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WHAT IS A VERB?

The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-
word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence
with any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give
the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight,
do and work all convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state,
of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is the subject
and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that
tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:
 action (Ram plays football.)
 state (Anthony seems kind.)
There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words
(adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although nouns can
have singular and plural forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For example,
the verb to work has five forms:
 to work, work, works, worked, working
Of course, this is still very few forms compared to some languages which may have
thirty or more forms for a single verb.

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

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Verbs in English can be divided into two groups:

Transitive verbs and Intransitive verbs.

TRANSITIVE VERBS
Transitive verbs require an object to complete their meaning. Imagine that I say:
 I bought.

This sentence is incomplete. There is information that is missing. You are

probably wondering what I bought. (What did you buy Rob?)
Why is this sentence incomplete?
Because BOUGHT (the past of buy) is a transitive verb and a transitive verb needs
an object after it to complete the sentence. The object after a transitive verb can
be a noun or a pronoun.

 I bought a car.

Now the sentence is complete and we can understand it. We added the object ―a
car‖ after the verb.
Let‘s look at some other examples. If someone says:
 She likes. (incomplete - incorrect)

You probably think … She likes WHAT? (What does she like?)
Like is a transitive verb so we need an object after the verb.
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 She likes chocolate.

Now we know what she likes so this sentence is complete and correct.

 I invited Angelica.

You cannot just say I invited because the sentence is incomplete. The person who
is listening would probably ask ―Whom did you invite?‖ So we need an object (in
this case a person) after the transitive verb invite.

 I cut my finger.

You cannot just say I cut because the sentence is incomplete. The person who is
listening would probably ask ―Cut what?‖
Cut is a transitive verb because you need to cut something (an object, a thing).

 The man stole a bike.

We need to say WHAT the man stole in order to understand the
sentence/situation. Steal (stole is the past tense of steal) is a transitive verb. The
object in this sentence is the bike.
So we have seen that transitive verbs need an object after them. This object
receives the action of the verb.
Transitive verbs always ask ―what?‖ or ―whom?‖
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 What did you buy? – I bought a car.

 What did you cut? – I cut my finger.
 Whom did she invite? – I invited Angelica.

Subject + transitive verb + object

The same rules apply to phrasal verbs. If someone says: ―I‘m looking for‖
You would automatically think ―Looking for what? Looking for whom?‖ We need
to add an object to make the sentence complete.
 I am looking for my passport.

My passport is the object (that you are looking for)

TRANSITIVE VERBS – PASSIVE FORM

Transitive verbs can have a passive form.

Active: Subject + transitive verb + object

Passive: Object + was/were + transitive verb (+ by subject)

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 Thieves stole his car. (active)

 His car was stolen. (passive)
 Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. (active)
 The light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison. (passive)
 They sold some books. (active)
 Some books were sold. (passive)

Example sentences using TRANSITIVE verbs

 We enjoyed the concert.
 I opened the door.
 She kicked the ball.
 He took me to a restaurant.
 I saw an accident.
 He copied my answer.

INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Intransitive verbs cannot have a direct object after them.
The subject is doing the action of the verb and nothing receives the action. An
intransitive verb does not pass the action to an object.

 He arrived.

Here we cannot have an object after the intransitive verb arrive. You cannot
―arrive something‖ (incorrect).
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An intransitive verb expresses an action that is complete in itself and it doesn‘t

need an object to receive the action.
 The baby smiled.

Here we cannot have an object after the intransitive verb smiled. You cannot
―smile something‖ (incorrect).

 The apple fell from the tree.

You cannot ―fall something‖ so the verb is intransitive.

―From the tree‖ is not an object, it is an adverbial phrase ( = it acts like an adverb
and tells us where it happened).
The same rules apply to intransitive phrasal verbs. You cannot have an object
after an intransitive phrasal verb.

 I get up at 6 every morning.

Example sentences using INTRANSITIVE verbs

 We arrived around midday.
 She sneezed loudly.
 Your baby cries a lot.
 His grandfather died last year.
 The rain fell heavily.
 I was waiting but nothing happened.
 The jokes were not funny and nobody laughed.
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 I walk to work every day.

 We sat on the bench.
 He stood in the corner.
 We waited but nobody came.

VERBS THAT ARE TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE

Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.
They can be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another sentence.
(These are called ambitransitive verbs)

 You have grown since I last saw you. (intransitive)

 You have grown a beard since I last saw you. (transitive)

Sometimes the meaning changes depending on whether the verb

is transitive or intransitive

 He runs along the beach every morning (intransitive: run – the action/sport)
 He runs a small grocery store (transitive: run = manage)
 The plane will take off in five minutes. (intransitive: take off = to leave the ground
and begin to fly)
 Please take off your shoes before entering the house. (transitive: take off = to
remove something)
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Example sentences of verbs that are both transitive and intransitive

(transitive) - (intransitive)
I stopped the car. – The car stopped.
I broke my coffee mug. – My coffee mug broke.
The summer heat melted my ice cream. – My ice cream melted. She speaks Arabic. –
She speaks very quickly.
Mike is reading a book. – Mike is reading.
New Zealand won the match. – New Zealand won.
A good dictionary will tell you whether a verb is transitive (usually vt. or tr. next to the
verb in dictionaries) or intransitive (vi. or intr.)
MOODS OF THE VERB
Verb moods are classifications that indicate the attitude of the speaker. Verbs have
three moods—indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.

INDICATIVE AND IMPERATIVE MOODS

The indicative and the imperative moods are fairly common. You use
the indicative mood in most statements and questions.

He walks every day after lunch.

Does he believe in the benefits of exercise?

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You use the imperative in requests and commands. Imperative statements have an
understood subject of ―you‖ and therefore take second‐person verbs.

Sit down. ([ You] sit down.)

Please take a number. ([ You] please take a number.)

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Verb tenses in the subjunctive mood are used in special kinds of statements. The most
common use of the subjunctive mood is in contrary‐to‐fact or hypothetical statements.

In your own writing, you must decide which statements should be in the subjunctive
mood. If something is likely to happen, use the indicative. If something is hypothetical,
or contrary to fact, use the subjunctive.

 Present tense subjunctive

o If I were king, you would be queen. (In the subjunctive, were is used for all
persons.)
o If he worked, he could earn high wages.
 PAST TENSE SUBJUNCTIVE
o If I had been king, you would have been queen.
o If he had worked, he could have earned high wages.
Ki
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These contrary‐to‐fact statements have two clauses: the if clause and the consequences

clause. The forms of the verbs in these clauses are different from those of verbs used in
the indicative mood.

In the if clause, use the subjunctive. Table 1 shows how it is formed. Note that the
subjunctive present tense is the same as the indicative past tense.

TABLE 1.PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE

Verb to be: were If I were king, If he were king.

Other verbs: worked If I worked, If he worked.
Note in Table 2 how the subjunctive past tense is the same as the indicative past
perfect tense.

Table 2.Past Subjunctive

Other verbs: had worked

If I had been king, If he had been king.
Verb to be: had been
If I had worked, If he had worked.
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In the consequences clause, use the conditional (Tables 3 and 4), which is formed
with could or would.

Table 3.Present Conditional

You would be queen.
could, would + base form of verb
He could earn high wages.
Table
Past Conditional
4.

You would have been

queen.
could, would + have + past participle of verb
He could have earned
high wages.

Not all clauses beginning with if are contrary to fact. When an if clause indicates
something that is likely to happen, use the indicative, not the subjunctive.

If I study hard [likely to happen], I will pass the test.

If his fever continues to fall [likely to happen], he will recover.

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PERSON AND NUMBER

1. I am.

2. Thou art.

3. He is.

4. We are.

In these sentences the verbs am, art, is, and are are said to agree with their subjects I,
thou, he, and we. As the subjects have person and number, the verbs agreeing with
them are also said to have person and number.
In what person and number is am in the first sentence? art in the second sentence? is in
the third sentence? are in the fourth sentence?

Thus verbs are said to agree with their subjects in person and number.
Note
The form of the verb changes to agree with its subject in person and number in only a
few instances.
The verb be, when used either as a principal verb or as an auxiliary, has these forms in
the present indicative:
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SINGULAR- PLURAL

I am. We are. Thou art. You are. He is. They are.

IN THE PAST INDICATIVE:

Singular. Plural.
I was. We were. Thou wast.You were. He was. They were.
The person and number of a verb are its forms to suit the person and number of its
subject.
A verb agrees with its subject in person and number; that is, it is singular or plural, and
first, second, or third person, according to the number and person of its subject. Give
the person and number of the verbs in the following sentences':

1. I am monarch of all I survey.

2. You may go if you will, but I remain here.

3. Admiral Dewey's flagship, the Olympia, led the procession.

4. The time for action has come; will you lose your opportunity now?

5. Men of thought and men of action, clear the way.

6. What have you learned from your books that will help you in life?
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7. I consent, sir, to this Constitution, because I expect no better, and because I

am not sure that it is not the best.

8. You have in a common cause fought and triumphed together.

9. Observe good faith and justice toward all nations; cultivate peace and
harmony with all.

10. It was one of the bravest deeds I ever witnessed.

11. Often there were five hundred negroes to a single white man, and yet
through these dusky throngs the women and children walked in safety, and the
unprotected homes rested in peace.

INFINITIVE

FORMING THE INFINITIVE

The infinitive is the base form of a verb. In English, when we talk about the infinitive we
are usually referring to the present infinitive, which is the most common. There are,
however, four other forms of the infinititive: the perfect infinitive, the perfect continuous
infinitive, the continuous infinitive, & the passive infinitive.
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The present infinitive has two forms:

 the to-infinitive = to + base

 the zero infinitive = base

The present infinitive base is the verb form you will find in a dictionary.

To-infinitive Zero infinitive

to sit sit

to eat eat

to have have

to
remember
remember

The negative infinitive is formed by putting not in front of any form of the infinitive.
Examples

I decided not to go to London.

 He asked me not to be late.
 I'd like you not to sing so loudly.
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 I'd rather not eat meat.

I might not come.

FUNCTIONS OF THE TO-INFINITIVE

The to-infinitive is used in many sentence constructions, often expressing the purpose
of something or someone's opinion about something. The to-infinitive is used
following a large collection of different verbs as well. See this page about verbs
followed by infinitives.

The to-infinitive to indicate the purpose or intention of an action

In this case to has the same meaning as in order to or so as to.
Examples

 She came to collect her pay cheque.

 The three bears went to find firewood.
I am calling to ask you about dad.
 You sister has gone to finish her homework.

The to-infinitive as the subject of the sentence

This is a formal usage and is far more common in written English than spoken
Examples

 To be or not to be, that is the question.

 To know her is to love her.
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 To visit the Grand Canyon is my life-long dream.

 To understand statistics, that is our aim.

The to-infinitive to indicate what something can or will be used for

In this pattern, the to-infinitive follows a noun or pronoun.
Examples

 The children need a garden to play in.

I would like a sandwich to eat.
I don't have anything to wear.
 Would you like something to drink?

The to-infinitive after adjectives

There is a common pattern using the to-infinitive with an adjective. These phrases are
formed:
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subject + to be + adjective + (for/of someone) + to-infinitive + (rest of sentence)

+ to + (+ for/of + to- (+ rest of

Subject
be adjective someone) infinitive sentence)

It is good to talk.

It is good of you to talk to me.

to be
It is important
patient.

to be with his little

It is important for Jake
patient brother.

I am happy to be here.

The dog is naughty to destroy our couch.

The to-infinitive to make a comment or judgement

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To use the to-infinitive when making a comment or judgement about a noun, the
pattern is:
Subject + to be + noun phrase + to-infinitive

Subject + to be + noun phrase + to-infinitive

It was a stupid place to park.

Subject + to be + noun phrase + to-infinitive

That is a dangerous way to behave.

What you
was a rude thing to say.
said

This is the right thing to do.

the wrong kind of

Those were to buy.
eggs

Jim is the best person to hire.

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THE TO-INFINITIVE WITH ADVERBS

The to-infinitive is used frequently with the adverbs too and enough to express the
reasoning behind our satisfaction or insatisfaction. The pattern is
that too and enough are placed before or after the adjective, adverb, or noun that they
modify in the same way they would be without the to-infinitive. We then follow them
by the to-infinitive to explain the reason why the quantity is excessive, sufficient, or
insufficient. Normally the to-infinitive and everything that follows can be removed,
leaving a sentence that still functions grammatically.
Examples

 There's too much sugar to put in this bowl.

I had too many books to carry.
 This soup is too hot to eat.
 She was too tired to work.
 He arrived too late to see the actors.
 I've had enough food to eat.
 She's old enough to make up her own mind.
 There isn't enough snow to ski on.
 You're not old enough to have grand-children!
The to-infinitive with question words
The verbs ask, decide, explain, forget, know, show, tell, & understand can be followed
by a question word such as where, how, what, who, & when + the to-infinitive.
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Examples

 She asked me how to use the washing machine.

