5.

1 Communication and Communication System

 In broad sense, the term "communication" refers to

the sending, receiving, and processing of information
by electronic means.
 Communication system is a system designed to
send information from a source generating that
information to one (point-to-point communication) or
more (broadcasting) receivers of that information.
Information may be voice, data or video .
 Types of communication system: (i) Analog
communication system (ii) Digital Communication
system

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 1

5.2 Analog and Digital Signal

Figure 5.1: Analog and digital signal

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 2
 5.6 Components of a Communication System

Message signal Output signal

Information Output
source and Transmitter Communication Receiver transducer and
input transducer channel destination

Noise

Figure 5.5: Block diagram of a communication system

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 3

 Source of Information
The source could be any device, person, event
whose output would be voice, picture, text,
sequence of symbols etc.
 Transducers
It is a device that converts the output of the
information source into change in electrical
parameters. The input transducers converts input
information into electrical signal suitable for further
processing.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 4

 Transmitter
The transmitter shapes the signal to match it with
the characteristics of the channel. The process
involved are amplification, modulation and radiation.
 Communication channel
The function of the channel is to provide a physical
connection between the transmitter output and the
receiver input. Depending upon the medium, the
channel can be sub-divided into wireline (cables,
waveguides, optical fiber) and wireless(free space)
channels.
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 5
 Receiver
The receiver unit recovers the required information
bearing signal from the mix of various signal at its
input. The process involved are filtering,
demodulation and amplification.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 6

5.7 Digital Communication System

Source Source Channel

encoder encoder Channel
modulator

Channel Noise

Destination Source Channel Channel

decoder decoder demodulator

Figure 5.6: Block diagram of a digital communication system

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 7

 Source
The source is where the information to be transmitted
originates.
 Source encoder
Source encoder converts the analog signals or sequence of
symbols into binary sequence of 1's and 0's.
 Source decoder
Source decoder converts the binary output of the channel
decoder into its original analog form or sequence of symbols.
 Channel encoder
The channel encoder adds some error control bits
(redundancy) to the bit streams of source encoder output.
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 8
 Channel decoder
It produces as its output, the output of source code of the
transmitter with as few errors as possible.
 Channel modulator
Channel modulator is intended to convert bit streams from
channel encoder to electrical waveform suitable for
transmission over communication channel.
 Channel demodulator
Channel demodulator converts received electrical signal into
sequence of bits with minimum error & maximum efficiency.
 Channel
Example: Cable for wired communication or free space for
wireless communication.
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 9
Advantages of digital communication over analog
communication:
 Increased immunity to channel noise and external
interference.
 Improved security of communication through the use of
encryption.
 A common format for the transmission of different kinds
of message signals (e.g. voice signals, video signals,
computer data).
 It is easier and more efficient to multiplex several digital
signals.
 Digital signal storage is relatively easy and inexpensive.
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 10
Wired and Wireless Communications

 In wired communication system, the channel

used are pair of wires, coaxial cables or
waveguides as the medium.
 The wire cable have limited bandwidth (upto few
hundred Km for pair of wire and upto 1 GHz for
coaxial cable). Waveguide operate in relatively
higher frequency range upto 100 GHz.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 11

Fibre Optics Channel

 Fibre optical channel use visible or Infrared (IR)

band LASER as signal carrier over an optical
fibre.
 Practically, unlimited channel bandwidth as
operating frequency is in the range of 1014 to
1015 Hz.
 LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 12

Wireless Electromagnetic Channel

 Uses Electromagnetic Wave (EMW) as signal

carrier and the frequency range varies from few
KHz to 100 GHz.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 13

5.8 Optical Fibre Communication
Optical Fibre
It is a flexible optically transparent fibre, usually made of
glass or plastic, through which light can be transmitted by
successive total internal reflections.
Used to carry signals in the form of light over distance upto
50 Km.
No repeaters needed.
Optical fibre consists of three parts namely protective layer,
cladding, and core. The refractive index of the core is greater
than that of the cladding.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 14

 protective layer
cladding
(100-150 m)

core-glass or plas tic

(3-50 m)

