Basic Statistics

1.1. Definitions and classification of Statistics

Definitions:
Statistics is defined differently by different authors over period of time. In the olden days
statistics was confined to only state affairs but in modern days it embraces almost every sphere
of human activity. Therefore, a number of old definitions, which were confined to narrow field
of enquiry, were replaced by more definitions, which are much more comprehensive and
exhaustive.
We can define it in two senses
In the plural sense: statistics are the raw data themselves (Numerical facts), like statistics
of births, statistics of deaths, statistics of students, statistics of imports and exports, etc.
In the singular sense: statistics is concerned with scientific methods for collecting,
organizing, summarizing, presenting and analyzing data as well as deriving valid
conclusions and making reasonable decisions on the basis of this analysis.
Classifications:
Depending on how data can be used statistics is sometimes divided in to two main areas or
branches.
1. Descriptive Statistics:
is concerned with summary calculations, graphs, charts and tables.
Generally characterizes or describes a set of data elements by graphically displaying the
information or describing its central tendencies and how it is distributed.
In descriptive statistics our objective is to describe a group of data that we have ‘in
hand’ i.e. data that are accessible to us.
We are not interested in other data that we are not gathered.
Example: If we calculate the average number of computer from 2017 to 2021 as
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Average = (3645 + 4568 + 5432 + 6751 + 7369) = 5553 then our work belongs to the
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domain of descriptive statistics.
If we say that there was an increase of 724 computers from 2017 to 2021, then again this
belongs to the domain of descriptive statistics.
2. Inferential Statistics: consists of generalizing from samples to populations, performing
estimations and hypothesis tests, determining relationships among variables, and making
predictions.
Example: Suppose we want to have an idea about the percentage of illiterates in our country. We
take a sample from the population and find the proportion of illiterates in the sample. This sample
proportion with the help of probability enables us to make some inferences about the population
proportion. This study belongs to inferential statistics.
1.2. Definition of Some Terms
In this section, we will define those terms which will be used most frequently. These are:

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Data: are the values (measurements or observations) that the variables can assume. OR Facts or
figures from which the conclusion can be drawn.
Raw Data: Data sheets are where the data are originally recorded. Original data are called raw
data. Data sheets are often hand drawn, but they can also be printouts from database programs
like Microsoft Excel.
Population: The totality of all subjects with certain common characteristics that are
being studied in a specified time and place.
Sample: Is a portion of a population which is selected using some technique of sampling.
Sample must be representative of the population so that it must be selected by any of the
developed technique.
Sampling: Is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, households, organizations) from a
population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to
the population from which they were chosen.
Sample size: The number of elements or observation to be included in the sample.
Parameter: Any measure computed from the data of a population.
Example: Populations mean ( ) and population standard deviation ( )
Statistic: Any measure computed from the sample.
()
Example: sample mean x , sample standard deviation (S )
Survey: A collection of quantitative information about members of a population when no special
control is exercised over any of the factors influencing the variable of interest.
Sample survey: A survey that include only a portion of the population.
Census: A collection of information about every member of a population
Sample survey has the following advantages over census
Sample survey saves time and cost
Has great accuracy
Avoid wastage of material
Variable: A variable is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values. Variables
whose values are determined by chance are called random variables. Variables are often
specified according to their type and intended use and hence variable can be classified in to two
namely qualitative and quantitative variables.
A quantitative variable is naturally measured as a number for which meaningful arithmetic
operations make sense. Examples: Height, age, crop yield, GPA, salary, temperature, area,
air pollution index (measured in parts per million), etc.
Qualitative variable: Any variable that is not quantitative is qualitative. Qualitative
variables take a value that is one of several possible categories. As naturally measured,
qualitative variables have no numerical meaning. Examples: Hair color, gender, field of
study, marital status, political affiliation, status of disease infection.
Quantitative variables can be classified as discrete and continuous variable. Discrete variables
can assume certain numerical values. That is, there are gaps between the possible values. Such as
0, 1, 2...It may be countable finite or countable infinite. For example the number of students in a
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classroom, number of children a family. Continuous variable can take any value within a
specified interval with a finite enough measuring device. No gaps between possible values. They
are obtained by measuring. For example, consider the heights of two people no matter how close
it is we can find another person whose height falls somewhere between the two heights is a
continuous variable.
1.4 Who Uses Statistics?
Statistical techniques are used extensively by marketing, accounting, quality control, consumers,
professional sports people, hospital administrators, educators, politicians, physicians, etc...
Generally Statistics can be used:
• As a tool in scientific research. Statistical methods can be applied on the data which are
collected to make conclusions, predictions or inferences.
• As a tool for quality control of a product. There statistical methods which are designed
to check whether a product satisfies a given standard or not.
• As a science of decision making under the scenario of uncertainty. Statistics helps to
facilitate the power of decision making particularly for managers by providing sufficient
information.
• statistics helps identification and determination of functional relationship among
variables.
1.5 Applications of statistics
Apart from helping elicit an intelligent assessment from a body of figures and facts,
statistics is indispensable tool for any scientific enquiry-right from the stage of planning
enquiry to the stage of conclusion. It applies almost all sciences: pure and applied,
physical natural, biological, medical, agricultural and engineering. It also finds
applications in social and management sciences, in commerce, business and industry.
In almost all fields of human endeavor.
Almost all human beings in their daily life are subjected to obtaining numerical facts.
Applicable in some process e.g. invention of certain drugs, extent of environmental
pollution.
In industries especially in quality control area.