 Do you understand what to do?
 Tell me when to press the button.
 I've forgotten where to put this little screw.
 I'm not sure I know who to call.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ZERO INFINITIVE

The zero infinitive after auxiliaries
Examples

 She can't speak to you.

 He should give her some money.
 Shall I talk to him?
 Would you like a cup of coffee?
I might stay another night in the hotel.
 They must leave before 10.00 a.m.

The zero infinitive after verbs of perception

With verbs of perception, the pattern is verb + object + zero infinitive.
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Examples

 He saw her fall from the cliff.

 We heard them close the door.
 They saw us walk toward the lake.
 She felt the spider crawl up her leg.

The zero infinitive after the verbs "make" and "let"

Examples

 Her parents let her stay out late.

 Let's go to the cinema tonight.
 You made me come with you.
 Don't make me study that boring grammar book!
The zero infinitive after the expression "had better"
Examples

 We had better take some warm clothing.

 She had better ask him not to come.
 We had better reserve a room in the hotel.
 You'd better give me your address.
 They had better work harder on their homework.

The zero infinitive with "why"

The question word why is followed by the zero infinitive when making suggestions.
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Examples

 Why wait until tomorrow?

 Why not ask him now?
 Why leave before the end of the game?
 Why walk when we can go in the car?
 Why not buy a new bed

PARTICIPLE

What‘s a Participle?
A participle is a form of a verb that can be used as an adjective or combined with the
verb to be to construct different verb tenses.

PRESENT PARTICIPLES

In English, all present participles end in -ing. In most cases, if the base form of a verb
ends in a consonant, you simply add -ing. Walk becomes walking, eat becomes eating,
think becomes thinking, and so on. If the verb ends with a silent -e, the -e is usually
dropped before -ing is added. Move becomes moving, consume becomes consuming,
meditate becomes meditating. For verbs that end in -ie, the -ie usually changes to -
y before the -ing is added.
Present participles are also sometimes called gerund participles.
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PAST PARTICIPLES

Most past participles are formed by adding -ed to the base form of a verb (or just -d if
the verb already ends in -e. Walk becomes walked, move becomes moved, and so on.
However, there are a handful of verbs with irregular past participles. Some common
ones include think/thought, eat/eaten, go/gone, do/done, and feel/felt.
Combining Participles with to Be

Present participles combine with the verb to be to form certain verb tenses. The past
continuous, present continuous, and future continuous tenses combine the verb to
be with present participles:
I was walking. (past continuous) I am walking. (present continuous) I will be
walking. (future continuous)
Past participles combine with the verb to be to create the passive voice. In a passive
voice construction, the grammatical subject of the clause receives the action of the
verb. Someone or something else performs the action.
The pie was eaten by Rodney. The test was passed by the whole class. The movie was
watched by people around the country.
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GERUND

The gerund looks exactly the same as a present participle, but it is useful to understand
the difference between the two. The gerund always has the same function as a noun
(although it looks like a verb). Some uses of the gerund are covered on this page. A
separate page deals with verbs that are followed by the gerund.

The gerund as the subject of the sentence

Examples

 Eating people is wrong.

 Hunting tigers is dangerous.
 Flying makes me nervous.
 Brushing your teeth is important.
 Smoking causes lung cancer.

The gerund as the complement of the verb 'to be'

Examples

 One of his duties is attending meetings.

 The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund.
 One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed.
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THE GERUND AFTER PREPOSITIONS

The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition. This is also true of
certain expressions ending in a preposition, for example the expressions in spite
of & there's no point in.
Examples

 Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?

 She is good at painting.
 She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road.
 We arrived in Madrid after driving all night.
 My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary.
 There's no point in waiting.
 In spite of missing the train, we arrived on time.

The gerund after phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs are composed of a verb + preposition or adverb.
Examples

 When will you give up smoking?

 She always puts off going to the dentist.
 He kept on asking for money.
 Jim ended up buying a new TV after his old one broke.

There are some phrasal verbs that include the word "to" as a preposition for
example to look forward to, to take to, to be accustomed to, to get around to, & to be
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used to. It is important to recognise that the word "to" is a preposition in these cases
because it must be followed by a gerund. It is not part of the infinitive form of the verb.
You can check whether "to" is a preposition or part of the infinitive. If you can put the
pronoun "it" after the word "to" and form a meaningful sentence, then the word "to" is
a preposition and must be followed by a gerund.
Examples

I look forward to hearing from you soon.

I look forward to it.
I am used to waiting for buses.
I am used to it.
 She didn't really take to studying English.
 She didn't really take to it.
 When will you get around to mowing the grass?
 When will you get around to it?

The gerund in compound nouns

In compound nouns using the gerund, it is clear that the meaning is that of a noun, not
of a continuous verb. For example, with the word "swimming pool" it is a pool for
swimming in, it is not a pool that is swimming.
Examples

I am giving Sally a driving lesson.

 They have a swimming pool in their back yard.
I bought some new running shoes.
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The gerund after some expressions

The gerund is necessary after the expressions can't help, can't stand, to be worth, & it's
no use.
Examples

 She couldn't help falling in love with him.

I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams.
 It's no use trying to escape.
 It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train.

AUXILIARY VERBS "BE," "DO," "HAVE"

An auxiliary verb helps the main (full) verb and is also called a "helping verb." With
auxiliary verbs, you can write sentences in different tenses, moods, or voices. Auxiliary
verbs are: be, do, have, will, shall, would, should, can, could, may, might, must,
ought, etc.

 I think I should study harder to master English.

 I am having a cup of coffee.
 You have been practicing hard.
 It was written by a petitioner.
 You may choose what you like.
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The verb forms of be, do, and have can be used either as a main (full) verb or an
auxiliary verb. The following examples show these verbs used as auxiliary verbs.

1. "BE" AS AN AUXILIARY VERB A.USED IN PROGRESSIVE SENTENCES:

o I am taking a bath.
o She is preparing dinner for us.
o They have been studying all night. b.Used in passive sentences:
o I was given a free meal.
o He was seen by fans at the airport.
o This song has been sung by all nations.

2. "DO" AS AN AUXILIARY VERB

a. Used in negative sentences:

o I do not know the truth.

o She doesn‘t agree with me.
o They didn‘t arrive here yet. b.Used in questions:
o Do you want to have another one?
o Did he finish his homework?
o Do we need to keep going straight?
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3. "HAVE" AS AN AUXILIARY VERB

a. Used in perfect sentences:

 I have been following you for a mile.
 We have done a lot so far.
 She had been queen of the town.

LINKING, INTRANSITIVE AND TRANSITIVE VERBS

To understand sentence construction, it helps if you know a little about three types of
verb:
 linking verbs
 intransitive verbs
 transitive verbs
All verbs have a subject (the person or thing that "does" the action). The real difference
between linking, intransitive and transitive verbs is whether or not they have
an object (the person or thing that "gets" the action).
S = subject V = verb
SC = subject complement DO = direct object
IO = indirect object
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LINKING VERBS TAKE A SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

intransitive verbs
take NO object
transitive verbs
take an object

mono-transitive verbs
take ONE object: a direct object

di-transitive verbs take TWO objects: an indirect object + direct object

cannot be passive can be passive

S-V-SC
S-V
S-V-DO
1. O-DO

be seem become
appear feel get
arrive break down come cough
go sleep
clean destroy eat
like
turn down want
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buy give pass send show tell

look
many verbs are ambitransitive—they can be intransitive OR transitive depending on
context

LINKING VERBS

Linking verbs have NO object.

Linking verbs link two parts of a sentence. They link the subject to a noun or adjective.
In this sense, linking verbs are like a mathematical equals sign (=).

subject verb subject complement

a nurse.
Mary is

a nurse
Mary =

Linking verbs do not make sense if used alone: they need a "subject complement" to
complete their meaning.
 They are (???) They are teachers
 I feel (???)
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I feel unwell
In the above examples, teachers and unwell are subject complements. Linking verbs
work in two different ways:
the two parts of the sentence are the same thing (Mary is my mother)
1. the first part has the quality described by the second
part (Mary is English)
The most obvious linking verb is the verb:
 be
Other linking verbs include:
 appear, become, feel, get, grow, look, remain, seem, smell,
sound, taste, turn
Linking verbs cannot be passive.
Look at these example sentences with linking verbs:
 Is that your car?
 I am feeling thirsty.
 John is my boyfriend.
 My father became an engineer.
 The milk will turn sour if you leave it.
 Her explanation did not appear plausible.
 Hillary remained under suspicion for the rest of her
life.(Note that linking verbs are sometimes called "copula
verbs".)
Although we talk about "linking, intransitive and transitive verbs" (just as most
grammar books and websites do), it is really more accurate to talk about "linking,
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intransitive and transitive usage". This is because many verbs can be linking OR
transitive OR intransitive depending on the exact meaning and context.

example verb
usage
(grow)

linking
The sky grew dark.

intransitive
Roses grow slowly.

transitive
I grow coconuts.

INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Intransitive verbs have NO object. Their action is not transferred from the subject to
something else.

subject verb

cried.
She
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Many intransitive verbs can make sense if used alone:

 He fainted.
 She cried.
 Our car broke down.
Of course, we often do follow intransitive verbs with other
words telling us how, where or when—but NEVER with an
object:
 He fainted after lunch.
 She coughed bitterly.
 Our car broke down in Bangkok.
Intransitive verbs cannot be passive. Examples of intransitive
verbs are:
 bark, boast, change, cough, die, go, live, run, sit, sleep, wave
Look at these example sentences with intransitive verbs:
 They live in London.
 Tell your dog to sit now.
 Were the dogs barking?
 The news hasn't changed.
 He died after a long illness.
 When I saw him he was running.
 The president waved to the crowds.
 36

TRANSITIVE VERBS
Transitive verbs have an object. Their action is TRANSferred
from the subject to something else (the object).
Transitive verbs can be active OR passive.
Some transitive verbs have one object, some have two objects—
as shown below.
Monotransitive verbs
Monotransitive verbs have ONE object: a direct object

subject verb direct object

the ball.
He kicked

Examples of monotransitive verbs are:

 bomb, clean, break, destroy, eat, kill, like, put off, trigger, turn
down, want
Look at these example sentences with monotransitive verbs:
 Do you love me?
 The Allies bombed Dresden.
 Pick it up and throw it away.
 37

 Tara doesn't want a new car.

 Bond killed the snake and ate it.
 Can fracking trigger earthquakes?
 Do you think they'll turn down my offer / turn my offer down?

DITRANSITIVE VERBS
Ditransitive verbs have TWO objects: a direct object and
an indirect object

subject verb indirect object direct object

the ball.
Sue passed Ann

Examples of ditransitive verbs are:

 buy, give, grant, lend, make, pass, send, serve, show, teach, tell
Look at these example sentences with ditransitive verbs:
 Make me an offer.
 Who teaches him French?
 The bank won't lend them any money.
 38

 They will serve the guests lunch at 12:30pm.

 Kid refused to show the teacher her homework.
 Anthony bought his new girlfriend some roses on her birthday.
 The local council have granted us permission to open a shop.

Note that many verbs can be used intransitively OR transitively (mono- and di-)
depending on the context and the verb's exact meaning. Such verbs are called
"ambitransitive verbs".