Figure 5.7: Optical fibre

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 15

 Core
It is a thin glass center of the fibre where light
travels.
The diameter of core is very small just a few m in
most of the optical fibers used for
telecommunication.
 Cladding
The outer optical material surrounding the core.
The diameter of cladding is several times bigger
than core.
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 16
 Buffer Coating
It is the plastic coating that protects the fiber.
The two most important properties used to classify
the optical fibre are attenuation and dispersion.
 Attenuation indicates how much optical power is
lost in the optical fiber and is normally expressed
in terms of dB/ Km.
 Dispersion describes how the optical fiber
deforms the light pulses travelling through the
fibre and is one of the most important factors
limiting the bandwidth.
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 17
Information Electrical Optical
Source transmit Source

Optical
fibre cable

Optical Electrical Destination

detector receive

Optical fibre communication system

Figure 5.8: Block diagram of optical fibre communication system

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 18

Types of fibre

Optical fibre come in two types:

 Single mode fibre
Used to transmit one signal per fibre (used in
telephone and TV).
They have small cores(9 m in diameter) and
transmit infrared light from laser.
 Multimode fibre
Used to transmit many signals per fibre (used in
computer network).
They have larger cores (62.5 m in diameter) and
transmit infrared from
©Ian Summerville 2000
LED.
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 19
Advantages of optical fibre communication:
 Enormous potential bandwidth
 Small size and weight
 Electrical isolation
 Immunity to interference
 Signal security
 Low transmission loss
 Ruggedness and flexibility
 System reliability and ease of maintenance
 Potential low cost

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 20

Disadvantages:
 Joining fibre(Splicing) is difficult and expensive.
 Fibre is not as mechanically robust as copper wire.
 High investment cost.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 21

Antenna
 An antenna or aerial is an electronic component
designed to transmit or receive radio signals and
other electromagnetic waves.
 It is a electrical conductor or system of
conductors.
 An antenna is a device whose function is to
radiate electromagnetic energy or to intercept
electromagnetic radiation.
 Transmission : radiates electromagnetic energy
into space.
 Reception: receives electromagnetic energy
from
©Ian space.
Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 22
 Transmitting antenna can also be used for
reception and vice versa.
 In two way communication, the same antenna
can be used for transmission and reception.
 This property of interchangeability is known as
antenna reciprocity.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 23

Basic Antenna Parameters

 Aerial Efficiency
=PE/Pt =RE/Rt
PE = power radiated as EMW
Pt = power supplied to the antenna by the
transmitter
RE = radiation resistance of the aerial
Rt = total resistance of the aerial

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 24

Basic Antenna Parameters

 Radiation Resistance
RE=PE/I2
Radiation resistance RE is a fictious resistance had
such resistance been there instead of an antenna, it
would have absorbed PE power.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 25

Basic Antenna Parameters

 Total Radiation Reactance of the antenna

Rt = RE +Rloss
Rloss =Ra +Ri + Rl +Re
Ra = active reactance of the aerial antenna
Ri = loss due to induction of antenna current to the
nearby conductor
Rl = leakage across the surface aerial suspension
insulator covered with atmospheric deposits
Re = the resistance of earth near which the antenna
is insulated
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 26
Other antenna parameters:
 Radiation pattern
 Radiation power density
 Radiation intensity
 Directivity
 Gain
 Beamwidth
 Beam efficiency
 Bandwidth
 Polarization
 Input impedance
 Antenna temperature
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 27
Radiation Patterns

 Graphical Representation of radiation properties

of an antenna .
 A radiation pattern is a polar diagram showing
field strength or the power densities at various
angular position relative to the antenna.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 28

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 29
 Bidirectional Radiation Pattern

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 30

 Unidirectional Radiation Pattern

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 31

 Types of antenna

 Isotropic Antenna (Ideal/ Point form)