1.6 Scales of measurement

Scales of measurement refer to ways in which variables or numbers are defined and categorized.
Each scale of measurement has certain properties which in turn determine the appropriateness for
use of certain statistical analyses. The four scales of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval,
and ratio.
Nominal Scales: Level of measurement which classifies data into mutually exclusive, all
inclusive categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
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 ✓ No arithmetic and relational operation can be applied.
✓ Thus only gives names or labels to various categories.
Examples:
❖ Political party preference (Republican, Democrat, or Other,)
❖ Sex (Male or Female.)
❖ Marital status (married, single, widow, divorce)
❖ Country code
1. Ordinal Scales: Level of measurement which classifies data into categories that can be
ranked, however differences between the ranks do not exist.
➢ Arithmetic operations are not applicable but relational operations are applicable.
➢ Ordering is the sole property of ordinal scale.
Examples:
▪ Letter grades (A, B, C, D, F).
▪ Rating scales (Excellent, Very good, Good, Fair, poor).
▪ Military status.
3. Interval Scales: Level of measurement which classifies data that can be ranked and
differences are meaningful. However, there is no meaningful zero, so ratios are meaningless.
➢ All arithmetic operations except division are applicable.
➢ Relational operations are also possible.
Examples:
▪ IQ, Temperature in F0.
4. Ratio Scales: Level of measurement which classifies data that can be ranked, differences are
meaningful, and there is a true zero. True ratios exist between the different units of measure.
➢ All arithmetic and relational operations are applicable.
Examples:
✓ Weight
✓ Height
✓ Number of students
✓ Age

Assignments:
Describe briefly the applications of statistics in your field of study and other fields?

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 Chapter Two
Methods of data collection and Presentation
Once it is decide what type of study is to be made, it becomes necessary to collected information
about the concerned study, mostly in the form of data. In order to generate valid conclusion from
a data, information has to be collected in a systematic manner. Whatever the quality of sampling
and analysis method, a haphazardly collected dataset is less likely to produce valuable and
generalizable information.
Types of Data:
There are two types (sources) for the collection of data.
(1). Primary data
The primary data are the first hand information collected, compiled and published by
organization for some purpose. They are most original data in character and have not
undergone any sort of statistical treatment.
Refer to those that are collected by conducting survey to meet the specific problem needs at
hand.
Example: Population census reports are primary data because these are collected, complied and
published by the population census organization.
(2). Secondary data -
The secondary data are the second hand information which are already collected by someone
(organization) for some purpose and are available for the present study. The secondary data
are not pure in character and have undergone some treatment at least once.
data taken from already available published or unpublished source.
2.1 Methods of collection
There are three major methods of data collection
1. Self-administered questionnaire
2. Direct investigation-measurement (observation) of the subject and interviewing(face-to-
face, telephone, --- )
3. Use of documentary source

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 1. Self-administered questionnaire
Questionnaire is the main data collection instrument in formal sample survey. Before
examining the steps in designing a questionnaire we need to review the types of questions used
in questionnaires.
Depending on the amount of freedom given to respondent in offering responses, there are two
basic types of questions that can be used in questionnaires: open-ended questions and closed
ended questions.
Open-ended questions: - allows the respondent to answer it freely in his or her own words
Example: what do you think are the reasons for a high drop-out rate of village health
committee members?
Closed – ended questions:-
Predetermined list of alternate responses is presented to the respondent for checking the
appropriate one(s). It implies that the respondent’s answers are restricted in some way to a
limited range of alternatives.
Direct investigation
I. Measurement or/and observation
data can be obtained through direct observation or measurement
provides accurate information but it is expensive and inconvenient
eg: Land area measurement, Animal weight gain, Physical examination, direct
observation of work.
a) Interview: Face-to-face interview and telephone interview
3. The use of documentary source
Extracting information from existing resources.
Is much less expensive than any other two sources
It is difficult to get the information needed when records are compiled in unstandardized
manner.
Example: - Hospital records, professional institutes, Official statistics, - - -
2.2 Methods of Data Presentation
This topic introduces tabular and graphical methods commonly used to summarize both
qualitative and quantitative data. Tabular and graphical summaries of data can be obtained in
annual reports, newspaper articles and research studies.

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Everyone is exposed to these types of presentations, so it is important to understand how they are
prepared and how they will be interpreted.
Classification of Data: The process of arranging data into homogenous group or classes
according to some common characteristics present in the data is called classification.
For Example: The process of sorting letters in a post office, the letters are classified according
to the regions and further arranged according to zones, cities, etc.
2.2.4 Frequency distribution
A frequency distribution is the organization of row data in table form, using classes and
frequencies. There are three basic types of frequency distributions, and there
are specific procedures for constructing each type. The three types are categorical, ungrouped
and grouped frequency distributions.
The reasons for constructing a frequency distribution are as follows
To organize the data in a meaningful, intelligible way.
To enable the reader to determine the nature or shape of the distribution
To facilitate computational procedures for measures of average and spread
To enable the researcher to draw charts and graphs for the presentation of data
To enable the reader to make comparisons between different data set
2.2.4.1. Categorical Frequency Distribution
The categorical frequency distribution is used for data which can be placed in specific categories
such as nominal or ordinal level data. For example, data such as data such as political affiliation,
religious affiliation, or major field of study would use categorical frequency distribution.
The major components of categorical frequency distribution are class, tally and frequency.
Example: There are 15 workers having diploma, 20 workers having B.Sc, 10 works having M.Sc
and 5 workers having Ph.D. Present the data using appropriate method of presentation?
No Name LOE
1 Abebe Diploma
2 Wordofa B.Sc
3 Toga M.Sc
4 Kahay PhD
5 Ahmed Diploma
6 Hirut B.Sc

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 “ ” “
“ “ “
“ “ “
0 Kassech Ph.D
Solution:
LOE NO Relative F. Percentage
Diploma 15 0.3 30%
Bachelor 20 0.4 40%
Master 10 0.2 20%
Ph.D 5 0.1 10%
Total 50 1 100%

2.2.4.2 Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

When the data are numerical interested of categorical, the range of data is small and each class is
only one unit, this distribution is called an ungrouped frequency distribution.
The major components of this type of frequency distributions are class, tally, frequency and
cumulative frequency. The steps are almost similar with that of categorical frequency
distribution.
Cumulative frequencies are used to show how many values are accumulated up to and including
a specific class.
Example 2.3: The following data represent the number of days of sick leave taken by each of 50
workers of a company over the last 6 weeks.
2 0 0 5 8 3 4 1 0 0 7 1
7 1 5 4 0 4 0 1 8 9 7 0
1 7 2 5 5 4 3 3 0 0 2 5
1 3 0 2 4 5 0 5 7 5 1 1
0 2
A. Construct ungrouped frequency distribution
B. How many workers had at least 1 day of sick leave?
C. How many workers had between 3 and 5 days of sick leave?
Solution:

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 A. Since this data set contains only a relatively small number of distinct or different
values, it is convenient to represent it in a frequency table which presents each distinct
value along with its frequency of occurrence.