 He reads at night. (intransitive)

 He is reading a book. (monotransitive)
 He read Mary the letter. (ditransitive)

CAUSATIVE VERBS
What is a causative verb?
A causative verb, as the name implies, indicates that a person, place, or thing
is causing an action or event to happen. Generally, a causative verb is followed by
its direct object (a noun or pronoun) and a non-causative verb, which describes the
resulting action the subject has caused.
Most often, the non-causative verb will be in its base (uninflected) form or, more
commonly, its infinitive form (the base form plus the particle to); however, there are
some other constructions that can be used in certain circumstances. It‘s also worth
pointing out that, even though they can only be followed by certain conjugations of
verbs, causative verbs themselves can be conjugated into all of their normal tenses.
 39

CAUSATIVE VERBS FOLLOWED BY BASE-FORM VERBS

The most common causative verbs are make, let, and have, each of which is almost
always followed by a non-causative verb in its base form. These are the only causative
verbs that are followed by base-form verbs. (Because of this, some sources list them as
being the only ―true‖ causative verbs, with other verbs merely functioning like causative
verbs. However, this distinction is not very meaningful or helpful in itself, because the
function of the other causative verbs is pretty much the same.)
Let‘s go over some examples of these three verbs being used in sentences when
followed by base-form non-causative verbs. We‘ll also look at instances in
which make and have can be followed by other conjugations. (In all of the examples in
this section, causative verbs will be in bold, while non-causative verbs will be in italics.)
make
In contrast to its primary definition of ―to create or bring into existence,‖ we
use make as a causative verb to indicate that someone or something
has forced or compelled an action or event to occur. For example:

 ―My mom is making me go to piano lessons this summer.‖

 ―Don‘t make me turn this car around!‖
 ―She made her girlfriend buy her a different ring.‖

Make can also be followed by an infinitive non-causative verb, but only if it is

used in the passive voice, which is when the subject is the recipient of the verb‘s
action. For example:
 40

 ―I‘m sorry that you were made to believe such a nasty story, but it simply isn‘t
true.‖
 ―Employees are often made to feel responsible for a company‘s misfortunes.‖

LET
The primary use and definition of let is as a causative verb, meaning ―to allow,
permit, or give opportunity to.‖ For example:
 ―I can‘t believe your dad let you come to the party!‖
 ―My bosses are letting me work from home for half of the week.‖
 ―I hope the teacher lets us sit together on the bus.‖

HAVE
Rather than meaning ―to possess,‖ have as a causative verb means ―to compel,
persuade, instruct, or otherwise cause someone to do something,‖ as in:

 ―I‘ll just have my assistant get us some coffee.‖

 ―He‘s having the kids clean the dishes tonight.‖
 ―Mary had her mother make her wedding dress.‖

In addition to base-form verbs, have can also be followed

by past and present participles. When used with a present participle (the ―-ing‖
form of the verb), the overall meaning remains the same, but it refers to
a continuous action occurring over a period of time (which can either be vague or
specific). Uniquely, have is almost always in the simple past tense in this
construction. For example:
 41

 ―The boss had us working late again this week.‖

 ―The instructor had the class dancing for over an hour!‖

Have can also be followed by a past participle, but its meaning changes very
slightly. Instead of indicating that someone is compelled or instructed to do
something, have + past participle is used to indicate when you have something
done to someone or something. For example:

 ―We‘re having the house painted this week.‖

 ―My mother had the car cleaned after our soccer practice.‖
 ―My boss had me transferred to a different department.‖

CAUSATIVE VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

While the three verbs that are followed by base-form verbs are exceptionally
common in everyday speech and writing, the majority of causative verbs are
followed by infinitives in causative structures. Some of the most common of these
are allow, permit, enable, cause, lead, force, require, motivate, convince, and get.
(Note that this is not an exhaustive list.) You‘ll probably notice that some of these
are synonyms of make, let, and have, but many others have unique meanings
unto themselves. There are too many to give individual explanations, so instead
let‘s look at how each would work in an example sentence:

 ―Please allow me to explain my statement.‖

 ―We were permitted to bring guests to the premiere.‖
 42

 ―The inheritance enabled me to travel across Europe for the summer.‖

 ―The shaking caused me to spill my drink.‖
 ―Her reaction forced us to rethink our policy.‖
 ―All of this is leading me to believe that our theory is incorrect.‖
 ―The government is requiring all citizens to carry identification at all times.‖
 ―Their intense rivalry motivated her to train even harder.‖
 ―We‘re trying to convince them to invest in the company.‖
 ―They finally got him to admit that he was wrong.‖*

*GET VS. HAVE

Get and have are almost completely synonymous in causative constructions, but
there is a subtle difference in their meaning. While both mean ―to instruct or
compel,‖ get often implies convincing or persuading the person, especially in the
face of uncertainty. Consider the following sets of examples:

 ―My mother had me sing in front of the guests.‖ (My mother instructed me to
sing, possibly without a choice on my part.)
 ―My mother got me to sing in front of the guests.‖ (My mother convinced me to
sing, possibly without me initially wanting to.)

 ―John had us walk the whole way.‖ (John instructed or forced us to walk.)
 ―John got us to walk the whole way.‖ (John convinced or persuaded us to walk.)

This implication might not be very noticeable, but the subtlety can add more
precision to your writing.
 43

USING PARTICIPLES AFTER GET

GET Is unique among the causative verbs followed by infinitives because, just
like have, it can also be followed by past and present participles in certain
situations. As before, the use of a present participle doesn‘t change the meaning
of get, but rather indicates an action performed continuously over a period of
time. For instance:

 ―The presentation got me thinking about my own life choices.‖

 ―If a video game can get people exercising, then it‘s a good thing in my book!‖

Also like have, the meaning of get changes slightly when followed by a past
participle, indicating action done to someone or something, rather than
compelling that person to perform an action. For example:

 ―I need to get the car washed before the wedding.‖

 ―You‘ll get us both fired if you don‘t stop screwing around!‖

THE ―SEMI-CAUSATIVE‖ VERB HELP

Help is also something of an outlier here because it isn‘t really
indicating causation as we‘ve described it so far; instead, it indicates when
someone is aided in completing a task, so it might be more accurate to call it
―complementary,‖ rather than causative. Nevertheless, it is often included in lists
of causative verbs, so it‘s worth examining.
 44

What also sets help apart as a causative verb is that it can be followed
by either an infinitive or a verb in its base form. While the infinitive construction is
sometimes considered more formally correct, the base-verb construction is much
more common in everyday speech and writing. For example:
 ―I would like to help you win this election.‖ (most common)
 ―I would like to help you to win this election.‖ (acceptable, but much less
common)

 ―My brother has been helping me write my college applications.‖ (most common)
 ―My brother has been helping me to write my college applications.‖ (acceptable,
but less common)

KEEP AND THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE

There is only one causative verb that must be used with a present
participle: keep. Instead of its usual meaning (―to retain possession of‖), keep as a
causative verb means ―to maintain or prolong,‖ as in:

 ―I can‘t believe you kept me waiting for over an hour!‖

 ―I‘ll only be a minute, so keep the engine running.‖
 45

VERBS: DYNAMIC, STATIVE, OR BOTH?

DYNAMIC VERBS describe action. Examples are

verb tenses and aspects. They are usually the easiest to learn.
DYNAMIC VERBS – CORRECT USAGE

I run.
I ran.
simple
I will run.

I am running.
I was running.
continuous
I will be running.

I have run.
I had run.
perfect
I will have run.

I have been running. I had been running.

perfect continuous I will have been running.

describe states or conditions. Examples

STATIVE VERBS believe,
are know,

or understand. These verbs can be used in simple and perfect tenses and
aspects. However, they cannot be used in the continuous or progressive forms.
This limitation makes stative verbs a little more difficult to master, which means
practice is necessary.
 46

STATIVE VERBS – CORRECT USAGE

I know. I knew.
simple I will know.

I have known.
I had known.
perfect
I will have known.

run, jump, work, play, eat, or drink.

They are the most common type of verb and can be used correctly in all

STATIVE VERBS – INCORRECT USAGE

I am knowing. I was knowing.

continuous I will be knowing.

I have been knowing. I had been knowing.

perfect continuous I will have been knowing.

can be used in either way, depending on the context or

meaning. Examples are have, think, and feel. These verbs are usually the most
challenging because there‘s no one rule; you have to think about each situation
separately. Practice is essential. However, by paying careful attention, you can learn to
use these unusual verbs correctly and confidently.
 47

DYNAMIC/STATIVE VERBS – CORRECT USAGE

DYNAMIC/STATIVE VERBS

I have a car.
simple: for
I had a car.
possession
I will have a car.

I am having a good time. I was having a good

continuous: for activity time.
I will be having a good time.

DYNAMIC/STATIVE VERBS – INCORRECT USAGE

continuous: for I am having a car. I was having a car.

possession I will be having a car.

VERBS: ALWAYS STATIVE

MENTAL STATES

elieve, desire, doubt, know, need, realize, recognize, suppose, understand, want

Common Errors know, need, understand

 Yes, I know John.

 We need some help.
Correct Usage
 Sorry, I don‘t understand what you mean.

EMOTIONAL STATES

dore, amaze, appreciate, astonish, care, dislike, envy, fear, hate, like, loathe, love,
mind, please, prefer, surprise
 48

Common Errors love, like, hate

 The kids love ice cream.

 She likes you.
Correct Usage
I hate washing dishes.

POSSESSION

belong, owe, own, possess

Common Errors own

 Who owns that car?

Correct Usage
 It‘s mine. I own it.

SENSES

hear

OTHER

, contain, cost, deserve, equal, exist, involve, lack, matter, perceive, promise,
resemble, seem

DYNAMIC, DEPENDING ON THE SITUATION

MENTAL STATES

consider, forget, imagine, remember, think

refers to an opinion
I think (stative)  What do you think?
I think you should accept that job offer.
 49

refers to the act of thinking

I am thinking (dynamic)  What are you thinking about?
 I‘m thinking about what to do next.

POSSESSION

have

refers to possession or relation

I have (stative) I have $120 with me right now.
I have 3 kids.

refers to an activity
I am having (dynamic) I am having a party this Friday.
 We‘re having a great time.

SENSES

feel, taste, smell, see

refers to a quality or state of being

It tastes… (stative)
 The cake? It tastes delicious.

refers to an activity
She is tasting… (dynamic)  She‘s tasting the soup to check if it needs
more salt.

OTHER

appear, be, cost, deny, include, look, sound, weigh

refers to a general condition or state

They are… (stative)
 They are helpful, no matter what happens.
 50

refers to a temporary state

They are being… (dynamic)  They are being helpful, under the
circumstances.

Although stative verbs may seem complicated, you have now taken the first step to
mastering them: you know that they exist! Soon, you will start noticing them while
reading books, websites, and articles, as well as while listening to songs, shows, and
presentations. Before long, you will begin using stative verbs correctly yourself.
 51

PHRASAL VERBS
WHAT ARE PHRASAL VERBS?

A phrasal verb is a verb like pick up, turn on or get on with. These verbs consists of
a basic verb + another word or words. The two or three words that make up a phrasal
verb form a short "phrase" - which is why we call them "phrasal verbs". But a phrasal
verb is still a verb. Look is a verb. Look up is also a verb - a different verb. They do not
have the same meaning, and they behave differently grammatically. You should treat
each phrasal verb as a separate verb, and learn it like any other verb. Look at these
examples. You can see that there are three types of phrasal verb formed from a single-
word verb:

verb definition example

direct your eyes You

single-word verb look in a certain must look before
direction you leap.

search for and

You can look
phrasal verb + find
look up up the word in a
verb adverb information in a
dictionary.
reference book
 52

verb + Who is looking

look after take care of
preposition after the baby?

verb +
adverb look forward anticipate with I look forward
+ to pleasure to meeting you.
preposition

PHRASAL VERB: VERB + ADVERB

The structure of this type of phrasal verb is:

verb + adverb

These phrasal verbs can be:

 transitive (direct object)
 intransitive (no direct object)
 53

Look at these examples of transitive and intransitive::

meaning example sentence

direct
object

the
put off postpone We will have to put off meeting.

transitive
turn my offer.
refuse They turned down
down

rise from
get up I don't like to get up.
bed

intransitive

break stop He was late because his

down working car broke down.
 54

SEPARABLE
When this type of phrasal verb has a direct object, we can usually separate the two
parts. For example, "turn down" is separable. We can say: "turn down my offer" or
"turn my offer down". Look at these example sentences:

They turned down my offer.

They turned my offer down.

However, if the direct object is a pronoun, we have no choice.

We must separate the two parts of the verb and insert the pronoun. Look at these
examples with the verb "switch on". Note that the last one is impossible:

John switched on the radio.

John switched the radio on.

John switched it on.

John switched on it.

 55

SEPARABLE OR INSEPARABLE?
Many dictionaries tell you when a phrasal verb is separable. If a dictionary writes "look
(something) up", you know that the phrasal verb "look up" is separable, and you can
say "look something up" and "look up something". It's a good idea to write "sthg/sby"
as appropriate in your vocabulary book when you learn a new phrasal verb, like this:

 get up
 break down
 break sthg off
 turn sthg/sby down

This tells you if the verb needs a direct object (and where to place it).
Phrasal Verbs reference: hundreds of phrasal verbs with definitions, example sentences,
quizzes and answers
Phrasal Verb: VERB + PREPOSITION
This type of phrasal verb is also called a "prepositional verb". The structure of a
prepositional verb is:

verb + preposition

Because a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs have direct objects
(i.e. they are transitive).
 56

Look at these examples of prepositional verbs:

prepositional
meaning example sentence
verb

direct object

have faith in the God.

believe in I believe in
existence of

He is looking the dog.

look after take care of
after

Did you talk me?

talk about discuss
about

John is waiting Mary.

wait for await
for
 57

Prepositional verbs cannot be separated. That means that we cannot put the direct
object between the two parts. For example, we must say "look after the baby". We
cannot say "look the baby after":

Who is looking after the baby?

Who is looking the baby after?

It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in your vocabulary book when you

learn a new prepositional verb, like this:

 believe in something/somebody
 look after sthg/sby

This reminds you that the verb needs a direct object (and where to place it).

PHRASAL VERB: VERB + ADVERB + PREPOSITION

This type of phrasal verb is also called a "phrasal-prepositional verb". The structure of a
phrasal-prepositional verb is:

verb + adverb + preposition

 58

Look at these examples of phrasal-prepositional verbs:

phrasal-prepositional
meaning example sentence
verb

direct object

have a friendly He doesn't get on his wife.

get on with
relationship with with

your attitude.
put up with tolerate I won't put up with

seeing you.
look forward to anticipate with pleasure I look forward to

phrasal-prepositional
meaning example sentence
verb

direct object

eggs.
run out of use up, exhaust We have run out of
 59

Because phrasal-prepositional verbs end with a preposition, there is always a direct

object. And, like prepositional verbs, phrasal- prepositional verbs cannot be separated.
Look at these examples:

We ran out of gas.

