PHYSICS TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

(AS Component)
Definition Formula Note
1. Base quantity/unit e.g. length (m), time (s), mass (kg),
Quantity/unit that cannot be divided into temperature (K), current (A)
simpler quantities/units.

2. Derived quantity/unit e.g. density (kgm-3), force (kgms-2), pressure

Quantity/unit that consists of the product or (kgm-1s-2), etc.
quotient of two or more base quantities/units.

3. Scalar quantity e.g. distance, speed, mass, energy, etc.

Quantity which has magnitude but no
direction.

4. Vector quantity e.g. displacement, velocity, acceleration,

Quantity which has both magnitude and momentum, etc.
direction.

5. Systematic errors  Cannot be reduced by averaging.

Constant deviations of readings in one e.g. zeroth error
direction from the actual value.

6. Random errors  Can be reduced by averaging.

The scattering of readings about a mean e.g. parallax error, human reaction time
value.

7. Precision
How close a set of readings are to each
other.

8. Accuracy
How close the mean value of a set of
readings is compared to the actual value.

9. Uncertainty rules 1. 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 or 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑦
∆𝑧 = ∆𝑥 + ∆𝑦
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 𝑥
2. 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 or 𝑧 = 𝑦
∆𝑧 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
= +
𝑧 𝑥 𝑦
𝑛
3. 𝑧 = 𝑥
∆𝑧 ∆𝑥
=𝑛
𝑧 𝑥

10. Distance
Length of path taken by an object.

11. Displacement  If an object returns to its starting point,

Straight line distance from a point. displacement is zero.
𝑠
12. Speed Average speed, 〈𝑣〉 = 𝑡
Rate of change of distance. 𝑣+𝑢 𝑠
(Change of distance per unit time.) =
2 𝑡
13. Velocity
Rate of change of displacement.
(Change of displacement per unit time.)

14. Acceleration 𝑣−𝑢  Only valid for motion with uniform

𝑎=
Rate of change of velocity. 𝑡 acceleration.
(Change of velocity per unit time.) 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠  Does not apply to motion with air resistance
1 as acceleration decreases.
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

15. Displacement-time graph  Gradient = velocity

16. Velocity-time graph  Gradient = acceleration

 Area under graph = displacement

17. Mass
The amount of matter in an object.

18. Inertia  The larger the mass, the larger the inertia.
The resistance of an object to a change in  An airplane needs a long runway to take off
motion. or land due to its large inertia.

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19. Weight 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔  Weight is a vector but mass is a scalar.
Force exerted by the gravitational field on a  Weight changes with gravity but mass
mass. remains constant.

20. Centre of gravity

The point through which the weight of an
object may be considered to act.

21. Terminal velocity Free fall in air:

The maximum velocity reached by an object  When an object is just released, air
which is falling in a fluid. resistance is zero as the initial velocity is
zero. Resultant force equals to the weight
of the object. Hence, acceleration equals to
the gravitational acceleration.
𝐹=𝑊 Fair = 0
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑎=𝑔

W
 When the object falls, air resistance
increases as velocity increases. Resultant
force decreases. Hence, acceretaion
decreases.
Fair > 0
𝐹 = 𝑊 − 𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑎=𝑔−
𝑚
𝑎<𝑔
W
 When object attains terminal velocity, air
resistance is maximum and equal to the
weight of the object. Fair = W
𝐹 = 𝑊 − 𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟
Since 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐹=0
𝑎=0
W

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 v

t
22. Momentum 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣  SI unit is kgms-1 or Ns.
The product of mass and velocity.

23. Principle of conservation of momentum 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2  Total momentum before collision equals to

The total momentum of a system is constant the total momentum after collision.
provided no external resultant force acts on
the system

24. Elastic collision 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2  Total momentum is conserved.

A collision in which the total kinetic energy is 1 1 1 1  Total kinetic energy is conserved.
𝑚1 𝑢1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 2
conserved. 2 2 2 2  Relative speed is conserved.
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1

25. Inelastic collision 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2  Only total momentum is conserved.

A collision in which the total kinetic energy is
not conserved.

26. Newton’s first law  Due to the inertia

An object remains at rest or moves at a
constant velocity unless a resultant force acts
on it.