B. Since 12 of the 50workers had no days of sick leave, the answer is 50-12=38
C. The answer is the sum of the frequencies for values 3, 4 and 5 that is 4+5+8=17
2.2.4.3. Grouped Frequency Distribution
Some of basic terms that are most frequently used while we deal with frequency distribution are
the following:
Lower Class Limits are the smallest number that can belong to the different class.
Upper Class Limits are the largest number that can belong to the different classes.
Class Boundaries are the number used to separate classes, but without the gaps created by
class limits.
Class midpoints are the midpoints of the classes. Each class midpoint can be found by
adding the lower class limit to the upper class limit and dividing the sum by 2.
Class width is the difference between two consecutive lower class limits or two
consecutive lower class boundaries.
When the range of the data is large, the data must be grouped in which each class has more than
one unit in width. While we construct this frequency distribution, we have to follow the
following steps.
1. Identify the largest and lowest values
2. Find number of classes by using formula;

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 Struge’s rule, where the number of class is and is the number
of observations.
3. Find the range; or and Find the class width
by dividing the range by the number of classes

Note that: Round the answer up to the nearest whole number if there is a reminder. For
instance, and
4. Select the starting point as the lowest class limit. This is usually the lowest score
(observation). Add the width to that score to get the lower class limit of the next class.
Keep adding until you achieve the number of desired class calculated in step 3.
5. Find the upper class limit; subtract unit of measurement from the lower class limit of
the second class in order to get the upper limit of the first class. Then add the width to
each upper class limit to get all upper class limits.
Unit of measurement: Is the next expected upcoming value. For instance, 28, 23, 52, and
then the unit of measurement is one. Because take one datum arbitrarily, say 23, then the
next upcoming value will be 24. Therefore, If the data is 24.12, 30, 21.2
then give priority to the datum with more decimal place. Take 24.12 and guess the next
possible value. It is 24.13. Therefore, .
Note that: is the maximum value of unit of measurement and is the value when we
don’t have a clue about the data.
6. Find the class boundaries.

and . In short, and

Example 2.3: Consider the following set of data and construct the frequency distribution.
11 29 6 33 14 21 18 17 22 38
31 22 27 19 22 23 26 39 34 27
Steps
1.
2.

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 3. Select starting point. Take the minimum which is 6 then add width 6 on it to get the next
class LCL.
6 12 18 24 30 36
4. Upper class limit. Since unit of measurement is one. So 11 is the UCL of the
first class.
11 17 23 29 35 41
5. Complete the frequency distribution as
Class limit 6-11 12-17 18-23 24-29 30-35 36-41
Class Boundaries 5.5-11.5 11.5-17.5 17.5-23.5 23.5-29.5 29.5-35.5 35.5-41.5
Frequency 2 2 7 4 3 2
Example: find the cumulative frequency of example 2.3.

2. 4. Relative Frequency Distribution

2.5 Class Mark (Mid-point)
An important variation of the basic frequency distribution uses relative frequencies, which are
easily found by dividing each class frequency by the total of all frequencies. A relative frequency
distribution includes the same class limits as a frequency distribution, but relative frequencies are
used instead of actual frequencies. The relative frequencies are sometimes expressed as percents.

Relative frequency distribution enables us to understand the distribution of the data and to
compare different sets of data.
2.6. Graphical and Diagrammatic Presentation of Data

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We have discussed the techniques of classification and tabulation that help us in organizing the
collected data in a meaningful fashion. However, this way of presentation of statistical data does
not always prove to be interesting to a layman. Too many figures are often confusing and fail to
convey the massage effectively.
One of the most effective and interesting alternative way in which a statistical data may be
presented is through diagrams and graphs. There are several ways in which statistical data may
be displayed pictorially such as different types of graphs and diagrams.
2.6.1. Diagrammatic display of data: Pie-chart and Bar charts
I. Pie chart
Pie chart can used to compare the relation between the whole and its components. Pie chart is a
circular diagram and the area of the sector of a circle is used in pie chart. Circles are drawn with
radii proportional to the square root of the quantities because the area of a circle is . To

construct a pie chart (sector diagram), we draw a circle with radius (square root of the total). The
total angle of the circle is . The angles of each component are calculated by the formula.

These angles are made in the circle by mean of a protractor to show different components. The
arrangement of the sectors is usually anti-clock wise.
Example2.4: The following table gives the details of monthly budget of a family. Represent
these figures by a suitable diagram.

Solution: The necessary computations are given below:

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 II. Bar Charts
The bar graph uses vertical or horizontal bars to represent the frequencies of a distribution. While
we draw bar chart, we have to consider the following two points. These are
Make the bars the same width
Make the units on the axis that are used for the frequency equal in size
Example 2.5: Draw simple bar diagram to represent the profits of a bank for 5 years.

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 2.5.2. Graphical presentation of data: Histogram and Frequency Polygon
Statistical graphs can be used to describe the data set or to analyze it. Graphs are also useful in
getting the audience’s attention in a publication or a speaking presentation.
The two most commonly used graphs in research are
(1). Histogram
Histogram is a special type of bar graph in which the horizontal scale represents classes of data
values and the vertical scale represents frequencies. The height of the bars correspond to the
frequency values, and the drawn adjacent to each other (without gaps).
We can construct a histogram after we have first completed a frequency distribution table for a
data set. The axis is reserved for the class boundaries.

Example2.8: Take the data in example 2.3.

7.0

6.0

5.0

Frequency 4. 0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0 5.5 11.5 17.5 23.5 29.5 35.5 41.5

Class boundaries

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Relative frequency histogram has the same shape and horizontal ( ) scale as a histogram,

but the vertical ( ) scale is marked with relative frequencies instead of actual frequencies.

(2). Frequency Polygon

A frequency polygon uses line segment connected to points located directly above class midpoint
values. The heights of the points correspond to the class frequencies, and the line segments are
extended to the left and right so that the graph begins and ends on the horizontal axis with the
same distance that the previous and next midpoint would be located.
Example 2.9: Take the data in example 2.3.
7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0
2.5 8.5 14.5 20.5 26.5 32.5 38.5 44.5
Midpoints

ChapterThree

Measure of Central Tendency and Variation

3.1 Introduction and objectives of measure of central tendency

Measures of central tendency are measures of the location of the middle or the center of a
distribution. The definition of "middle" or "center" is purposely left somewhat vague so
that the term "central tendency" can refer to a wide variety of measures.
❖ The tendency of statistical data to get concentrated at certain value is called central
tendency. And various methods that determine the actual value at which the data tend to
concentrate are called measure of central tendency.