We ran out of it.

It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in your vocabulary book when you

learn a new phrasal-prepositional verb, like this:
We ran gas out of. We ran out gas of.

 get on with somebody

 put up with sthg/sby
 run out of something

This reminds you that the verb needs a direct object (and where to place it).
 60

IRREGULAR VERBS
Irregular verbs are an important feature of English. We use irregular verbs a lot when
speaking, less when writing. Of course, the most famous English verb of all, the verb "to
be", is irregular.
base form
past
past participle
With regular verbs, the rule is easy...
finish
finished finished
The past simple and past participle always end in -ed:
In the following table, we look at the main difference between regular verbs and
irregular verbs

stop stopped stopped

work worked worked

But with irregular verbs, there is no rule...

Sometimes the verb changes completely: sing sang sung

Sometimes there is "half" a change: buy bought bought

Sometimes there is no change: cut cut cut

 61

One good way to learn irregular verbs is to try sorting them into groups, as above.
If in doubt, a good dictionary can tell you if a verb is regular or irregular.

WHAT IS AN ADVERB?

adverb (noun): a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb, expressing
manner, place, time or degree; a word that can modify a phrase, clause or sentence

An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies"

a verb (The man ran quickly). In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the
verb that it modifies is in italics.
 John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
 Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?)
 Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)
But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even
other adverbs (It works very well). Look at these e:
 Modify an adjective:
o He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?)
o That was extremely kind of you.
 Modify another adverb:
o She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?)
o He drives extremely fast.
Note that adverbs have other functions, too. They can:
 62

 Modify a whole sentence: Obviously, I can't know everything.

 Modify a prepositional phrase: It's immediately inside the door.

ADVERBS OF TIME

Adverbs of time tell us when an action happened, but also for how long, and how often.
Adverbs of time are invariable. They are extremely common in English. Adverbs of time
have standard positions in a sentence depending on what the adverb of time is telling
us.

Adverbs that tell us when

Adverbs that tell us when are usually placed at the end of the sentence.
Examples

 Goldilocks went to the Bears' house yesterday.

 I'm going to tidy my room tomorrow.
I saw Sally today.
I will call you later.
I have to leave now.
I saw that movie last year.

Putting an adverb that tells us when at the end of a sentence is a neutral position, but
these adverbs can be put in other positions to give a different emphasis. All adverbs
that tell us when can be placed at the beginning of the sentence to emphasize the time
 63

element. Some can also be put before the main verb in formal writing, while others
cannot occupy that position.
Examples

 Later Goldilocks ate some porridge. (the time is important)

 Goldilocks later ate some porridge. (this is more formal, like a policeman's report)
 Goldilocks ate some porridge later. (this is neutral, no particular emphasis)

Adverbs that tell us for how long

Adverbs that tell us for how long are also usually placed at the end of the sentence.
Examples

 She stayed in the Bears' house all day.

 My mother lived in France for a year.
I have been going to this school since 1996.

In these adverbial phrases that tell us for how long, for is always followed by an
expression of duration, while since is always followed by an expression of a point in
time.
Examples

I stayed in Switzerland for three days.

I am going on vacation for a week.
I have been riding horses for several years.
 The French monarchy lasted for several centuries.
 64

I have not seen you since Monday.

 Jim has been working here since 1997.
 There has not been a more exciting discovery since last century.

Adverbs that tell us how often

Adverbs that tell us how often express the frequency of an action. They are usually
placed before the main verb but after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, may, & must).
The only exception is when the main verb is "to be", in which case the adverb goes
after the main verb.
Examples

I often eat vegetarian food.

 He never drinks milk.
 You must always fasten your seat belt.
I am seldom late.
 He rarely lies.

Many adverbs that express frequency can also be placed at either the beginning or the
end of the sentence, although some cannot be. When they are placed in these alternate
positions, the meaning of the adverb is much stronger.

Adverb that can be used

Stronger position Weaker position
in two positions
 65

frequently I visit France frequently. I frequently visit France.

Generally, I don't like I generally don't like

generally
spicy foods. spicy foods.

Adverb that can be used

Stronger position Weaker position
in two positions

I listen to classical I normally listen to

normally
music normally. classical music.

I go to the I occasionally go to the

occasionally
opera occasionally. opera.

Often, I jog in the I often jog in the

often
morning. morning.

I come to this I regularly come to this

regularly
museum regularly. museum.

I get up very I sometimes get up

sometimes
early sometimes. very early.
 66

I enjoy being with I usually enjoy being

usually
children usually. with children.

Some other adverbs that tell us how often express the exact number of times an action
happens or happened. These adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence.
Examples

 This magazine is published monthly.

 He visits his mother once a week.
I work five days a week.
I saw the movie seven times.
USING "YET"
Yet is used in questions and in negative sentences to indicate that something that has
not happened or may not have happened but is expected to happen. It is placed at the
end of the sentence or after not.
Examples

 Have you finished your work yet? (= simple request for information)
 No, not yet. (= simple negative answer)
 They haven't met him yet. (= simple negative statement)
 Haven't you finished yet? (= expressing surprise)
 67

USING "STILL"
Still expresses continuity. In positive sentences it is placed before the main verb and
after auxiliary verbs such as be, have, might, will. If the main verb is to be, then
place still after it rather than before. In questions, still goes before the main verb.
Examples

 She is still waiting for you.

 Jim might still want some.
 Do you still work for the BBC?
 Are you still here?
I am still hungry.

Order of adverbs of time

If you need to use more than one adverb of time in a sentence, use them in this order:

1: how long 2: how often 3: when

Examples

1 + 2 : I work (1) for five hours (2) every day

2 + 3 : The magazine was published (2) weekly (3) last year.
1 + 3 : Ir was abroad (1) for two months (3) last year.
 1 + 2 + 3 : She worked in a hospital (1) for two days (2) every week (3) last year.
 68

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
Adverbs of Frequency are adverbs of time that answer the question "How frequently?"
or "How often?". They tell us how often something happens. Here are some examples:
1. daily, weekly, yearly
2. often, sometimes, rarely
You probably see a difference between a) and b) above. With words like daily we know
exactly how often. The words in a)
describe definite frequency. On the other hand, words like often give us an idea about
frequency but they don't tell us exactly. The words in b) describe indefinite frequency.
We separate them into two groups because they normally go in different positions in
the sentence.
Adverbs of Definite Frequency
Examples:
 hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly
 every second, once a minute, twice a year
 once, twice, once or twice, three times
Adverbs of definite frequency, like all adverbs of definite time, typically go in END
position. Look at these examples:
 Most companies pay taxes yearly.
 The manager checks the toilets every hour.
 The directors meet weekly to review progress.
Sometimes, usually for reasons of emphasis or style, some adverbs of definite
frequency may go at the FRONT, for example:
 69

 Every day, more than five thousand people die on our roads.
Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency
Look at these examples of adverbs of indefinite frequency:

100% always, constantly usually, normally frequently, regularly often

50% sometimes
occasionally
rarely, infrequently seldom
hardly ever
0% never

Adverbs of indefinite frequency mainly go in MID position in the sentence. They

go before the main verb (except the main verb "to be"):
 We usually go shopping on Saturday.
 I have often done that.
 She is always late.
Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the
beginning or end of a sentence:
 Sometimes they come and stay with us.
 I play tennis occasionally.
Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"):
 We see them rarely.
 John eats meat very seldom.
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ADVERBS OF PLACE

Adverbs of place tell us where something happens. Adverbs of place are usually placed
after the main verb or after the clause that they modify. Adverbs of place do not
modify adjectives or other adverbs. Some examples of adverbs of place: here,
everywhere, outside, away, around

Examples

 John looked around but he couldn't see the monkey.

I searched everywhere I could think of.
 I'm going back to school.
 Come in!
 They built a house nearby.
 She took the child outside.

HERE AND THERE

Here and there are common adverbs of place. They give a location relative to the
speaker. With verbs of movement, here means "towards or with the speaker"
and there means "away from, or not with the speaker".
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Sentence Meaning

Come here! Come towards me.

The table is in Come with me; we will go see it

here. together.

Put it there. Put it in a place away from me.

The table is in
Go in; you can see it by yourself.
there.

Here and there are combined with prepositions to make many common adverbial
phrases.
Examples

 What are you doing up there?

 Come over here and look at what I found!
 The baby is hiding down there under the table.
I wonder how my driver's license got stuck under here.

Here and there are placed at the beginning of the sentence in exclamations or when
emphasis is needed. They are followed by the verb if the subject is a noun or by a
pronoun if the subject is a pronoun.
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Examples

 Here comes the bus!

 There goes the bell!
 There it is!
 Here they are!

ADVERBS OF PLACE THAT ARE ALSO PREPOSITIONS

Many adverbs of place can also be used as prepositions. When used as prepositions,
they must be followed by a noun.

Used as an adverb of place,

Word Used as a preposition
modifying a verb

The marble rolled around in my I am wearing a necklace around

around
hand. my neck.

behind Hurry! You are getting behind. Let's hide behind the shed.

John made his way

down Mary fell down.
carefully down the cliff.
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I dropped the letter in the

in We decided to drop in on Jake.
mailbox.

Used as an adverb of place,

Word Used as a preposition
modifying a verb

The wind blew the flowers off

off Let's get off at the next stop.
the tree.

We rode on for several more Please put the books on the

on
hours. table.

He turned over and went back to I think I will hang the

over
sleep. picture over my bed.

ADVERBS OF PLACE ENDING IN -WHERE

Adverbs of place that end in -where express the idea of location without specifying a
specific location or direction.
Examples

I would like to go somewhere warm for my vacation.

 Is there anywhere I can find a perfect plate of spaghetti around here?
I have nowhere to go.
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I keep running in to Sally everywhere!

ADVERBS OF PLACE ENDING IN -WARDS

Adverbs of place that end in -wards express movement in a particular direction.
Examples

 Cats don't usually walk backwards.

 The ship sailed westwards.
 The balloon drifted upwards.
 We will keep walking homewards until we arrive.

Be careful: Towards is a preposition, not an adverb, so it is always followed by a noun

or a pronoun.
Examples

 He walked towards the car.

 She ran towards me.

ADVERBS OF PLACE EXPRESSING BOTH MOVEMENT & LOCATION

Some adverbs of place express both movement & location at the same time.
Examples
 The child went indoors.
 He lived and worked abroad.
 Water always flows downhill.
 The wind pushed us sideways.
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ADVERBS OF MANNER

Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens. They are usually placed either after
the main verb or after the object.
Examples

 He swims well.
 He ran quickly.
 She spoke softly.
 James coughed loudly to attract her attention.
 He plays the flute beautifully. (after the direct object)
 He ate the chocolate cake greedily. (after the direct object)

An adverb of manner cannot be put between a verb and its direct object. The adverb
must be placed either before the verb or at the end of the clause.
Examples
 He ate greedily the chocolate cake. [incorrect]
 He ate the chocolate cake greedily. [correct]
 He greedily ate the chocolate cake. [correct]
 He gave us generously the money. [incorrect]
 He gave us the money generously. [correct]
 He generously gave us the money. [correct]

If there is a preposition before the verb's object, you can place the adverb of manner
either before the preposition or after the object.
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Examples

 The child ran happily towards his mother.

 The child ran towards his mother happily.

Adverbs of manner should always come immediately after verbs which have no object
(intransitive verbs).
Examples

 The town grew quickly after 1997.

 He waited patiently for his mother to arrive.

These common adverbs of manner are almost always placed directly after the
verb: well, badly, hard, & fast
Examples

 He swam well despite being tired.

 The rain fell hard during the storm.

The position of the adverb is important when there is more than one verb in a
sentence. If the adverb is placed before or after the main verb, it modifies only that
verb. If the
adverb is placed after a clause, then it modifies the whole action described by the
clause. Notice the difference in meaning between the following sentences.
 77

Example Meaning

She quickly agreed to re-type the the agreement is

letter. quick

She agreed quickly to re-type the the agreement is

letter. quick

She agreed to re-type the the re-typing is

letter quickly. quick

He quietly asked me to leave the

the request is quiet
house.

He asked me quietly to leave the

the request is quiet
house.

He asked me to leave the

the leaving is quiet
house quietly.
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LITERARY USAGE
Sometimes an adverb of manner is placed before a verb + object to add emphasis.
Examples

 He gently woke the sleeping woman.

 She angrily slammed the door.

Some writers put an adverb of manner at the beginning of the sentence to catch our
attention and make us curious.
Examples

 Slowly she picked up the knife.

 Roughly he grabbed her arm.
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ADVERBS OF DEGREE
Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity of something. Adverbs of degree are
usually placed before the adjective, adverb, or verb that they modify, although there
are some exceptions. The words "too", "enough", "very", and "extremely" are examples
of adverbs of degree.