Radiates power equally in all directions.
 Dipole Antenna
Half wave dipole antenna (Hertz Antenna)
The total length of two wires is half of wavelength.
Quarter wave vertical antenna (Marconi Antenna)
The total length of two wires is a quarter of wavelength.
 Parabolic Reflector Antenna

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 32

Antenna types according to frequency band

 Medium wave antenna(300 KHz-3 MHz)

Used for medium wave band
Marconi Antenna
 Short wave (HF) antenna(3 MHz-30 MHz)
Used in short wave band
Rhombic Antenna, Logarithmic Antenna, Hertz Antenna
 VHF Wave antenna (30 MHz-300 MHz)
Yagi Uda Antenna
 Microwave antenna (300 MHz- 300 GHz)
Parabolic Antenna
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 33
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 34
 Parabolic Antenna
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 35
 Radio Frequency(RF): 3Hz-3000GHz
 Amplitude Modulation(AM): 535KHz-1605KHz
 Frequency Modulation(FM): 88MHz-108MHz

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 36

Half wave dipole antenna
 Whenever there is a voltage difference between two points, an
electric field is set up between those points.
 The voltage difference between two wires of an antenna generates
an electric field.
 Besides electric field, there is also magnetic field which is generated
by the antenna current.
 The plane of magnetic field is at right angles to antenna.
 The electric and magnetic field must therefore be at right angles to
each other.
 These electric and magnetic fields alternate about the antenna,
building up reaching a peak, collapsing and building up again in the
opposite direction at the same frequency as the antenna current.
 In this process, a portion of these fields escape from the antenna
and become EMW.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 37

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 38
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 39
5.3 Modulation

 The process of superimposing low frequency

band limited message signal into a high
frequency carrier signal.
 It is defined as the process by which some
characteristic of a carrier wave is varied in
accordance with a modulating wave.
 The message signal is referred to as the
modulating wave, and the result of the
modulation process is referred to as the
modulated wave.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 40

Need for Modulation

 The use of modulation permits multiplexing, that

is, the simultaneous transmission of signals from
several message sources over a common
channel.
 The size of the antenna needed for efficiently
radiating electromagnetic energy is largely
reduced due to modulation.
 Modulation may be used to convert the message
signal into a form less susceptible to noise and
interference.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 41

5.4 Analog Modulation Techniques

i. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

ii. Angle Modulation
a) Frequency modulation (FM)
b) Phase modulation (PM)
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
It is defined as the process in which the amplitude
of the carrier wave is varied according to the
amplitude of the message signal.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 42

 Figure 5.2: AM output with its waveforms

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 43

Let m(t)=AmCos(2fmt)
c(t)=AcCos(2fct)
Amplitude modulated wave,
u(t)=Ac[1+Kam(t)]Cos(2fct)
=Ac[1+KaAmCos(2fmt)]Cos(2fct)
u(t)=Ac[1+Cos(2fmt)]Cos(2fct)
Where Ka =amplitude sensitivity of the modulator
=KaAm =modulation index

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 44

Frequency Modulation (FM)
It is defined as the process in which the frequency
of a carrier signal is varied according to the
amplitude of the message signal.

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 45

 Figure 5.3: FM output with its waveforms
©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 46
Let m(t)=AmCos(2fmt)
c(t)=AcCos(2fct)
Instantaneous frequency,
fi(t)=fc+KfAmCos(2fmt)
=fc+fCos(2fmt)
Here f=KfAm=frequency deviation
=maximum departure of instantaneous frequency
from carrier frequency fc
𝑡 f
(t)= 2 ‫׬‬0 𝑓𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡=2fct+ f sin(2fmt)
m
Here,
f
β=modulation index= =ratio of frequency deviation to
fm
modulation frequency
f
⸫ u(t)=Accos[2fct+ f sin(2fmt)]
©Ian Summerville 2000 m Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 47
5.13 Internet and Intranet

This is your assignment

©Ian Summerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 48