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❖ One of the most important objectives of statistical analysis is to get one single
value that describes the characteristics of the entire data. Such a value is called the
central value or average.
❖ When we want to make comparison between groups of numbers it is good to have a
single value that is considered to be a good representative of each group. This single
value is called the average of the group.
❖ Averages are also called measures of central tendency.
Objectives:
1. To comprehend the data easily i.e. to condensed the mass of data in to one single
value.
2. To facilitate comparison.
3. To make further statistical analysis.
3.2 Characteristic of a good measure of central tendency
(A typical average should posses the following):
It should be defined rigidly which means that it should have a definite value.
It should be based on all observation under investigation.
It should be not be affected by extreme observations.
It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.
It should be as little as affected by fluctuations of sampling or should be stable with
sampling.
It should be ease to calculate and simple to understand.
It should be unique and always exist.
Note:-There is no measure satisfied all the above condition!
3.3 Types of measures of central tendency
Three types of measures of central tendency
The Mean
The Mode
The Median

The choice of these averages depends up on which best fit the property under discussion.

3.3.1 The Arithmetic Mean:

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- Divided in to two i.e. simple arithmetic mean and the weighted arithmetic mean
Simple Arithmetic Mean:
Different methods exist for grouped and ungrouped data.
- The mean is defined as the sum of the magnitude of the items divided by the number of
items
The mean of X1, X2 ,X3 …Xn is denoted by A.M, or X and is given by:
X1 + X 2 + − − − + X n n
X= =  Xi / n
n i=1

When the data are arranged or given in the form of frequency distribution i.e. there

are k variate values such that a value X i has a frequency f i ( i=1,2,---,k) ,then the
Arithmetic mean will be

f i Xi
∑
k
f i= n
X= i=1 Where k is the number of classes and
k i= 1
f i=1
i

• Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Data

If data are given in the shape of a continuous frequency distribution, then the arithmetic
mean is obtained as follows:
n

fY i i
X= i=1
n
Where Y i = the class mark of the ith class and fi = the frequency of the ith
f
i=1
i

class

Example 4.2:

1) Daily cash earnings of 15 workers working in different industries are as follows:

11.63,8.22,12.56,12.14,29.23,18.23,11.49,11.30,17.00,9.16,8.64,27.56,8.23,19.77,12.81
.Find the average daily earning of a worker?
2) The distribution of age at first marriage of 130 males was as given below
Age in 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Total

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 years(X):
No. of males
2 1 4 8 10 12 17 19 18 14 13 12 130
(f):
X. f 36 19 80 168 220 276 408 475 468 378 364 348 3240

Compute the average age of males at first marriage?

f i Xi
3240
X= i=1
k
= = 24.92308
f
130
i
i=1

3) Calculate the mean for the following age distribution.

Class frequency Class mark Frequency X class mark

6- 10 15 8 120
11- 15 23 13 299
16- 20 35 18 630
21- 25 12 23 276
26- 30 9 28 252
31- 35 6 33 198
total 100 1775

fY i i
1775
X= i=1
n
= = 17.75
f
100
i
i=1

Weighted Mean
- When a proper importance is desired to be given to different data a weighted mean is
appropriate.
- Weights are assigned to each item in proportion to its relative importance.
- Let X1, X2, …Xn be the value of items of a series and W1, W2, …Wn their corresponding

weights , then the weighted mean denoted X w is defined as:

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 n

X W
i=1
i i
X w = n

W i=1
i

Example 4.5: A student obtained the following marks in his examinations: English 60,
Biology 75, Physics 59 and Chemistry 55. find the students weighted mean if weights 1, 2,
1, 3 and 3 respectively allotted to the subjects.
Solution:
n

X w i i
60  1 + 75  2 + 63  1 + 59  3 + 55  3 615
Xw = i =1
= = = 61.5
n
1+ 2 +1+ 3 + 3
w
10
i
i =1

4.3.2 The Mode

Mode is a value which occurs most frequently in a set of values
The mode may not exist and even if it does exist, it may not be unique.
In case of discrete distribution the value having the maximum frequency is the
model value.
If in a set of observed values, all values occur once or equal number of times, there
is no mode
Examples:
1. Find the mode of 5, 3, 5, 8, and 9
Mode =5
2. Find the mode of 8, 9, 9, 7, 8, 2, and 5.
It is a bimodal Data: 8 and 9
3. Find the mode of 4, 12, 3, 6, and 7.
No mode for this data.
- The mode of a set of numbers X1, X2, …Xn is usually denoted by X̂ .

Mode for Grouped data.

If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the mode is defined as:

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 Δ1
Xˆ = Lmod + ( )W
Δ1 + Δ2

Where: X̂ = the mode of the distribution

Lmo= the lower class boundary of the modal class
Δ1 = f mo − f1
Δ2 = f mo − f 2

fmo= frequency of the modal class

f1= frequency of the class preceding the modal class

f2= frequency of the class succeeding the modal class

W=the size of the modal class

Note: The modal class is a class with the highest frequency

Example 4.7: The following is the distribution of the size of certain farms selected at
random from a district. Calculate the mode of the distribution.
Class Frequency
6- 10 15
11- 15 23
16- 20 35
21- 25 12
26- 30 9
31- 35 6
total 100
Modal class is a class with the highest frequency. Thus, modal class is 16- 20
Δ1  12 
Xˆ = Lmod + ( )W = 15.5 +  5 = 17.21
Δ1 + Δ2  12 + 23 
4.3.3 The Median
- In a distribution, median is the value of the variable which divides it in to two equal
halves.

