melting boiling

Solid Liquid Gas

freezing condensation

sublimation

deposition

Types of Thermometers

 Laboratory
 Mercury vs. Alcohol
 Clinical/Medical Thermometer
 Thermocouple

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Clinical/Medical Thermometer

Characteristics

• Range: 35−42
• Narrow bore which increases sensitivity.
• There is a constriction such that when it expands, it remains put. This allows time for
the reading to be taken.
• The glass tube is a little thinner than normal.

Thermocouple
Advantages

• Sensitive to subtle changes. (High Precision)

• Can be used to measure high temperatures.
• Can be easily linked to equipment using an electrical signal to form feedback loops with
automated machinery in the industry.

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Types of Heat Transfers

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

Note:

- Conduction and convection both need a medium.

- Radiation does not need a medium. It can travel in a vacuum.

How Vacuum Fluids Solid

Kinetic energy is
passed through
Conduction √ √
molecule to molecule,
atom to atom.
Convection currents
Convection transferring Thermal √
energy.
Depending on the
Electromagnetic wavelength some,
Radiation √ √
Infrared Radiation radiation can pass
through solids.

Convection Currents

Definition:

Convection currents is defined as the flow of a liquid/gas caused by changes in density, in which
the whole medium moves and carries heat energy.

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Heat Capacity

Definition:

Heat capacity is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of an object by 1 Kelvin.

Formula:

𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻 = 𝐶𝐶∆𝑇𝑇

where

𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻 = heat energy (J)

𝐶𝐶 = heat capacity (𝐽𝐽𝐾𝐾 −1 )

∆𝑇𝑇 = change in temperature (𝐾𝐾)

Unit Analysis:

𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻 = 𝐶𝐶∆𝑇𝑇

𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻
𝐶𝐶 =
∆𝑇𝑇

𝐽𝐽
=
𝐾𝐾

= 𝐽𝐽𝐾𝐾 −1

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Specific Heat Capacity

Definition:

Specific heat capacity is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 of a substance
by 1 Kelvin.

Formula:

𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐∆𝑇𝑇

where

𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻 = heat energy (J)

𝑚𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)

𝑐𝑐 = specific heat capacity (𝐽𝐽𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−1 𝐾𝐾 −1 )

∆𝑇𝑇 = change in temperature (𝐾𝐾)

Unit Analysis:

𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐∆𝑇𝑇

𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻
𝑐𝑐 =
𝑚𝑚∆𝑇𝑇

𝐽𝐽
=
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝐾𝐾

= 𝐽𝐽𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−1 𝐾𝐾 −1

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Specific latent heat of fusion

Definition:

Specific latent heat of fusion is defined as the heat energy required to change 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 of the
substance from solid to liquid without changing temperature.

Formula:

𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜

where

𝐸𝐸 = energy (J)

𝑚𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)

𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜 = specific latent heat of fusion (𝐽𝐽𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−1 )

Specific latent heat of vaporization

Definition:

Specific latent heat of vaporization is defined as the heat energy required to change 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 of the
substance from liquid to vapour/gas without changing temperature.

Formula:

𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑣𝑣

where

𝐸𝐸 = energy (J)

𝑚𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)

𝑙𝑙𝑣𝑣 = specific latent heat of vaporization (𝐽𝐽𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−1 )

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Difference between Evaporation and Boiling

Evaporation – occurs at any temperature at the surface.

Boiling – happens at boiling point.

Boiling – occurs throughout the liquid.

Factors affecting the boiling point of a liquid:

 The external pressure.

 The presence of solutes in the liquid.

Gas Laws
 Boyles Law
 Charles Law
 Pressure Law

 General Gas Equation

Boyles Law
- Temperature is constant.

Boyles Law:

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume if the absolute
temperature is constant.

Formula:

1
𝑃𝑃 ∝
𝑉𝑉

𝑘𝑘
𝑃𝑃 = OR 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉

where

𝑘𝑘 = constant 𝑃𝑃 = pressure (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) 𝑉𝑉 = volume (𝑚𝑚3 )

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Charles Law

- Pressure is constant.

Charles Law:

The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if the
pressure is constant.

Formula:

𝑉𝑉 ∝ 𝑇𝑇

𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 OR 𝑘𝑘 =
𝑇𝑇

where

𝑘𝑘 = constant 𝑉𝑉 = volume (𝑚𝑚3 ) 𝑇𝑇 = temperature (𝐾𝐾)

Pressure Law

- Volume is constant.

Pressure Law:

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if the
volume is constant.

Formula:

𝑃𝑃 ∝ 𝑇𝑇

𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 OR 𝑘𝑘 =
𝑇𝑇

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where

𝑘𝑘 = constant 𝑃𝑃 = pressure (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) 𝑇𝑇 = temperature (𝐾𝐾)

General Gas Equation

(Combination of three gas laws)
Formula:

𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉
= a constant
𝑇𝑇

𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2

=
𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2

where

𝑃𝑃 = pressure (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)

𝑇𝑇 = temperature (𝐾𝐾)

𝑉𝑉 = volume (𝑚𝑚3 )

Point Source vs. Extended Source

Point Source – Small concentrated source

Point Source – Example: pinhole

Extended Source – Long source of light

Extended Source – Example: fluorescent bulb

Rectilinear Propagation

- Straight line travel of light

Eclipse of the Sun

- The Eclipse of the Sun occurs when the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth.