27. Newton’s second law 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢

𝐹=
The resultant force acting on an object is 𝑡
directly proportional to its rate of change of 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
momentum.

28. Newton’s third law

The forces of action and reaction between
two interacting bodies are equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction.
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29. Impulse 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢  Impulse equals to change of momentum.
The product of force and the time of impact.  Given 𝐹 − 𝑡 graph, impulse may be found
from the area under the graph.

30. Moment of a force 𝑀 = 𝐹𝑑  If force is horizontal, perpendicular distance

The product of force and the perpendicular is vertical, and vice-versa.
distance from a point.  SI unit is Nm.

31. Couple
A pair of equal and opposite forces that tend
to produce a rotation.

32. Torque of a couple 𝜏 = 𝐹𝑑

The product of one force of the couple and
the perpendicular distance between the
F
couple.
d

33. Principle of moments 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 Conditions for equilibrium:

When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 1. Resultant force equals to zero.
clockwise moments about a point is equal to 2. Resultant moment equals to zero.
the sum of anticlockwise moments about the
same point.

34. Work 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠  If the direction of force is perpendicular to

The product of force and displacement in the the direction of motion, there is no work
direction of the force. done.

35. Kinetic energy 1

𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
The capacity for doing work due to the 2
motion of an object.

36. Gravitational potential energy 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

The capacity for doing work due to the
position of an object.

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37. Principle of Conservation of energy  When work is done on an object, energy is
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but gained.
can be changed from one form to another. 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
The total energy of a system remains = 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝐸 + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
constant.  When work is done by an object, energy is
lost.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝐸 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝐸

38. Power 𝑊 SI unit is Js-1 or W.

𝑃=
The rate of work done/ energy changed. 𝑡
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣
39. Efficiency 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜀= × 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜀= × 100%
𝐸𝑖𝑛
40. Density 𝑚
𝜌=
Mass per unit volume of a substance. 𝑉

41. Pressure 𝐹  SI unit is Nm-2 or Pa.

𝑃=
Force per unit perpendicular area. 𝐴
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
42. Upthrust 𝐹 = 𝑉𝜌𝑔  Produced by the pressure difference
where between the upper surface and lower
𝑉 = volume of fluid displaced surface of an object immersed in a fluid.
𝜌 = density of fluid  Equals to the weight of fluid displaced.

43. Hooke’s Law 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

The extension/compression of a spring is F
directly proportional to the force producing it,
provided that the limit of proportionality is not
exceeded.
x

44. Spring constant  SI unit is Nm-1.

Force per unit length needed to  Given the 𝐹 − 𝑥 graph, spring constant may
extend/compress a spring. be found from the gradient of the graph.

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45. Stress 𝐹  SI unit is Nm-2 or Pa.
𝜎=
Force per unit cross-sectional area. 𝐴

46. Strain 𝑥  No unit.

𝜀=
Extension per unit length. 𝑙

47. Young modulus 𝜎 𝐹𝑙  SI unit is Nm-2 or Pa.

Ratio of stress to strain. 𝐸= =
𝜀 𝐴𝑥

48. Elastic deformation

Object returns to its original length when the
load is released.

49. Plastic deformation  Object is stretched beyond its elastic limit.

Object will not return to its original length
when the load is released. elastic plastic
F

Elastic limit

50. Elastic potential energy/ Strain energy 1 1  Given the 𝐹 − 𝑥 graph, strain energy may
𝐸𝑠 = 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 2
The energy stored in a body due to its 2 2 be found from the area under the graph.
change of length.

51. Transverse wave e.g. Any electromagnetic wave such as light, X-

The direction of oscillation is perpendicular to rays, ultraviolet, etc.
the direction of propagation.

52. Longitudinal wave e.g. Sound waves

The direction of oscillation is parallel to the
direction of propagation.

53. Displacement
Distance from the equilibrium position.

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54. Amplitude
Maximum displacement.

55. Period
Time taken for one oscillation.

56. Frequency 1  SI unit is Hz.

𝑓=
Number of oscillations per unit time. 𝑇

57. Wavelength
Distance between two successive points
which are in phase.

58. Speed of wave 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆

Distance travelled by the wave per unit time.