Adverb of degree Modifying Example

extremely adjective The water was extremely cold.

quite adjective The movie is quite interesting.

just verb He was just leaving.

almost verb She has almost finished.

very adverb She is running very fast.

too adverb You are walking too slowly.

enough adverb You are running fast enough.

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USAGE OF "ENOUGH"
Enough can be used as both an adverb and as a determiner.
Enough as an adverb
Enough as an adverb meaning 'to the necessary degree' goes after the adjective or
adverb that it is modifying, and not before it as other adverbs do. It can be used both
in positive and negative sentences.

Examples

 Is your coffee hot enough?

 This box isn't big enough.
 He didn't work hard enough.
I got here early enough.

Enough is often followed by "to" + the infinitive.

Examples

 He didn't work hard enough to pass the exam.

 Is your coffee hot enough to drink?
 She's not old enough to get married.
I got here early enough to sign up.

Enough can also be followed by "for someone" or "for something".

Examples
 81

 The dress was big enough for me.

 She's not experienced enough for this job.
 Is the coffee hot enough for you?
 He didn't work hard enough for a promotion.

ENOUGH AS A DETERMINER
Enough as a determiner meaning 'as much/many as necessary' goes before the noun it
modifies. It is used with countable nouns in the plural and with uncountable nouns.

Examples

 We have enough bread.

 You have enough children.
 They don't have enough food.
I don't have enough apples.

USAGE OF "TOO"
"Too" is always an adverb, but it has two distinct meanings, each with its own usage
patterns.

TOO MEANING "ALSO"

Too as an adverb meaning "also" goes at the end of the phrase it modifies.
Examples

I would like to go swimming too, if you will let me come.

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 Can I go to the zoo too?

 Is this gift for me too?
 I'm not going to clean your room too!

TOO MEANING "EXCESSIVELY"

Too as an adverb meaning "excessively" goes before the adjective or adverb it
modifies. It can be used in both affirmative and negative sentences.

Examples

 This coffee is too hot.

 He works too hard.
 Isn't she too young?
I am not too short!

TOO IS OFTEN FOLLOWED BY "TO" + THE INFINITIVE.

Examples

 The coffee was too hot to drink.

 You're too young to have grandchildren!
I am not too tired to go out tonight.
 Don't you work too hard to have any free time?

TOO CAN ALSO BE FOLLOWED BY "FOR SOMEONE" OR "FOR SOMETHING".

Examples
 83

 The coffee was too hot for me.

 The dress was too small for her.
 He's not too old for this job.
 Sally's not too slow for our team.

USAGE OF "VERY"
Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger.

Examples

 The girl was very beautiful.

 The house is very expensive.
 He worked very quickly.
 She runs very fast.

If we want to make a negative form of an adjective or adverb, we can add "not" to the
verb, we can use an adjective or adverb of opposite meaning, or we can use "not very"
with the original adjective or adverb. The meanings of the phrases are not identical.
Usually the phrase using "not very" is less direct, and thus more polite, than the other
phrases.
Examples
 84

Opposite
Original Opposite meaning Opposite meaning
meaning with
phrase with "not very" with an opposite word
"not"

The girl was The girl was not The girl was not
The girl was ugly.
beautiful. beautiful. very beautiful.

He worked He did not work He did not work

He worked slowly.
quickly. quickly. very quickly.

DIFFERENCE IN MEANING BETWEEN "VERY" AND "TOO"

There is a big difference in meaning between "too" and "very". "Very" expresses a fact
while "too" suggests there is a problem.
Examples

 He speaks very quickly.

 He speaks too quickly for me to understand.
 It is very hot outside.
 It is too hot outside to go for a walk.
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OTHER ADVERBS USED LIKE "VERY"

Some common adverbs are used in the same way as "very" to heighten the degree of
adjectives and adverbs.

Expressing very strong Expressing somewhat

Expressing strong feelings
feelings doubtful feelings

extremely, terribly, especially, particularly, pretty, rather, fairly,

amazingly, uncommonly, unusually, not especially, not
wonderfully, insanely remarkably, quite particularly

The movie was The movie was particularly The movie was fairly
amazingly interesting. interesting. interesting.

She sang wonderfully

She sang unusually well. She sang pretty well.
well.

The lecture was The lecture was quite The lecture was rather
terribly boring. boring. boring.
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INVERSION WITH NEGATIVE ADVERBS

Normally the subject goes before the verb, however, some negative adverbs can cause
an inversion when placed at the beginning of the clause. The order is reversed and the
verb goes before the subject. This inversion is only used in writing, not in speaking.

Adverb Normal word order Inversion

I have never seen such

Never Never have I seen such courage.
courage.

Adverb Normal word order Inversion

Rarely She rarely left the house. Rarely did she leave the house.

She did not only the cooking Not only did she do the cooking,
Not only
but the cleaning as well. but the cleaning as well.

I scarcely closed the door Scarcely did I close the door

Scarcely
before he started talking. before he started talking.

We seldom cross the river Seldom do we cross the river

Seldom
after sunset. sunset.
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What is Adverbs of affirmation and negation? "The word which declare that something
is true or some equivalent expression or negative statement, judgment, doctrine or a
logical proposition is called Adverbs of affirmation and negation."
Difference between Adverbs of Affirmation and Adverbs of Negation.
» Adverb of Affirmation : I will definitely do that project.
In the sentence ‗definitely‘ affirms the listener that the speaker is going to do the task
which is being talked about. ‗Definitely‘ is therefore an Adverb of Affirmation.
» Adverb of Negation : I will never do that project.
In the sentence ‗never‘ negates the sentence by telling that the speaker is not going to
do the particular task. ‗Never‘ is therefore an Adverb of Negation.

ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION OR NEGATION ARE:

no longer, hardly, not very, never, surely, certainly, definitely, probably,

really, clearly, exactly, truly, doubtlessly, obviously, almost, rarely,

invalidly, contradictorily, scarcely etc.

Uses of adverb of affirmation and negation
» Adverb of Affirmation sentences: (AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES) :

Example:
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Adverbs of affirmation are words which declare that a given statement or fact is true, or
positive.

 I can probably go there.

 He will surely give you money.

 Raj clearly states her concern.

 We are definitely leaving tomorrow.

 Pooja doubtlessly agrees on his side.

 Riya exactly knows the right thing to do.

 The family truly embraces the Western culture.

 They are really staying tonight for a sleepover.

 I would obviously feel awesome about your comment.

 The soldier should certainly get an award for bravery.

» Adverb of Negation sentences: (NEGATIVE SENTENCES):

Example:
Adverbs of negation are words which declare that a given statement is false, or
negative.

 I have never seen him.

 He is not very active.

 I almost ran out of words.

 I never talk to him this way.

 Dimple scarcely does her house duties.

 89

 He no longer takes interest in his work.

 The brothers hardly ever meet each other.

 Simran rarely visits her mom on weekends.

 He contradictorily did the correct thing.

 Vivek invalidly checked the receipt given to him.

MORE USES OF ADVERB OF AFFIRMATION OR CERTAIMTY

 Placed before the main verb unless the main verb is 'to be:
Adverbs of certainty express how certain we feel about an action or event. Adverbs of
certainty go before the main verb unless the main verb is 'to be', in which case the
adverb of certainty goes after.

Example:

 Raj is certainly a smart man.

 She is probably in the office.

 He surely won't forget your birthday.

 She definitely left the school before 11 o'clock.

 PLACED BETWEEN THE AUXILIARY AND THE MAIN VERB: IF there is an

auxiliary verb in sentence, the adverb of certainty goes between the auxiliary and
the main verb.
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Example:

o Train is definitely running late.

o He has certainly forgotten her birthday.

o Riya will probably leave India by tonight.

 Placed at the beginning of the sentence: Sometimes these adverbs of
certainty can be placed at the beginning of the sentence. like: certainly, probably,
undoubtedly.
Example:

 Certainly, I will be there.

 Probably, she has forgotten the meeting.

 Undoubtedly, Narendra Modi is a great politician.

 Placed at the beginning of the sentence, when the speaker thinks

something is true, but is looking for confirmation:
When the adverb of certainty 'surely' is placed at the beginning of the sentence, it
means the speaker thinks something is true, but is looking for confirmation.

Example:

 Surely, you have got a motor bike.

 Surely, you are not going to carry that to the office.

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WHAT IS ADVERBS OF REASON?

"Adverbs of Purpose or Reasons express the reason, an aim or target behind the
happening of a particular action."
These words help to describe why something happened.
Adverbs of purpose are used to connect sentences that wouldn‘t make sense if they
were formed alone.
Adverbs of purpose may be in the form of an individual word or in the form of clauses
(group of words). (The test question is why?).
» The test question 'Why?' : He was left because he was late.
Adverbs of Reason are:
hence, therefore, so, since, thus, because, consequently, lest (in case) – but

also clauses – so that, in order to etc.

» Hence : ‗Hence‘ is to state a reason for the occurrence of an action or
incident.
Example:

 • I was not well, hence didn‘t go to school today.

» Therefore : ‗Therefore‘ is used to state reason for a particular happening.

Example:

 • Rahul is ill and therefore is unable to come to school.

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» So : ‗So‘ is used to tell reason because of which a particular situation/decision has

arisen.
Example:

 • The bell rang so she left the class room.

Note : 'So that' is a common Adverb of Purpose. We can drop that in 'so that' if we find it
too long. However, use of only 'so' is often regarded as informal.

» Since : ‗Since‘ means a time from certain fixed time in the past. It is also used in place
of 'because'.
 • Since it is snowing, I am feeling very cold.

» Thus : ‗Thus‘ 'Thus' means as a result.

 • The kind instructor thus corrected his trainees gently.

» Because : ‗Because‘ states the reason. A sentence can also be started with ‗because‘.
Example:

 • He was left because he was late.

 • Because Riya was sick, she stayed home.

» Consequently : ‗Consequently‘ states as a consequence of something.

Example:
 93

 • Raj gets the prize consequently of his best performance.

» Lest : ‗Lest‘ means ‗in case‘.

Example:

 • Take the umbrella lest it starts raining.

» So that : ‗So that‘ is used to tell reason because of which a particular

situation/decision has arisen.

 • I started running so that I didn‘t miss the train.

» In order to : ‗In order to‘ means so that.

Example:

 • Help poor and needy in order to serve God.

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ADVERBS OF REASON / PURPOSE

 • I was sick, thus didn‘t go to work today.

 • Take the raincoat lest it starts raining.

 • Because I was late, I jogged a little faster.

 • I started jogging so that I wouldn‘t be late.

 • She is not only intelligent but also beautiful.

 • I started running so that I didn‘t miss the bus.

 • Since it‘s your birthday, I will buy you a gift.

 • The thief was consequently jailed for his crimes.

 • There wasn‘t enough light, hence the match was called-off.

 • We gifted a novel to him in order to improve his reading skills.

Uses of Adverb of reason or purpose (Examples):
Example:

 • There was unseasoned heavy rain, therefore, the match was abandoned.

WHAT IS A PREPOSITION?

preposition (noun): a part-of-speech usually coming BEFORE a noun phrase and

connecting it to another part of the sentence

A preposition is one of the nine parts of speech.

The name preposition (pre + position) means "place BEFORE".
 95

A preposition typically comes BEFORE another word—usually a noun phrase. It tells us

about the relationship between the noun phrase and another part of the sentence.
Some very common prepositions are: in, of, on, for, with, at, by
Look at these example sentences:
 The book is on the round table. (relationship in space)
 We will meet in November. (relationship in time)
 I sent the information by email. (relationship of method)
Several other relationships are expressed by prepositions. In addition, more
metaphorical ideas can be expressed such as: in love, beyond doubt, under
investigation
If a preposition does not come BEFORE another word, it is still closely linked to
another word:
 Who did you talk to?
 To whom did you talk?
 I talked to Jane.

FORM
Prepositions have no particular form. The majority of prepositions are single
words, but some are two- or three-word phrases:
 one-word prepositions (before, into, on)
 complex prepositions (according to, but for, in spite of)
When we say that a preposition comes before a noun phrase, we include:
 noun phrase (the tall man)
 noun (rice)
 96

 pronoun (them)
 gerund (verb in -ing form: fishing)

The simple preposition is just short words that are used to define a relation between
nouns and pronouns, or even connect two parts of speeches, clauses, or sentences.

The simple prepositions are little words that are used in simple sentences. This makes a
sentence simple to understand easily. Sometimes, more than two simple prepositions
are used in a sentence.

Examples: At, by, as, but, for, from, in, into, than, of, off, on, out, over, till, to, up, upon,
with, under, down, etc. are some simple preposition words.