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Eclipse of the Moon (lunar eclipse)

- The Eclipse of the Moon occurs when the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon.

Reflection
Laws of Reflection

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, at the point of incidence, are all on
the same plane.

2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

normal

incident ray reflected ray

𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐹

Convex mirror vs. Concave mirror

Convex Mirror Concave Mirror

Examples are: Examples are:
1. rear view mirror 1. car light
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Refraction

Laws of Refraction

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal, at the point of incidence, are all on
the same plane.
sin 𝑈𝑈
2. = 𝑘𝑘
sin 𝐹𝐹
sin 𝑈𝑈
The ratio is constant for a given pair of media where 𝑒𝑒 is the angle of incidence and 𝐹𝐹
sin 𝐹𝐹

is the angle of refraction.

Formula:

sin 𝑈𝑈
−1 𝑛𝑛2 =
sin 𝐹𝐹

where
𝑛𝑛 = refractive index
𝑒𝑒 = angle of incidence
𝐹𝐹 = angle of refraction

Additional Formulas:

𝑚𝑚𝑂𝑂𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈𝑘𝑘ℎ𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 1

−1 𝑛𝑛2 =
𝑚𝑚𝑂𝑂𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈𝑘𝑘ℎ𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 2

𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂𝑈𝑈ℎ
−1 𝑛𝑛2 =
𝑚𝑚𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑚𝑚𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂𝑈𝑈ℎ

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Critical Angle

Definition:

The critical angle is defined as the angle of incidence that makes an angle of refraction that is
90°.

Formula:

1
sin 𝑐𝑐 =
−𝑎𝑎 𝑈𝑈𝑔𝑔

where
−𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑘𝑘 = refractive index of the material from air to glass
𝑐𝑐 = critical angle

Total Internal Reflection

Definition:

Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle for
light travelling from a dense to a less dense medium. The ray of light is reflected into the more
dense medium.

Convex lens vs. Concave lens

convex lens concave lens

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Ray Diagrams

I. Image is on the same side as the object.

This is the only case where the image is virtual and erect. The distance of O from the lens
must be less than the focal length.

Uses for this type of lens:

1) Magnifying glass
2) Instrument eyepieces
3) Spectacles for long-sightedness

II. Image is at Infinity.

In this situation, no localised image is formed as the rays of light do not converge. The
image of the object will be located at infinity.

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III. Real, Magnified Image

The image has been magnified but has been inverted. The image in this situation is real
and located on the other side of the lens than the object.

Uses for this type of lens:

1) Microscope objective lens
2) Projector

IV. Real, Diminished Image

The image is real, inverted and located on the other side of the object, however, the
image has been diminished.

Uses for this type of lens:

1) Camera
2) Eyes

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V. Image forming at the focal point.

The image is real, inverted and located on the other side of the object, however, the
image has been diminished. The image falls on the focal point.

Uses for this type of lens:

1) Telescope

Magnification

Formula:

𝑣𝑣
𝑀𝑀𝑃𝑃𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 =
𝑣𝑣

OR
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈𝑘𝑘ℎ𝑈𝑈
𝑀𝑀𝑃𝑃𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 =
𝑂𝑂𝑏𝑏𝑂𝑂𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹𝑈𝑈 ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑈𝑈𝑘𝑘ℎ𝑈𝑈

Lens

Formula:

1 1 1
= +
𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣

where
𝐸𝐸 = frequency
𝑢𝑢 = distance of object from lens
𝐴𝐴 = distance of image from lens

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Vibration and Waves

Formula:

𝐴𝐴 = 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓

where
𝐴𝐴 = wavespeed (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )
1
𝐸𝐸 = frequency (Hz or 𝑠𝑠 −1 or )
𝑚𝑚

𝑓𝑓 = wavelength (𝑚𝑚)

Formula:

1
𝑇𝑇 =
𝑜𝑜

where
𝑇𝑇 = period (𝑠𝑠)
𝐸𝐸 = frequency (𝑠𝑠 −1 )

Transverse Wave vs. Longitudinal Wave

Transverse Wave – particle displacement is perpendicular to the propagation of the wave

Longitudinal Wave – particle displacement is parallel to the propagation of the wave

Interference

Constructive Destructive

+ = + =

• in phase • out of phase

• antiphase

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Wavelength

Definition:

Wavelength is defined as the distance between two troughs/crests.

Sound waves

compression

rarefraction

Refraction

Laws:

1. The incident ray and the refracted ray will be on opposite sides of the normal.

2. Snell’s law – The sine of the angle between the ray and the normal in a particular
medium is proportional to the speed of the ray in that medium.