59. Phase difference 𝑥

𝜃= × 360°
The difference in the stage of oscillation 𝜆
between two points. 𝑡
𝜃 = × 360°
𝑇
60. Intensity of a wave 𝑃  Intensity is proportional to the square of the
𝐼=
The average energy transferred by the wave 𝐴 amplitude.
per unit time per unit area perpendicular to 𝐼 = 𝑘𝑎2  SI unit is Wm-2.
the direction of propagation of the wave.

61. Doppler effect 𝑣  When the source of waves moves towards

𝑓= 𝑓
A phenomenon in which the observed 𝑣 ± 𝑣𝑠 𝑜 the observer, the observed frequency is
frequency of a wave is different from its higher.
actual frequency due to the relative motion

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 between the source of wave and the  When the source of waves moves away
observer. from the observer, the observed frequency
is lower.

62. Electromagnetic spectrum  They are all transverse waves.

 They don’t require a medium to transmit.
 They travel at the same speed in vacuum.
 Radio waves have the longest wavelengths
(>10-1 m).
 Gamma rays have the shortest
wavelengths (<10-11 m).
 The visible light has a wavelength of 400-
700 nm.

63. Polarisation  Only transverse waves can be polarised.

Wave is allowed to oscillate in one plane only
after passing through a polaroid.

64. Malus’s law 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃  When 𝜃 = 0°, all light will pass through the
polaroid.
 When 𝜃 = 90°, no light will pass through the
polaroid.

65. Principle of superposition

When two or more waves overlap, the
resultant displacement is the sum of the
displacements of the individual waves.

66. Stationary wave Comparison between stationary waves and

Produced by the superposition of two waves progressive waves:
which are travelling towards each other at the Stationary waves Progressive waves
same speed and frequency. Does not transfer Transfer energy
energy
Adjacent points are Adjacent points are
in phase slightly out of phase
Adjacent points have Adjacent points have
slightly different the same amplitude
amplitudes

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67. Nodes Distance between two adjacent nodes or two
Points of zero amplitude. adjacent antinodes
𝜆
=2
68. Antinodes
Distance between a node and an adjacent
Points of maximum amplitude.
antinode
𝜆
=4

69. Diffraction  Diffraction is significant if the wavelength is

The spreading of a wave as it passes an approximately equal to the width of the
obstacle or a gap. gap/obstacle.

70. Interference 𝜆𝐷  At maxima:

The result of overlapping two or more waves 𝑥=
𝑎 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, …
of the same type. 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0, 360, 720, …
 At minima:
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0.5𝜆, 1.5𝜆, 2.5𝜆, …
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 180, 540, 900, …
 To produce an observable interference:
1. Sources must be coherent.
2. Sources must have approximately equal
amplitude.

71. Coherent sources  Achieved by having the sources oscillating

Sources that produce waves of constant at the same frequency.
phase difference.

72. Diffraction grating 𝑛𝜆  Maximum 𝜃 = 90°

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑑
𝑑  Maximum order, 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜆

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73. Current 𝑄 𝑁𝑞  Conventional current flows from positive
𝐼= =
The rate of flow of charge. 𝑡 𝑡 terminal to negative terminal.
(Amount of charge flown per unit time.) 𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑞  Electrons flow from negative terminal to
positive terminal.

74. Coulomb
Ampere second

75. Potential difference between two points 𝑊  SI unit is JC-1 or V.

𝑉=
The amount of electrical energy that is 𝑄
converted to other forms of energy when a
unit charge moves across the points.

76. Volt
Joule per coulomb

77. Resistance 𝑉  SI unit is .

𝑅= 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
The ratio of the potential difference across a 𝐼
conductor to the current flowing through it.

78. Ohm
Volt per ampere

79. Ohm’s law  I-V graph of a metallic conductor:

The current flowing in a metallic conductor is I
proportional to the potential difference across
it provided that temperature is constant.

 I-V graph of a filament lamp:

I

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  I-V graph of a semiconductor diode:
I

Note:
If diode is connected reverse bias, no
current will flow.

80. Resistivity 𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
The resistance per unit length of a conductor 𝑙
with a cross-sectional area of 1m2.