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- In an ordered series of data median is an observation lying exactly in the middle of the
series. It is the middle most value in the sense that the number of values less than the
median is equal to the number of values greater than it.
-If X1, X2, …Xn be the observations, then the numbers arranged in ascending order will be
X[1], X[2], …X[n], where X[i] is ith smallest value.
X[1]< X[2]< …<X[n]
➢

-Median is denoted by. X
Median for grouped data.
-If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the median is defined
as:
~ W n
X = Lmed + ( − fc )
f med 2

Where: L med =lower class boundary of the median class.

f med = The frequency of the median class
f c = The comulative frequency (less than type) preceding the median class.
W=the size of the median class.
n=total number of observation.
Note: The median class is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency (less than type)
greater than or equal to n/2.
Example 4.9: Find the median of the following distribution.
Class Frequency LCF
40-44 7 7
45-49 10 17
50-54 22 39
55-59 15 54
60-64 12 66
65-69 6 72
70-74 3 75
th th
n  75 
The median class is the class which contains   obs. =   = 35 th observation =50-54
2  2 
~
X = Lmed +
W n
( − f c )= 49.5 +
5
(35 − 17 ) = 53.6
f med 2 22

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 ~
Empirical relationship between X, Xˆ, and X

~
• X = Xˆ = X , for symmetrical distribution
( ~
)
• X − Xˆ = 3 X − X , for uni-modal skewed or asymmetrical frequency distribution.

Measure of Variation (Dispersion)

➢ The scatter or spread of items of a distribution is known as dispersion or variation. In other

words the degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average value is called
dispersion or variation of the data.
➢ Measures of dispersions are statistical measures which provide ways of measuring the extent
in which data are dispersed or spread out.

There are many types of Measures of dispersions.

The Variance
Population Variance
If we divide the variation by the number of values in the population, we get something called the
population variance. This variance is the "average squared deviation from the mean".

N
( xi − u ) 2
Population Variance =  = i =1
, i = 1,2,3,..., N
2

N
Sample Variance
One would expect the sample variance to simply be the population variance with the population
mean replaced by the sample mean. However, one of the major uses of statistics is to estimate
the corresponding parameter. This formula has the problem that the estimated value isn't the
same as the parameter. To counteract this, the sum of the squares of the deviations is divided by
one less than the sample size.

n
( xi − x ) 2
Sample Variance = i =1
n −1

2
I.e. The sample variance, denoted by s , of a set of n observed values having a mean x is the
sum of the squared deviations divided by n − 1 .

The following steps are used to calculate the sample variance:

1. Find the arithmetic mean.
2. Find the difference between each observation and the mean.
3. Square these differences.
4. Sum the squared differences.

22
 5. Since the data is a sample, divide the number (from step 4 above) by the number of
observations minus one, i.e., n-1 (where n is equal to the number of observations in the data
set).
For the case of frequency distribution it is expressed as:
n

 f i ( xi − x) 2
= i =1
2
s n −1
We usually use the following short cut formula.
n 2


2
x − nx
i =1
=
2 i
s n −1
, for raw data
n 2

 f x − nx
2
i
= i =1
for frequency distribiti on, where  fi = n
2 i
s n −1
,

Standard Deviation
There is a problem with variances. Recall that the deviations were squared. That means that the
units were also squared. To get the units back the same as the original data values, the square
root must be taken.
population s tan dard deviation =  = 
2

sample s tan dard deviation = s =

2
s
Examples: Find the variance and standard deviation of the following sample data
1. 5, 17, 12, 10,8

2. The data is given in the form of frequency distribution.

Class Frequency
40-44 7
45-49 10
50-54 22
55-59 15
60-64 12
65-69 6
70-74 3
Coefficient of Variation (C.V)
• Is defined as the ratio of standard deviation to the mean usually expressed as percents.
S
C.V =  100 0
0
X
• The distribution having less C.V is said to be less variable or more consistent.
Examples:

23
1. An analysis of the monthly wages paid (in Birr) to workers in two firms A and B belonging to the
same industry gives the following results
Value Firm A Firm B
Mean wage 52.5 47.5
Median wage 50.5 45.5
Variance 100 121
In which firm A or B is there greater variability in individual wages?
Solutions: Calculate coefficient of variation for both firms.
SA 10
C.VA = 100 0 0 = 100 0 0 = 19.05 0 0
XA 52.5

SB 11
C.VB =  100 0 0 =  100 0 0 = 23.16
XB 47.5

Since C.V < C.V , in firm B there is greater variability in individual wages
A B .

Chapter Four: Probability and Probability Distribution

4.1 Introduction
Probability: A measure of the likelihood that an event in the future will happen; it can only
assume a value between 0 and 1, inclusive.
Experiment: Any process of observation or measurement or any process which generates well
defined outcome.
Outcome: The result of a single trial of a random experiment
Sample Space(S): Set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment.
Example: Sample space of a trial conducted by three tossing of a coin is
S= {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
Event (Sample Point): It is a subset of sample space. A collection of one or more outcomes of
an experiment.
For example, in the event, that there are exactly two heads in three tossing of a coin, it
would consist of three points HTH, HHT and THH.
Remark: If S (sample space) has n members with two possible outcomes in each trial then
there are exactly 2n subsets or events.
Equally Likely Events: Events which have the same chance of occurring.
Mutually Exclusive (Disjoint) Events: Two events which cannot happen at the same time.

24
 Independent Events: Two events are said to be independent if the occurrence of one does not
affect the probability of the other occurring.
Dependent Events: Two events are dependent if the first event affects the outcome or
occurrence of the second event in a way the probability is changed.
4.3. Counting Rules
In order to calculate probabilities, we have to know
• The number of elements of an event
• The number of elements of the sample space.
That is in order to judge what is probable, we have to know what is possible.
• In order to determine the number of outcomes, one can use several rules of counting.
- The addition rule
- The multiplication rule
- Permutation rule
- Combination rule
Addition Rule
If event A can occur in m possible ways and event B can occur in n possible ways, there are m + n
possible ways for either event A or event B to occur, but only if there are no events in common
between them.
I.e. n (A or B) =n (A) +n (B)-n (A B)
• To list the outcomes of the sequence of events, a useful device called tree diagram is used.
Example: A student goes to the nearest snack to have a breakfast. He can take tea, coffee, or milk
with bread, cake and sandwich. How many possibilities does he have?
Solutions:
Tea
Bread Coffee Milk
Bread Bread
Cake Cake
Cake
Sandwich Sandwich
Sandwich
➢ There are nine Possibility

25
Example: Ethiopian Airlines recently supplied the following information on their commuter
flights from AA to New York:
Arrival Frequency
Early 100
On time 800
Late 75
Canceled 25
Total 1000
If A is the event that a flight arrives early, then P(A) = 100/1000 = 0.1.
If B is the event that a flight arrives late, then P(B) = 75/1000 = 0.075.
The probability that a flight is either early or late is P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) = 0.1 + 0.075
=0.175.
2. Multiplication Rule:
If a choice consists of k steps of which the first can be made in n1 ways, the second can be made
in n2 ways…, the kthcan be made in nkways, then the whole choice can be made in
( n1  n2 ,...,nk ) ways.