Formula:
𝑣𝑣1 𝜈𝜈2
=
𝑚𝑚𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝜃𝜃1 𝑚𝑚𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝜃𝜃2

where
𝐴𝐴1 = speed of light in medium 1
𝐴𝐴2 = speed of light in medium 2
𝜃𝜃1 = incident angle
𝜃𝜃2 = refracted angle

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Static Electricity

Definition:

Static electricity is defined as electrical charges transferring from one body to the next without
physical contact.

Process of Induction

Definition:

- Like charges repel expose opposite charges

- Opposite charges cause attraction.

Current Electricity

Formula:

𝑄𝑄 = 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡

where

𝑄𝑄 = charge (𝐶𝐶)

𝐼𝐼 = current (𝐴𝐴)

𝑡𝑡 = time (𝑠𝑠)

Formula:

𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅

where

𝑉𝑉 = potential difference/voltage (𝑉𝑉)

𝐼𝐼 = current (𝐴𝐴)

𝑅𝑅 = resistance (Ω)

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Formula:

𝐸𝐸 = 𝑄𝑄𝑉𝑉

where

𝐸𝐸 = energy (𝐽𝐽)

𝑄𝑄 = charge (𝐶𝐶)

𝑉𝑉 = potential difference/voltage (𝑉𝑉)

Additional Formula:

𝐸𝐸
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑈𝑈

where

𝑃𝑃 = power (𝑊𝑊)

𝐸𝐸 = energy (𝐽𝐽)

𝑡𝑡 = time (𝑠𝑠)

“Hybrid” Formula:

𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼𝑉𝑉

where

𝑃𝑃 = power (𝑊𝑊)

𝐼𝐼 = current (𝐴𝐴)

𝑉𝑉 = potential difference/voltage (𝑉𝑉)

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More Formulas:

1. 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑄𝑄𝑉𝑉

𝐸𝐸 = 𝑄𝑄𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅

𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅

𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇

2. 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇

Resistance
Series

Formula:

𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

Parallel

Formula:

1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2

1 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2
=
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2

𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2

Ohms Law

Definition:

Ohms law states that the current flowing through a conductor/circuit is directly proportional to
the voltage but inversely proportional to the resistance given that all physical conditions, for
example, temperature, remain constant.

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Primary Cell vs. Secondary Cell

Primary Cell Secondary Cell

− Non-rechargeable − Rechargeable
− Example: dry cell − Example: lead acid

Fuse

Definition:

A fuse is a device that breaks the surface when the current exceeds the rating of the fuse.

RMS Voltage

Definition:

The term "RMS" stands for "Root-Mean-Squared", also called the effective or heating value of
alternating current, is equivalent to a DC voltage that would provide the same amount of heat
generation in a resistor as the AC voltage would if applied to that same resistor.

Formula:

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 0.707 × 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘

Types of Wires

• Ground – Green or Green/Yellow

• Neutral – Blue
• Live – Brown

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Symbols for Logic Gates

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Electro-magnetism

Definition of a Magnetic Field:

A magnetic field is the region in which a body experiences a force due to its magnetic polarity.

Important diagrams to know:

1. Field of a straight current carrying conductor.

Note:

× means into the plane of the paper.

⃝
∙ means out of the plane of the paper.

2. Right hand Grip for determining field direction.

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3. Magnetic Field of a solenoid

4. Flemmings Left Hand Rule

Thumb – Motion/Thrust

Index – Magnetic Field

Use for MOTORS
- To determine the
thrust/motion created
in the motor effect.

Middle Finger – Current

5. Flemmings Right Hand Rule

Thumb – Motion/Thrust

Index – Magnetic Field

Use for GENERATORS

-To determine the direction
of the induced current.

Middle Finger – Induced Current

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6. Motor diagram

7. Generator diagram

To increase the current generated in a Generator,

• Spin the coil faster.

• Put more turns on the armature (coil).
• Use a stronger magnet.

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For an ideal transformer

The voltage ratio is equal to the turns ratio and the power in equals the power out.

Formulas:

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠
• =
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑁𝑁𝑝𝑝

𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠
• =
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁𝑝𝑝

• 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝐹𝐹𝑂𝑂 = 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚

• 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚

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Radioactive Decay

Radiation Symbol Mass Penetrating Ionizing Shielding

Power Power
Alpha α 4 amu Very Low Very High Paper
Beta β 1/2000 amu Intermediate Intermediate Aluminum
0 (electromagnetic 2 inches of
Gamma γ Very High Very Low
radiation) Lead

amu – atomic mass units

Alpha Decay
Example:

238
92U → 42He + 234
90Th

• The atom loses two protons and two neutrons in the form of an alpha particle.
• The Alpha Particle is a Helium Nuclei

Beta Decay
Example:

234 0 234
90Th → −1e + 91Pa

• The nucleus of the atom undergoes a change where one neutron changes to a proton and
a Beta-Particle is emitted.
• The Beta Particle is a fast-moving electron.

Gamma Decay
 Emitted is Gamma Radiation. That is - High Frequency Electromagnetic radiation.

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Half life

Definition:

The time taken for the radioactivity of a specified isotope to fall to half its original value.

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