81. Electromotive force (e.m.f.)

The amount of electrical energy converted
from other forms of energy by a source when
a unit charge is delivered round a complete
circuit.

82. Internal resistance 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. = 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝. 𝑑. +𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡  Causes energy or voltage loss within the
𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟 battery.
𝐸 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)  Terminal p.d. < e.m.f.

83. Kirchhoff’s first law ∑𝐼 = 0  Based on conservation of charge.

The sum of currents entering a junction is
equal to the sum of currents leaving the
same junction.

84. Kirchhoff’s second law ∑ 𝐸 = ∑ 𝐼𝑅  Based on conservation of energy.

In any loop in a circuit, the sum of the e.m.f.s
is equal to the sum of potential differences.

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85. Resistors in series 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2  The combined resistance is larger than any
𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 of the individual resistors.
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
86. Resistors in parallel 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2  The combined resistance is smaller than
𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 any of the individual resistors.
1 1 1
= +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
87. Potential divider 𝑉1 𝑅1  Consists of resistors in series.
=
𝑉2 𝑅2  The larger the resistance of a resistor, the
𝑅1 larger the p.d. across it.
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅2
𝑉2 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

88. Potentiometer 𝑉 𝑙 𝑙  It is a variable potential divider.

= 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝐸
𝐸 𝐿 𝐿
89. -scattering experiment 1. Most -particles pass through with little
deflections
- Atom is mostly empty space/ Nucleus is
very small.
2. Very few -particles are deflected at angles
larger than 90°
- The nucleus is massive and positively
charged.

90. Nucleon/mass number

The total number of protons and neutrons in
a nucleus.

91. Proton/atomic number

The number of protons in a nucleus.

92. Isotopes
Atoms with the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons.

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93. Nuclide Proton 11𝐻
A specific combination of protons and Neutron 10𝑛
neutrons in a nucleus. Electron or β- particle −10𝑒
Positron or β+ particle +10𝑒
 particle 42𝐻𝑒
Gamma photon 00𝛾

94. Leptons  Fundamental particles

e.g. electrons, positrons, quarks and
neutrinos
 Not affected by strong forces

95. Hadrons  Non-fundamental particles

 Affected by strong forces
 Classified as baryons (consists of 3 quarks)
and mesons (consists of 2 quarks)
e.g. Proton = uud
Neutron = udd
𝜋 + meson = ud̅

96. Quarks  Six types (or flavors) of quarks:

Quark Charge
2
Up (u) + 𝑒
3
1
Down (d) − 𝑒
3
2
Top (t) + 𝑒
3
1
Bottom (b) − 𝑒
3
2
Charm (c) + 𝑒
3
1
Strange (s) − 𝑒
3

97. Antiquarks  Antiquarks have an opposite charge to

The antiparticles of quarks. quarks.

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  When a quark meets an antiquark, they
annihilate each other and produce a pair of
identical photons in opposite directions.

98. α decay  Nucleus loses two protons and two

neutrons.
 Nucleons number decreases by 4. Proton
number decreases by 2.
 Α particles are released with discrete
amounts of kinetic energies.

99. β- decay  Nucleus converts a neutron to a proton

while releasing an electron and an
antineutrino.
1 1 0
0𝑛 → 1𝐻 + −1𝑒 + 𝑣̅
 Effectively a down quark becomes an up
quark.
𝑑 → 𝑢 + −10𝑒 + 𝑣̅
 Nucleon number remains unchanged.
Proton number increases by 1.
 β particles are emitted with a continuous
range of kinetic energies as the
antineutrinos take varying amount of energy
from the β particles.

100. β+ decay  Nucleus converts a proton to a neutron

while releasing a positron and a neutrino.
1 1 0
1𝐻 → 0𝑛 + +1𝑒 + 𝑣
 Effectively an up quark becomes a down
quark.
𝑢 → 𝑑 + +10𝑒 + 𝑣
 Nucleon number remains unchanged.
Proton number decreases by 1.

101.  decay  A photon (i.e. a packet of energy) is emitted

by a nucleus.
 There is no change in the nucleon number
and proton number.
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102. Comparison between α, β and  Most Least
Ionising power: α 
Penetrating power:  α
Range:  α

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