Example 4.1: 1) A student has two shoes, three trousers and three jackets. In how many can be
dressed?
3. Permutation
An arrangement of n objects in a specified order is called permutation of the objects.
2. The arrangement of n objects in a specified order using r objects at a time is called the
permutation of n objects taken r objects at a time. It is written as n P r and the formula is
n!
Pr =
n
(n − r )!

Example 4.2: 1. Suppose we have a letters A, B, C, D

How many permutations are there two letters at a time?
Combination
A selection of objects without regard to order is called combination.

26
Example: Given the letters A, B, C, and D list the permutation and combination for selecting two
letters.
Solutions: Combination:
Permutation:
AB BA CA DA AB BC
AC BC CB DB AC BD
AD BD CD DC AD DC

Note that in permutation AB is different from BA. But in combination AB is the same as BA.

Combination Rule
The number of combinations of r objects selected from n objects is denoted by nC r or (nr ) and
is given by the formula:
n!
nCr =
(n − r )!r!
Example: 1. In how many ways can a committee of 5 people be chosen out of 9 people?
2. A committee of 5 people must be selected out 5men and 8 women. In how many
ways can be selection made if there are three women on the committee?
4.4. Approaches to measuring Probability
a. The classical approach
Classical probability is based on the assumption that the outcomes of an experiment are equally
likely.
• Using this classical viewpoint,
N A n( A) No. of outcomes favourable for A
P ( A) = = =
N n(s ) Total Number of outcomes

Example 4.4: 1.A fair die is tossed once. What is the probability of getting
a) Number 4?
b) An odd number?
c) Number greater than 4?
2. A box of 80 candles consists of 30 defective and 50 non defective candles. If 10 of these
candles are selected at random, what is the probability?
a) All will be defective.
27
 b) 6 will be non defective
c) All will be non defective
2. Frequencies Approach
The probability of an event A is the proportion of outcomes favorable to A in the long run when
the experiment is repeated under same condition. The probability of an event happening in the
long run is determined by observing what fraction of the time like events happened in the past.
Example 4.5: Throughout her career Professor Jones has awarded 186 A’s out of the 1200
students she has taught. What is the probability that a student in her section this semester will
receive an A?
By applying the relative frequency concept, the probability of an A= 186/1200= 0.155
3. Subjective Approach
The likelihood (probability) of a particular event happening that is assigned by an individual
based on whatever information is available.

Examples of subjective probability are estimating the probability the Arsenal will win the
Premier League next year and estimating the probability of an earthquake in Maputo this year.

4.5. Some basic properties of probability

1) For any event A , P( A)  0

2) P(φ) = 0
3) For any event A and B ,P(AuB)=P(A)+P(B)-P(AnB)
( )
4) P A− = 1 − P(A)

Joint Probability: is a probability that measures the likelihood that two or more events will
happen concurrently. An example would be the event that a student has both a PC and Phone
in his or her dorm room.

Example: Chali owns two stocks which are independent of each other. The probability that
stock A increases in value next year is 0 .5. The probability that stock B will increase in value
next year is 0 .7.

What is the probability that both stocks increase in value next year?
28
P(A and B) = (0.5)(0.7) = 0.35.

Conditional Events: If the occurrence of one event has an effect on the next occurrence of the
other event then the two events are conditional or dependant events.

Conditional probability of an event

The conditional probability of an event A given that B has already occurred, denoted by P(A|B).
Since A is known to have occurred, it becomes the new sample space replacing the original
sample space.
From this we are led to the definition
p(A B
P (A B ) = , P (B)  0 or P (A  B) = P (A|B).P(B)
P(B )

Example: The Dean of the School of Business at AAU collected the following information
about undergraduate students in her college:
Major Male Female Total
Accounting 170 110 280
Finance 120 100 220
Marketing 160 70 230
Management 150 120 270
Total 600 400 1000

Solution: If a student is selected at random, what is the probability that the student is a female
accounting major? P(A and F) = 110/1000. Given that the student is a female, what is the
probability that she is an accounting major?
P(A|F) = [P(A and F)]/[P(F)]= [110/1000]/[400/1000] = 0.275.
Bayes’ Theorem
Bayes’ Theorem is given by the formula:
P
(A)
*
1P(
B|)
A1
P
(
A|
B
1)=
P(
A)
*
1P(
B 1+
|)(
A P
A2)
*P(
B|
A2)
Example: BGI Beer Company has received several complaints that their bottles are under-filled.
A complaint was received today but the production manager is unable to identify which of the
two plants (A or B) filled this bottle. What is the probability that the under filled bottle came
from plant A?

29
 Complaints % of total production % of under-filled bottles
A 55 3
B 45 4

P(A|U) = [(0.55)(0.03)]/[(0.55)(0.03)+(0.45)(0.04)] = 0.4783.

4.2 Probability Distribution

Random variable: - is numerical valued function defined on the sample space. It
assigns a real number for each element of the sample space. A random variable is a
numerical value determined by the outcome of an experiment

Example: Consider an experiment of tossed a fair of coin three times. Let the random
variable X be the number of heads in three tosses, then find X?
Random variables are of two types:
1. Discrete random variable: are variables which can assume only a specific number of
values. They have values that can be counted
Examples:
• Toss a coin n time and count the number of heads.
• Number of children in a family.
• Number of car accidents per week.
• Number of defective items in a given company.
• Number of bacteria per two cubic centimeter of water.
2. Continuous random variable: are variables that can assume all values between any
two give values.
Examples:
• Height of students at certain college.
• Mark of a student.
• Life time of light bulbs.
• Length of time required to complete a given training.