Examples of simple prepositions:

1. I am not coming with you all.
2. Mom is working in the kitchen.
3. He‘ll be late for his flight.
4. She is sleeping on the sofa.
5. The acting of an actor was so good.
6. The Eiffel tower is in Paris.
7. He hides a treasure under a tree.
8. My office is just by the next street.
9. She left school in 2020.
 97

10. He went to bed earlier tonight.

11. They finished their match in just 30 minutes.
12. He went to the hospital for treatment.
13. Be careful with the spikes of a tree.
14. You have to be proud of yourself for not giving up.
15. They were successful in doing business.
16. Get me out of this situation at any cost.
17. We did a lot of shopping during the sales offer.
18. I always try to be polite in front of people.
19. You have to worried about your job.
20. I don‘t agree with you.
List of Simple Prepositions:
 At
 By
 As
 But
 From
 For
 Into
 In
 Than
 Of
 Off
 On
 Out
 98

 Over
 Till
 To
 Up
 Upon
 With
 Under
 Down
COMPOUND PREPOSITION
A preposition that contains two or more prepositional words is called a compound
preposition. Also, we can say it is a combination of words.

Compound prepositions are established by connecting the preposition words in a

sentence before the noun, pronoun, adjective, and adverb.

Moreover, a compound preposition is prepared through the conjunction of a

prepositional or a non-propositional word and a simple preposition word that is used
with a noun, adjective, or adverb, respectively.

Examples: About, across, along, beyond, besides, outside, According to, aside from,
because of, as of, next to, on account of, apart from, but for, close to, depending on, due
to, in between, in case of, etc., are some compound prepositions.
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Examples of Compound Prepositions are in Sentences

1. The examination dates have been postponed because of the strike.
2. His car is parked in front of my house.
3. The behaviour of this patient is far from normal.
4. I can not stay here as of now.
5. Joseph was never close to his parents.
6. This theory is wrong according to his philosophy.
7. She was upset because of her daughter‘s behaviour.
8. The match was delayed due to rain.
9. This dog is sitting next to me for one hour.
10. The country has subdivided because of politicians.
11. All I got in return for my hard-earned money has turned into a piece of junk.
12. I found his name on top of the list.
13. We will inform you later depending on the situation.
14. She always talks about her father.
15. There is no difference between these two sheets.
16. The boy swims across the river.
17. There is nothing left inside the container.
18. The principal sat beside his college professor in the auditorium.
19. The van is stopped in front of the hospital.
20. You have to leave your position in case of any change in the plan.
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LIST OF COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS

 According to
 As to
 Onto
 Across
 After
 Beyond
 Without
 Opposite to
 Away from
 Aside from
 In favor of
 In front of
 Because of
 As for
 Near to
 Behind
 Along
 Outside
 On account of
 On behalf of
 But for
 Ahead of
 Close to
 101

 Despite
 Depending on
 Due to
 In addition to
 Next to
 In between
 In case of
 Owing to
 Along with
 Around
 Between
 Apart from
 In return for
 Out of ñ
 Instead of
 Outside of
 Other than
 Together with
 Up to
 Above
 About
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WHAT IS A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE?

A prepositional phrase is a group of words consisting of a preposition, its object, and

any words that modify the object. Most of the time, a prepositional phrase modifies a
verb or a noun. These two kinds of prepositional phrases are called adverbial phrases
and adjectival phrases, respectively.

At a minimum, a prepositional phrase consists of one preposition and the object it

governs. The object can be a noun, a gerund (a verb form ending in ―-ing‖ that acts as
a noun), or a clause.
He arrived in time .
Is she really going out with that guy ?
To these two basic elements, modifiers can be freely added.

He arrived in the nick of time.

Is she really going out with that tall, gorgeous guy?
Some of the most common prepositions that begin prepositional phrases are to, of,
about, at, before, after, by, behind, during, for, from, in, over, under, and with.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES THAT MODIFY NOUNS

When a prepositional phrase acts upon a noun, we say it is

behaving adjectivally because adjectives modify nouns. A prepositional phrase that
behaves adjectivally is called, quite logically, an adjectival phrase.
The cat in the middle is the cutest.
 103

I always buy my milk from the convenience store on Main Street . My mother has
always wanted to live in a cabin by the lake .
In the first of these sentences, in the middle answers the question of which cat the
writer thinks is the cutest. Similarly, on Main Street gives us information about which
store the writer is describing, and by the lake tells us what kind of cabin the writer‘s
mother is dreaming about. All of these adjectival phrases provide specificity to a noun
in order to enhance our understanding.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES THAT MODIFY VERBS

When a prepositional phrase acts upon a verb, we say it is

behaving adverbially because adverbs modify verbs. A prepositional phrase that
behaves adverbially is called an adverbial phrase.
To find the person who stole the last cookie, look behind you. Harry drank his
Butterbeer with fervor.
In the first sentence, behind you answers the question ―Look where?‖ In the
second, with fervor answers the question ―Drank how?‖

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES ACTING AS NOUNS

Less frequently, prepositional phrases can function like nouns in a sentence.

During the national anthem is the worst time to blow your nose. After the game will be
too late for us to go to dinner.
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HOW TO AVOID EXCESSIVE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

It is tempting to overuse prepositions and prepositional phrases. If you see more than
one preposition for every ten or fifteen words in your writing, you should edit some of
them out. You may be surprised at how much more elegant and economical your
writing is when you make the effort to do this.
It is best to behave with caution when running with a sword in the presence of
Magneto.
There is nothing grammatically incorrect about this sentence, but it has two ―with‖
phrases, an ―of‖ phrase, and an ―in‖ phrase, which is a sure sign that it could be written
more efficiently.
In Magneto‘s presence, run cautiously with swords.
Here, it was possible to replace one of the prepositional phrases, with caution with the
correlating adverb cautiously. Of Magneto was simply a possessive that can be easily
converted into Magneto‘s. Four prepositional phrases have been reduced to two.
Another way to reduce prepositional phrases is to switch from a passive voice to an
active voice. There is a famous example to illustrate this concept.
Why was the road crossed by the chicken?
Clearly, the passive voice makes this sentence fussy and the prepositional phrase by the
chicken seems a bit silly. It would be better written in an active voice, with the chicken
in the driver‘s seat where it belongs.
Why did the chicken cross the road?
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PARTICIPIAL PREPOSITIONS
Participial prepositions or participle
prepositions are participles (gerund forms -ing‘ or -ed forms). Participial prepositions
include: excluding, following, notwithstanding, pending, considering, during, regarding,
including, etc. All these participles can function as ‗participle prepositions‘.
Examples of participial prepositions in context
 Joseph was talking to James regarding the new scientific developments.
 I am working during the night and I am exhausted.
 The laws were not in their favour, notwithstanding they decided to pursue the
case.
 Following our disagreement, we shall go ahead with the plans to build a new
office.
 The officers were going over the possible factors, including the impossible ones.
 Considering our situation we‘re gonna have to re-innovate ourselves.
 Excluding our fellow peers from the project was a huge error and detrimental to
the company.
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PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE: AT, IN, ON

In general, we use:

 at for a POINT
 in for an ENCLOSED SPACE

on SURFACE
on the wall
on the ceiling
on the cover
on the menu

in a car

at the front desk

in a building

at the crossroads

in my wallet

at the entrance
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in my pocket

at the end of the road

 on for a SURFACE

on the door

in a box

at the top of the page

in France

at the door

in London

at the bus stop

in the garden

at the corner
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in
ENCLOSED SPACE

at POINT

on the floor

on the carpet

on a page
Look at these examples:
 Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.
 The shop is at the end of the street.
 My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late.
 When will you arrive at the office?
 Do you work in an office?
 I have a meeting in New York.
 Do you live in Japan?
 Jupiter is in the Solar System.
 The author's name is on the cover of the book.
 There are no prices on this menu.
 You are standing on my foot.
 There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.
 I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.
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Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:

at in on

on a bus
at home in a car

on a train
at work in a taxi

on a plane
at school in a helicopter

on a ship
at university in a boat

at in on

on a bicycle, on a motorbike
at college in a lift (elevator)

on a horse, on an elephant
at the top in the newspaper

on the radio, on television

at the bottom in the sky

on the left, on the right

at the side in a row

on the way
at reception in Oxford Street
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PREPOSITIONS OF TIME - AT, IN, ON

We use:

 at for a PRECISE TIME

 in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
 on for DAYS and DATES

at in on
PRECISE MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES DAYS and

TIME and LONG PERIODS DATES

at 3 o'clock in May on Sunday

at 10.30am in summer on Tuesdays

at noon in the summer on 6 March

at dinnertime in 1990 on 25 Dec. 2010

at bedtime in the 1990s on Christmas Day

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on Independence
at sunrise in the next century
Day

at sunset in the Ice Age on my birthday

on New Year's Eve

in the past/future
at the moment

Look at these examples:

 I have a meeting at 9am.
 The shop closes at midnight.
 Jane went home at lunchtime.
 In England, it often snows in December.
 Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
 There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
 Do you work on Mondays?
 Her birthday is on 20 November.
 Where will you be on New Year's Day?

 Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard

expressions:
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Expression Example

The stars shine at night.

at night

I don't usually work at the weekend.

at the weekend

I stay with my family at Christmas.

at Christmas /Easter

We finished the test at the same time.

at the same time

 He's not home at present. Try later.

 at present

 Note that in some varieties of English people say "on the weekend" and "on
Christmas".
 on
 in
 on Tuesday morning
 Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common
expressions:

 on Sunday afternoon(s)
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 in the evening(s)

 in the afternoon(s)

 in the mornings

 in the morning

 on Saturday mornings
 on Monday evening(s)
 When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
 I went to London last June. (not in last June)
 He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
 I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
 We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)
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OTHER PREPOSITIONS

Preposition Explanation Example

 used to show the

origin of
something or
someone
 "Where are you from?"
 used to show the
"I'm from Italy."
material of which
 The desk is made from pine.
from something is
 Things went from bad to
made
worse.
 used to show a
change in the
state of someone
or something

 used to show
possession,
belonging or
origin
 a friend of mine
 used after words
of  a kilo of apples
or phrases
expressing
amount, number
or particular unit
 115

 used to show the

person or thing  I'm reading some short stories
by that does (written) by Chekhov.
something:

 used for showing  It'd be quicker to get

some methods of there on foot / on horse
on
travelling  get on the train

Preposition Explanation Example

 entering a public
transport vehicle

 entering a car /  She got in the car and drove

in Taxi fast.

 leaving a public
 She got off the bus
off transport vehicle

 leaving a closed
 She got out of the car
out of vehicle, building...

 used to show
measurements or  Their wages were increased by
amounts 12%.
by  travelling (other  She
than walking or went by car, by bus, by train
horseriding)
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 In theory, women can still

 age
at have children at the age of 50.

 on the subject of;

 What's that book about?
about connected with

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
What is a correlative conjunction?
As suggested by their name, correlative conjunctions correlate, working in pairs to join
phrases or words that carry equal importance within a sentence. Like many of the most
interesting parts of speech, correlative conjunctions are fun to use. At the same time,
there are some important rules to remember for using them correctly.
 When using correlative conjunctions, ensure verbs agree so your sentences make
sense. For example: Every night, either loud music or fighting neighbours wake
John from his sleep.
 When you use a correlative conjunction, you must be sure that pronouns agree.
For example: Neither Debra nor Sally expressed her annoyance when the cat
broke the antique lamp.
 When using correlative conjunctions, be sure to keep parallel structure intact. Equal
grammatical units need to be incorporated into the entire sentence. For
example: Not only did Mary grill burgers for Michael, but she also fixed a steak for
her dog, Vinny.
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Examples of Correlative Conjunctions

In the following examples, the correlative conjunctions have been italicized for easy
identification.

1. She is both intelligent and beautiful.

2. I will either go for a hike or stay home and watch TV.
3. Jerry is neither rich nor famous.
4. He is not only intelligent, but also very funny.
5. Would you rather go shopping or spend the day at the beach?

COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS

The phrases which are used as conjunctions are called compound conjunctions.
Examples are: so that, provided that, as well as, as soon as, as long as, such that, in
order that etc.

A compound conjunction may have two or three parts and they always go together.
They are different from correlatives which are conjunctions used only in pairs.
Examples of correlatives are: either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also.

She has got a car as well as a bike. (She has got not only a bike but also a car.)

Note the information structure: as well as introduces information already known to the
listener; the rest of the sentence gives new information.
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Note that after as well as, we use a noun or an –ing form. To-infinitives are possible, if
the main clause also has them.

 As well as breaking his back, he hurt his neck.

 As if and as though

 As if and as though have similar meanings.

 He talks as if he is mad. (Perhaps he is mad.)

 He talks as if he were/was mad. (He isn‘t mad.)

 Note that a past tense after as if/though indicates that a comparison is unreal.

 The cat jumped in as soon as he opened the window.

 He will pass the test provided that he works hard.

 We eat so that we may live.

 She is working hard so that she will pass the test.

 You can share my room as long as you pay for your expenses.
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 After as long as, we use a present tense to refer to the future.

 They held the function on a Sunday in order that everybody would be able to
attend.

 So that and in order that have similar meanings. So that is more common in an
informal style.

WHAT ARE INTERJECTIONS?

Interjections are words that you can use to express a strong sense of emotion or
feeling. An interjection is usually just a single word – and unlike any other part of
English grammar, it doesn‘t influence the grammar of a sentence in any way.

It doesn‘t matter what tense the sentence is, who or what the subject is, what verbs you
are using, or anything else. You can use interjections at any time, to add an extra touch
of meaning.

Lots of different kinds of words can act as an interjection, from words like ―yes‖ or ―no‖,
to more emotive words such as ―ouch‖, ―hurray‖, or ―hey‖.

Different interjections can be used to express different kinds of emotions or feelings –

from anger, happiness, surprise, to enthusiasm, boredom and more.

Let‘s take a look at some examples:

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 ―Ouch! That really hurt.‖

 ―Wow, that‘s so beautiful!‖
 ―Yuck, that tastes really disgusting.‖

Interjections aren‘t just for strong or extreme emotions though. They can also be
used more mild or polite expressions of emotion. For example:

 ―Oh no, he‘s back again.‖

 ―Excuse me, may I leave?‖
 ―Oh, I‘m not feeling very well.‖

USING INTERJECTIONS
In the examples we‘ve looked at so far, interjections have been placed at the start
of the sentence. This is one of the most common ways to use them, as by putting
them right at the start, you can add an emotional impact to your sentence very
easily.

When the interjection is right at the start, you might also want to add an
exclamation mark at the end of the sentence, to add extra emphasis, for example:

 ―Hurray – we‘re finally here!‖

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But interjections don‘t always have to be at the start of the sentence. While they
don‘t have any grammatical influence, you can still use them in different parts of
the sentence, to express different kinds of feelings and tones.

For example, using an interjection at the end of a sentence can turn it into a
question, or a rhetorical question that emphasises different kinds of feelings. Let‘s
look at some examples!
 ―This is a really interesting film, hmm?‖

Putting the interjection at the end of the sentence makes it into a question, which
might invite someone else to share their opinion with you, or ask them if they
agree with you.

 ―Hmm! This is a really interesting film!‖

Placing the interjection at the start instead makes it more of a statement, which is
less likely to invite someone else to share their thoughts with you.

You could also put an interjection in the middle of a sentence, for a different kind
of expression of feeling. For example:

 ―This is a really, hmm, interesting film.‖

In this sentence, putting the interjection in the middle helps to convey a feeling of
uncertainty or doubt instead.
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PUNCTUATION
FULL STOP / PERIOD (.)

1. Use a full stop at the end of a sentence:

o The man arrived. He sat down.
2. Use full stops with abbreviations (in an abbreviation the last letter of the
word and of the abbreviation are not the same):
o Co. (Company)
o etc. (et cetera)
o M.P. (Member of Parliament)
3. Do not use full stops with contractions (in a contraction the last letter of the
word and of the contraction are the same):
o Ltd (Limited)
o Dr (Doctor)
o St (Saint)
The rule about abbreviations and contractions is not followed by everyone. Sometimes
it is a question of style. The important thing is to be consistent. Note that the word
"period" (meaning the punctuation mark) is sometimes used in speech to emphasize
something that has just been said. It means something like "That's it! That's all there is
to it. There is no need for further discussion." Look at this example:

"I don't believe it was an accident. It was murder! Period!"

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COMMA (,)

A comma in writing is like a pause inside a sentence when speaking. We use

commas inside sentences. Commas separate parts of a sentence into logical elements.
Commas have no meaning, but they help us to see the structure and therefore the
meaning of the sentence.
Put a space after a comma. Do not put a space before a comma.

bad spacing:
xxx ,xxx xxx , xxx xxx,xxx
good spacing:
xxx, xxx

1. Use a comma between items in a series or list. In a sentence, the last two
items usually do not need a comma between them as they are separated by
"and". However, if one or both of the last two items are long, a comma may be
useful.
o coffee, tea, sugar, milk, eggs, butter, salt
o My favourite sports
are football, rugby, swimming, boxing and golf.
o Hunsa was wearing blue jeans, black shoes, his brand new white shirt, and a
brown and green cap.
2. Use a comma between three or more adjectives or adverbs.
o I like the old, brown, wooden table.
o He bought an old, red, open-top Volkswagen.
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o He ran quickly, quietly and effortlessly.

3. For two adjectives, use a comma where you could use "and".
o It was a short, simple film. (It was a short and simple film.)
o I have a big black dog. (I have a big and black dog.)
4. Use a comma for numbers over 999. (In English, commas separate
thousands and periods separate decimals. Note that some languages use the
opposite system.)
o 1,000 (one thousand)
o 1,569
o $73,050.75
o 2,000,000
o 3,400,500
o 10.5 (ten point five or ten and a half) - note the use of the period, not
comma
5. Use a comma for addresses, some dates, and titles following a name.
o 911 Avenue Mansion, Sathorn Road, Bangkok 10100, Thailand
o Los Angeles, California
o November 4, 1948 (but 4 November 1948)
o Fred Ling, Professor of English
6. Use a comma before or after direct speech. Do not use a comma for
reported speech.
o He said, "I love you."
o "I love you," he said.
o He told her that he loved her.
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7. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
so) to join two independent clauses. If the independent clauses are short and
well-balanced, a comma is optional.
o He didn't want to go, but he went anyway.
o I want to work as an interpreter, so I am studying Russian at university.
o She is kind so she helps people.
8. Use commas for parenthetical elements. A "parenthetical element" is any
part of a sentence that can be removed without changing the real meaning of the
sentence.
o John Geton, who is chairman of the company, is quite old.
o Andrew, my wife's brother, cannot come.
o Andrew (my wife's brother) cannot come.
o The objective, to find peace in both countries, is hard to reach.
9. Use a comma after an introductory element. A comma is optional for short,
simple introductory elements.
o Rushing to catch the flight, he forgot to take his phone.
o As the year came to an end, he realised the days were getting shorter.
o By evening we were getting worried.
o After a hefty meal cooked by his host's wife, he went to sleep.
o After a snack he went to sleep.
10. Sentence adverbs (words like however, unfortunately, surprisingly that
modify a whole sentence) often require one or two commas, depending on their
position in the sentence.
o However, Anthony did arrive.
o Anthony, however, did arrive.
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o We were, unfortunately, too late.

o He had, not surprisingly, lost his temper.
11. An adverbial clause often needs a comma when it comes at the beginning
of a sentence (but not at the end of a sentence).
o If I win the lottery, I will buy a castle.
o I will buy a castle if I win the lottery.
12. Do not use a comma to separate two complete sentences. In this case, use a
full stop (period) or semi-colon.
o Ram wants to go out. Anthony wants to stay home.

Tara, Ram and Anthony enjoyed their holiday, which they spent in Rio Claro, Trinidad,
from December 17, 2010 to January 6, 2011. Unfortunately, although the weather was
good, if rather hot, it rained a lot during their last week. Ravi, Tara's uncle, said, "When I
was young we had very little rain, but now we have a lot of rain." Ravi, a wealthy, good-
looking man, lives in the north of the island.
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SEMI-COLON (;)

1. We sometimes use a semi-colon instead of a full stop or period. This is to

separate sentences that are grammatically independent but that have closely
connected meaning.
o Josef likes coffee; Mary likes tea.
o Tara is a good speaker; she speaks very clearly.
o You did your best; now let's hope you pass the exam.
o Ram wants to go out; Anthony wants to stay home.
Note that in the above examples it is not correct to use a comma instead of
the semi-colon.
2. Use a semi-colon as a kind of "super comma". When we have a list of items,
we usually separate the items with commas. If the list is complicated, we may
prefer to use semi-colons in some cases.
o ABC Investments has offices in five locations: Kensington, London; Brighton
& Hove; and Oxford, Cambridge and Manchester.
o Rental cars must be returned on time; with a full tank of petrol; in
undamaged condition; and at the same location as they were collected
from.
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COLON (:)
The job of the colon is simple: to introduce.
1. Use a colon to introduce a list:
o There are three countries in North America: Mexico, the USA and Canada.
o We can see many things in the sky at night: the moon, stars, planets,
comets, planes and even satellites.
2. Actually, you can use a colon to introduce a single item, especially when you
want to emphasize that item:
o We were all waiting for the hero of the evening: John.
o There is one thing that he will not accept: stupidity.
o The job of the colon is simple: to introduce.
3. Use a colon to introduce direct speech or a quotation:
o He stood up and said loudly: "Ladies and Gentlemen, please be seated."
o John whispered in my ear: "Have you seen Andrea?"
o As Confucius once wrote: "When words lose their meaning, people lose
their freedom."
4. Use a colon to introduce an explanation:
o We had to cancel the party: too many people were sick.
o There is no need to rush: the meeting will be starting one hour late.
5. Use a colon to introduce examples, as shown above. For example, item 1
above reads "Use a colon to introduce a list" and ends with a colon followed by
two example sentences.
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QUESTION MARK
The main function of a question mark is to indicate a question or query.
1. Use a question mark at the end of all direct questions:
o What is your name?
o How much money did you transfer?
o Did you send euro or dollars?
2. Use a question mark after a tag question:
o You're French, aren't you?
o Snow isn't green, is it?
o He should go and see a doctor, shouldn't he?
3. Don't forget to use a question mark at the end of a sentence that really is a
direct question:
o How else would I get there, after all?
o What if I said to you, "I don't love you any more"?
o "Who knows when I'll die?", he asked rhetorically.
4. In very informal writing (personal letter or email), people sometimes use a
question mark to turn a statement into a question:
o See you at 9pm?
In the same situation, they may use two or three question marks together
to show that they are not sure about something:
o I think you said it would cost $10???
5. Do not use a question mark after an indirect or reported question:
o The teacher asked them what their names were. (What are your names?)
 130

o John asked Mary if she loved him. (Do you love me?)
o I'm wondering if she's coming. (Is she coming?)
6. Many polite requests or instructions are made in the form of a question. But
because they are not really questions, they do not take a question mark:
o Could you please send me your catalogue.
o Would all first-class and business-class passengers now start boarding.
7. Be careful with titles and abbreviations when question marks are involved:
o "Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf?" was a play before it was a film.
o Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf? was a play before it was a film.
o Have you seen the film "Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf?"?
o Have you seen the film Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf??
o Have you ever been to L.A.?

EXCLAMATION MARK
Called "exclamation point" in American English
An exclamation mark usually shows strong feeling, such as surprise, anger or joy. Using
an exclamation mark when writing is rather like shouting or raising your voice when
speaking. Exclamation marks are most commonly used in writing quoted speech. You
should avoid using exclamation marks in formal writing, unless absolutely necessary.
1. Use an exclamation mark to indicate strong feelings or a raised voice in
speech:
o She shouted at him, "Go away! I hate you!"
o He exclaimed: "What a fantastic house you have!"
o "Good heavens!" he said, "Is that true?"
o "Help!"
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o "Shut up!"
o "Stop!"
2. Many interjections need an exclamation mark:
o "Hi! What's new?"
o "Oh! When are you going?"
o "Ouch! That hurt."
3. A non-question sentence beginning with "what" or "how" is often an
exclamation and requires an exclamation mark:
o What idiots we are! (We are such idiots.)
o How pretty she looked in that dress! (She looked very pretty in that dress.)
4. In very informal writing (personal letter or email), people sometimes use
two or more exclamation marks together:
o I met John yesterday. He is so handsome!!!
o Remember, don't be late!!
o I'll never understand this language!!!!
Remember, try to avoid exclamation marks in formal writing such as an essay or
business letter.
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DASH
A dash is a horizontal line that shows a pause or break in meaning, or that represents
missing words or letters. Note that dashes are rather informal and should be used
carefully in writing. Dashes are often used informally instead of commas, colons and
brackets. A dash may or may not have a space on either side of it.
Do not confuse a dash (—) with a hyphen (-), which is shorter.
1. Use a dash to show a pause or break in meaning in the middle of a
sentence:
o My brothers—Richard and John—are visiting Hanoi. (Could use commas.)
o In the 15th century—when of course nobody had electricity—water was
often pumped by hand. (Could use brackets.)
2. Use a dash to show an afterthought:
o The 1st World War was supposed to be the world's last war—the war to
end war.
o I attached the photo to my email—at least I hope I did!
3. Use a dash like a colon to introduce a list:
o There are three places I'll never forget—Paris, Bangkok and Hanoi.
o Don't forget to buy some food—eggs, bread, tuna and cheese.
4. Use a dash to show that letters or words are missing:
o They are really f––––d up. (Typically used for offensive words.)
o I will look ––––– the children. (Typically used in "missing word" questions.)
In fact, there are two kinds of dash:
o the en-dash (–), which is the width of the letter "n"
 133

o and the em-dash (—), which is the width of the letter "m"
However, the difference between them is rather technical and mainly of value to
typographers. The dash is a convenient and easy mark to use in hand-writing. But it is
often difficult to find on a keyboard and for this reason some people use the easier-to-
find but shorter hyphen (-) when word-processing.

HYPHEN (-)

A hyphen is a very short horizontal line between words.