30
Probability distribution:- consists of a value a random variable can assume and the
corresponding probabilities of the values or it is a function that assigns probability for
each element of random variable.
Probability distribution can be discrete or continues.
A) Discrete probability distribution:- is a formula, a table, a graph or other devices
used to specify all possible values of the discrete random variable(R.V) X along with
their respective probabilities.
Example: Consider the experiment of tossing a coin three times. Let X be the number of
heads. Construct the probability distribution of X.
2) A balanced die is tossed two twice, construct a probability distribution if
A) X is the sum the number of spots in the two trials.
B) X is the absolute difference of the number of spots in the trials.
Properties of discrete probability distribution
n
1)  P( X = x ) = 1
i =1
i

2) P( X = xi )  0 or 0  P( X = xi )  1
3) If X is discrete random variable then
b −1
P(a  X  b ) =  P( x)
X = a +1
b −1
P(a  X  b ) =  P( x)
X =a
b
P(a  X  b ) =  P( x)
X = a +1

b
P(a  X  b ) =  P( x)
X =a

B) Continuous probability distribution

Definition: a non negative function f(x) is called probability distribution of continuous

R.V X if the total area bounded by the curve and the X-axis is 1 and if the sub area
under the curve bounded by the curve & X-axis and perpendicularly erected at any
points a and b give the probability that X is between a and b.

Properties of continuous probability distribution

31
 
a) The total area under the curve is one i.e.  f ( x) = 1
−
b) P(a  X  b) = the area under the curve between the point a and b.
c) P( X )  0
d) P( X = a) = 0
e) P(a  X  b) = P(a  X  b) = P(a  X  b) = P(a  X  b)
Expectation (Mean) and Variance of Random variable
Definition:
1. Let a discrete random variable X assume the values X1, X2, ….,Xn with the
probabilities P(X1), P(X2), ….,P(Xn) respectively. Then the expected value of X, denoted
as E(X) is defined as:
E(X) =X1.P(X1) +X2.P(X2) +…. +Xn.P(Xn)
n
=  X i .P ( X i )
i =1

2. Let X be a continuous random variable assuming the values in the interval (a, b) such
b
that  f (x )d (x) =1,then
a

b
E ( X ) =  X . f ( x)d ( x)
a

Mean and Variance of a random variable

Let X is given random variable.
1. The expected value of X is its mean
Mean of X=E(X)
2. The variance of X is given by:

( )
Variance of X=Var(x) = E X 2 − ( E ( X )) 2

Where

n
E ( X 2 ) =  X i .P( X i )
2
If X is discrete
i =1

=  X 2 f (x )d ( x) if X is continuous
x

Example:

32
 1. What is the expected value and Variance of a random variable X obtained by
tossing a coin three times where X is the number of heads?
2. Let X be a continuous R.V with distribution
1
 x 0 x2
f ( x) =  2
0, otherwise

Then find a) P (1<x<1.5

b) E(x)

c. Var(x)
d. E (3x 2 − 2 x)
1. Binomial Distribution
A binomial experiment is a probability experiment that satisfies the following four
requirements called assumptions of a binomial distribution.
1. The experiment consists of n identical trials.
2. Each trial has only one of the two possible mutually exclusive outcomes, success or a
failure.
3. The probability of each outcome does not change from trial to trial, and
4. The trials are independent, thus we must sample with replacement.
Examples of binomial experiments
• Tossing a coin 20 times to see how many tails occur.
• Asking 200 people if they watch BBC news.
• Registering a newly produced product as defective or non defective.
• Asking 100 people if they favor the ruling party.
• Rolling a die to see if a 5 appears.
Definition: The outcomes of the binomial experiment and the corresponding
probabilities of these outcomes are called Binomial Distribution.
Let p=probability of success q= 1-p=probability of failure on any given trials
Then the probability getting x success in n trials becomes

33
  n  x n − x
 . p q x = 0,1,3,....n
P( X = x ) =  x 
0 otherwise

And this sometimes written as
X ~ Bin (n, p )

When using the binomial formula to solve problems, we have to identify three things:
• The number of trials (n)
• The probability of a success on any one trial (P) and
• The number of successes desired (X).
Remark: If X is a binomial random variable with parameters n and p then
E(X)=np and var(X)=npq
Example:
1. The Department of Civil Service for the state of Gambella reports that 20% of the workforce
in is unemployed. From a sample of 14 workers, calculate the following probabilities using
the formula for the binomial probability distribution (n=14, p =.2,
– three are unemployed: P(x=3)=.250
– Note: These are also examples of cumulative probability distributions:
– three or more are unemployed:
– P(x >3)=0.250 +0.172 +0.086 +0.032 +0.009 +0.002=0.551
– at least one of the workers is unemployed: P(x >1) = 1-P(x=0) =1-0.044 =0 .956
– at most two of the workers are unemployed: P(x<2)=0.044 +0.154 +0.250 =0.448
Exercises
1. What is the probability of getting three heads by tossing a fair con four times?
2. Suppose that an examination consists of six true and false questions, and assume that a student has
no knowledge of the subject matter. The probability that the student will guess the correct answer
to the first question is 30%. Likewise, the probability of guessing each of the remaining questions
correctly is also 30%.
a) What is the probability of getting more than three correct answers?
b) What is the probability of getting at least two correct answers?

34
2. Poisson Distribution
- A random variable X is said to have a Poisson distribution if its probability distribution is given
by:
  x . − 
 x = 0,1,2.....
P( X = x) =  x! Where  is the average number occurrence of an
0
 otherwise

event in the unit length of interval or distance and x is the number of occurrence in
a Poisson process
- The Poisson distribution depends only on the average number of occurrences per unit
time of space.
- The Poisson distribution is used as a distribution of rare events, such as:
• Number of misprints.
• Natural disasters like earth quake.
• Accidents.
• Hereditary.
• Arrivals
• Number of misprints per page
- The process that gives rise to such events is called Poisson process.
- If X is a Poisson random variable with parameters λ then

E(x) = λ, var(x)= λ

Example:
1. The Sylvania Urgent Care facility specializes in caring for minor injuries, colds, and flu. For
the evening hours of 6-10 PM the mean number of arrivals is 4.0 per hour. What is the
probability of 4 arrivals in an hour? P(X= 4) = (44)(e-4)/4! = 0.1954.
2. If 1.6 accidents can be expected an intersection on any given day, what is the probability that
there will be 3 accidents on any given day?
3. A sale firm receives, on the average, 3 calls per hour on its toll-free number. For any given
hour, what is probability that it will receive the following at most 3 calls?

35
 Common Continuous Probability Distributions
1. Normal Distribution
A random variable X is said to have a normal distribution if its probability density
function is given by

x−
2

f (x ) =
1 −1
.e 2
  where −   x  , −     ,  0
 2   

 = E (x ) and  2 = var iance(x ) are parameters of the normal distribution.

Properties of Normal Distribution:

1. It is bell shaped and is symmetrical about its mean and it is mesokurtic. The maximum ordinate is at
μ=x and is given by

f (x ) =
1
 2
2. It is asymptotic to the axis, i.e., it extends indefinitely in either direction from the mean.
3. It is a continuous distribution i.e. there is no gaps or holes.
4. It is a family of curves, i.e., every unique pair of mean and standard deviation defines a different
normal distribution. Thus, the normal distribution is completely described by two parameters:
mean and standard deviation.
5. Total area under the curve sums to 1, i.e., the area of the distribution on each side of the mean is

0.5   f ( x)d (x ) = 1
−

6. It is unimodal, i.e., values mound up only in the center of the curve.

7. Median=Mean=mod =μ and located at the center of the distribution.
8. The probability that a random variable will have a value between any two points is equal to the area
under the curve between those points.
Note: To facilitate the use of normal distribution, the following distribution known as the standard
normal distribution was derived by using the transformation

−1 2
X −
Z=

 f (z ) =
1
e 2
Z
( )
i.e. if X ~ N  ,  2 then Z ~ (0,1)
2

Properties of the Standard Normal Distribution:

36
 Same as a normal distribution, but also...
• Mean is zero
• Variance is one
• Standard Deviation is one
- Areas under the standard normal distribution curve have been tabulated in various ways.
The most common ones are the areas between Z=0 and a positive value of Z.
- Given a normal distributed random variable X with Mean μ and standard deviation σ
a− X − b−
P(a  X  b ) = P   
    
a− b−
 P Z 
   

Examples:

1. Find the area under the standard normal distribution which lies

a) Between Z = 0 and Z = 0.96

Solution:

Area = P(0  Z  0.96) = 0.3315

b) Between Z = −1.45 and Z = 0

Solution:

Area = P(−1.45  Z  0)
= P(0  Z  1.45)
= 0.4265

c) To the right of Z = −0.35

Solution:

37
Area = P( Z  −0.35)
= P(−0.35  Z  0) + P( Z  0)
= P(0  Z  0.35) + P( Z  0)
= 0.1368 + 0.50 = 0.6368

d) To the left of Z = −0.35

Solution:

Area = P( Z  −0.35)
= 1 − P( Z  −0.35)
= 1 − 0.6368 = 0.3632

e) Between Z = −0.67 and Z = 0.75

Solution:

Area = P ( −0.67  Z  0.75)

= P ( −0.67  Z  0) + P (0  Z  0.75)
= P (0  Z  0.67) + P (0  Z  0.75)
= 0.2486 + 0.2734 = 0.5220

f) Between Z = 0.25 and Z = 1.25

Solution:

Area = P(0.25  Z  1.25)

= P(0  Z  1.25) − P(0  Z  0.25)
= 0.3934 − 0.0987 = 0.2957

2. Find the value of Z if

a) The normal curve area between 0 and z(positive) is 0.4726

38
Solution

P(0  Z  z ) = 0.4726 and from table

P(0  Z  1.92) = 0.4726
 z = 1.92.....uniqueness of Areea .

b) The area to the left of z is 0.9868

Solution

P ( Z  z ) = 0.9868
= P( Z  0) + P(0  Z  z )
= 0.50 + P(0  Z  z )
 P(0  Z  z ) = 0.9868 − 0.50 = 0.4868
and from table
P(0  Z  2.2) = 0.4868
 z = 2.2

3. A random variable X has a normal distribution with mean 80 and standard deviation 4.8.
What is the probability that it will take a value

a) Less than 87.2

b) Greater than 76.4

c) Between 81.2 and 86.0

Solution

X is normal with mean,  = 80, s tan dard deviation,  = 4.8

a)

39
 X − 87.2 − 
P ( X  87.2) = P (  )
 
87.2 − 80
= P( Z  )
4.8
= P ( Z  1.5)
= P ( Z  0) + P (0  Z  1.5)
= 0.50 + 0.4332 = 0.9332

b)

X − 76.4 − 
P ( X  76.4) = P (  )
 
76.4 − 80
= P( Z  )
4.8
= P ( Z  −0.75)
= P ( Z  0) + P (0  Z  0.75)
= 0.50 + 0.2734 = 0.7734

c)

81.2 −  X − 86.0 − 
P(81.2  X  86.0) = P(   )
  
81.2 − 80 86.0 − 80
= P( Z )
4.8 4.8
= P(0.25  Z  1.25)
= P(0  Z  1.25) − P(0  Z  1.25)
= 0.3934 − 0.0987 = 0.2957

4. A normal distribution has mean 62.4.Find its standard deviation if 20.0% of the area under
the normal curve lies to the right of 72.9

Solution

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 X − 72.9 − 
P( X  72.9) = 0.20  P(  ) = 0.20
 
72.9 − 62.4
 P( Z  ) = 0.20

10.5
 P( Z  ) = 0.20

10.5
 P (0  Z  ) = 0.50 − 0.20 = 0.30

And from table P(0  Z  0.84) = 0.30
10.5
 = 0.84

  = 12.5

5. A random variable has a normal distribution with  = 5 .Find its mean if the probability
that the random variable will assume a value less than 52.5 is 0.6915.

Solution

52.5 − 
P( Z  z ) = P( Z  ) = 0.6915
5
 P (0  Z  z ) = 0.6915 − 0.50 = 0.1915.
But from the table
 P (0  Z  0.5) = 0.1915
52.5 − 
z= = 0. 5
5
  = 50

Exercise: Of a large group of men, 5% are less than 60 inches in height and 40% are between 60
& 65 inches. Assuming a normal distribution, find the mean and standard deviation of heights.

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 Area between 0 and z

Z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964

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2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990

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