Note that there is no space between a hyphen and the character on either side of it.
Do not confuse a hyphen (-) with a dash (—), which is longer.
The rules about hyphens are not fixed. The points below are guidelines rather than
rules.
1. Use a hyphen to join words to show that their meaning is linked in some
way:
o book-case (or bookcase)
o race-horse (or racehorse)
o pick-me-up
2. Use a hyphen to make compound modifiers before nouns:
o a blue-eyed boy (but The boy was blue eyed.)
o the well-known actor (but The actor is well known.)
o their four-year-old son (but Their son is four years old.)
3. Use a hyphen with certain prefixes. The prefixes all-, ex-, and self- usually
need a hyphen:
o all-inclusive
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o ex-wife
o self-control
When a prefix comes before a capitalized word, use a hyphen:
o non-English
When a prefix is capitalized, use a hyphen:
o A-frame
4. Use a hyphen when writing numbers 21 to 99, and fractions:
o twenty-one
o one hundred and sixty-five
o two-thirds
5. Use a hyphen to show that a word has been broken at the end of a line
(hyphenation):

The directors asked for a more conven- ient location.

6. Use a hyphen with "suspended compounds". When we use several very

similar compounds together, it may not be necessary to repeat the last part of
the compound:
o They need to employ more full- and part-time staff. (not They need to
employ more full-time and part-time staff.)
o This rule applies only to 12-, 13- and 14-year olds. (not This rule applies
only to 12-year olds, 13-year olds and 14-year olds.)
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QUOTATION MARKS

We use quotation marks to show (or mark) the beginning and end of a word or phrase
that is somehow special or comes from outside the text that we are writing. Quotation
marks can be double ("...") or single ('...') - that is really a matter of style (but see below
for more about this).
Quotation marks are also called "quotes" or "inverted commas".
1. Use quotation marks around the title or name of a book, film, ship etc:
o The third most popular book of all time, "Harry Potter", has sold over
400,000,000 copies.
o 'Titanic' is a 1997 movie directed by James Cameron about the sinking of
the ship 'Titanic'.
Note that in the above case, we may use "italics" instead of quotation
marks. So the above examples would then appear as:
o The third most popular book of all time, Harry Potter, has sold over
400,000,000 copies.
o Titanic is a 1997 movie directed by James Cameron about the sinking of the
ship Titanic.
Obviously, the use of italics is not possible in handwriting or with old-style
typewriters.
2. We use quotation marks around a piece of text that we are quoting or
citing, usually from another source:
o In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of The English Language, David Crystal
argues that punctuation "plays a critical role in the modern writing system".
 136

3. Use quotation marks around dialogue or direct speech:

o It was a moonlit night. James opened the door and stepped onto the
balcony, followed by Mary. They stood in silence for a few moments,
looking at the moon. Then Mary turned to him and said: "Do you love me,
James?"
4. Use quotation marks around a word or phrase that we see as slang or
jargon:
o The police were called to a "disturbance" - which in reality was a pretty big
fight.
5. Use quotation marks around a word or phrase that we want to make
"special" in some way:
o Note that sometimes we use "italics" instead of quotation marks.

DOUBLE OR SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS?

Quotation marks can be double ("-") or single ('-'). If we want to use

quotation marks inside quotation marks, then we use single inside double,
or double inside single.
o He said to her: "I thought 'Titanic' was a good film."
o He said to her: 'I thought "Titanic" was a good film.'
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Punctuation inside or outside final quotation mark?

If the quoted words end with a full stop, then the full stop goes inside the
quotation marks. If the quoted words do not end with a full stop, then the
full stop goes outside the quotation marks:
o He said: "I love you."
o She has read "War and Peace".
Note that in US English, the full stop usually goes inside the quotation
marks in all cases:
o He said: "I love you."
o She has read "War and Peace."
However, US English adopts the British style for question marks and
exclamation marks:
o He said: "Do you love me?"
o Have you read "War and Peace"?
o Can you imagine? He has never read "War and Peace"!

How do we indicate quotation marks when speaking?

People may say "quote, unquote" or "open quotes, close quotes" when
reading aloud texts containing quotation marks:
o On page two it says, quote, Now is the time to invest, unquote.
o On page two it says, open quotes, Now is the time to invest, close quotes.
"Quote, unquote" may also be said informally in front of rather than around
the quoted words:
o The brochure describes the car as, quote, unquote, total luxury.
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"Quote, unquote" is sometimes used to mock or show disapproval or

disbelief:
o Then he arrived with his quote, unquote new girlfriend.
People sometimes say "in quotes" (often putting up their two hands with
two fingers extended on each hand, like quotation marks), indicating that
the words came from another source, or in a mocking way, or suggesting
that they don't quite believe what they have just said:
o Then he arrived with his new girlfriend, in quotes.

Please note: There are some differences in the use of quotation marks between various
varieties of English such as British English or American English. Anyone seeking guidance
at an advanced level is recommended to
consult a style guide (often included in good dictionaries) for their particular variety.
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ELLIPSIS MARK

The ellipsis mark is also called a "suspension point" or "dot dot dot".
The ellipsis mark consists of three dots (periods). We use the ellipsis mark in place of
missing words. If we intentionally omit one or more words from an original text, we
replace them with an ellipsis mark.
 Suppose we want to quote "The film focussed on three English learners from Asia
who were studying at university." Perhaps we want to omit "from Asia who were"
to save space. So we write:

"The film focussed on three English learners...studying at university."

The new sentence still makes sense, but the ellipsis mark shows the reader that
something is missing.
We sometimes also use an ellipsis mark to indicate a pause when someone is
speaking, or an unfinished sentence. Look at these examples:
 She turned to James and said, "Darling, there is something...I need to tell you. I
have never felt like...like this before."
 "It's not easy to explain. It's not..." Her voice trailed away as emotion welled up
within her.

Do we use a space with an ellipsis mark? That is a question of style. Many style manuals
recommend no space, like this:
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 three English learners...studying at university

 It's not...

Others recommend using a space before and after an ellipsis mark, like this:
 three English learners ... studying at university
 It's not ...

The important thing is that you choose one style and use it consistently. Do not mix
your styles.

MODALS VERBS

can, could, be able to

can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. be able to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the
verb be as a main verb). We include be able to here for convenience.
In this lesson we look at can, could and be able to, followed by a quiz to check your
understanding.
CAN
Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:
 talk about possibility and ability
 make requests
 ask for or give permission
Structure of can
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The basic structure for can is:

main verb

auxiliary verb
can

subject

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without to).

auxiliary verb
subject main verb
can

tennis.
+ I can play

tennis.
- He cannot play
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auxiliary verb
subject main verb
can

can't

tennis?
? Can you play

Notice that:
 Can is invariable. There is only one form: can
 The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without to). We cannot say: I
can to play tennis.
Use of can
can for possibility and ability
We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:
 She can drive a car.
 John can speak Spanish.
 I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)
 Can you hear me?
Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make
present decisions about future ability.
1. Can you help me with my homework? (present)
2. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)
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can games for present ability

can for requests and orders
We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a
real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to
do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal
(mainly between friends and family):
 Can you make a cup of coffee, please.
 Can you put the TV on.
 Can you come here a minute.
 Can you be quiet!
can for permission
We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:
1. Can I smoke in this room?
2. You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.
(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission
is informal.)
can/could/may games for present permission
 144

DEFINITION
MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS - MAY

The modal verb may is used to ask, grant, or describe permission; to politely offer to do
something for someone; to express the possibility of something happening or
occurring; or to express a wish or desire that something will be the case in the future.
We can also
use may as a rhetorical device to express or introduce an opinion about something.

Asking or granting permission

May is very commonly used to express or ask for permission to do something. There
are other ways to do this (by using the modals can or could, for instance), but may is
considered the most polite and formally correct way to do so. For example:

 ―May I borrow your pen, please?‖

 ―May we ask you some questions about your experience?‖
 ―General, you may fire when ready.‖
 ―She may invite one or two friends, but no more than that.‖
 ―May we be frank with you, Tom?‖
 ―Students may not leave the class once their exams are complete.‖

Making a polite offer

Like can, we can use may to offer do something for someone else, though it is
generally a more polite, formal way of doing so. For example:
 145

 ―May I help you set the table?‖

 ―May we be of assistance in any way?‖

Expressing possibility
Another common use of may is to express the possibility that something will
happen or occur in the near future, especially when that possibility is uncertain.
For instance:

 ―I‘m worried that it may start raining soon.‖

 ―We may run into some problems down the line that we didn‘t expect.‖
 ―I may be coming home for the winter break, depending on the cost of a plane
ticket.‖
 ―Although we may see things improve in the future, there‘s no guarantee at the
moment.‖
 ―There may not be any issues at all; we‘ll just have to see.‖

Expressing wishes for the future

May is also used in more formal language to express a wish or desire that
something will be the case in the future. When used in this way, may is inverted
with the subject, as in:

 ―May you both have a long, happy life together.‖

 ―May you be safe in your journey home.‖
 ―We‘ve had great success this year; may we continue to do so for years to come.‖
 146

 ―May this newfound peace remain forever between our two countries.‖

As a rhetorical device
Sometimes, we use may in this way as a rhetorical device to politely introduce or
emphasize an opinion or sentiment about something, in which case we
invert may with the subject. For instance:

 ―May I just say, this has been the most wonderful experience of my life.‖
 ―May we be clear that our firm will not be involved in such a dubious plan.‖
 ―May I be frank: this is not what I was hoping for.‖

Note that we can accomplish the same thing by using the

verbs let or allow instead, as in:

 ―Let me be clear: this decision is in no way a reflection on the quality of your

work.‖
 ―Allow us to say, we were greatly impressed by your performance.‖

May not vs. Mayn‘t (vs. Can‘t)

Grammatically, it is not technically incorrect to contract may not into the single-
word mayn‘t. For instance:

 ―You mayn‘t wish to share these details with others.‖

 ―No, you mayn‘t go to the dinner unaccompanied.‖
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However, this has become very rare in modern English, and generally only occurs
in colloquial usage. In declarative sentences, it is much more common to use the
two words separately, as in:

 ―Employees may not use company computers for recreational purposes.‖

 ―There may not be much we can do to prevent such problems from occurring.‖

It is also uncommon, though, to use may not in questions, in which may is

inverted with the subject. The resulting construction (e.g., ―may I not‖ or ―may we
not‖) sounds overly formal in day-to-day speech and writing. Because of this, it is
much more common to use the contraction can‘t instead, as in:

 ―Can‘t we stay for a little while longer?‖

 ―Can‘t I bring a friend along with me?‖

MUST

1. To express obligation or duty

This also refers to laws and regulations.

o I must memorize all of these rules about modal verbs.

o People must remain seated until the show is over.
o You must wear a seatbelt at all times.
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2. To emphasize the necessity of something

o Humans must have drinking water at least every two days.

o You must give up smoking, it's bad for you.
o We must have a special permit to camp in the national park.
o You must study the last two chapters before the test.
o Plants must have light and water to grow.
o You must drive carefully.

3. Deduction - Sure that something is true (Certainty)

We use this when we don't know but we are certain that it is true (based on
evidence).

o Look at all of that snow. It must be really cold outside.

o The ground was wet this morning. It must have rained last night.
o Dinosaurs were very big, they must have eaten a lot.
o It's five in the morning and you still haven't gone to bed? You must be
tired!
o Jack must be home. I heard a noise coming from his room.

4. Expresses positive logical assumptions (Must + have + past participle)

o That must have been my mother calling me last night, nobody else has my
number.
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o He must have won the lottery with the new house and car he has just
bought.
o She must have been at home - her car was there.

5. A strong recommendation
Something that is highly recommended (stronger than using should)

o We really must get together for dinner sometime.

o You must see the new Peter Jackson movie, it's fantastic.
o The ice cream here is delicious. You must try some.

Mustn't
The negative is Mustn't which refers to prohibition (negative obligation)
Mustn't = Must not

o You mustn't use your smartphone while you are driving.

o You mustn't get on the subway if you haven't paid for the ride.
o You must not open the gift until it is your birthday.
o We must not tell anyone.

Must vs. Have to

Must can be replaced by Have to with little difference in meaning:

o You have to study. (= you must study)

o He has to finish the report by Friday. (= He must finish the report by Friday)
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o They have to resit the test. (= They must resit the test)

Have to is a more informal while Must is mostly used in written orders or

instructions.
Also, Must expresses obligation imposed by the speaker while Have
to expresses external obligation.

o Teacher: You must complete this essay by Friday

o Student: We have to complete this essay by Friday.

When we are mentioning someone else's obligations, we use Have to.

o John has to quit smoking.

For questions it is more common to use Have to instead of Must (which

sounds very formal):

o When do you have to pay finish the report?

o Does he have to take a blood test?

The past tense of Must is Had to:

o I had to pay my speeding ticket yesterday.

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Mustn't vs. Don't have to

Be careful with the negative of Must and Have to where they DO have a
diifferent meaning. Mustn't is a negative obligation (= it is important that
you do NOT do something) while Don't have to is an absence of obligation.
Mustn't = it is prohibited; it is not allowed
Don't have to = no obligation; you are not required to do something,
especially if you don't want to.

o You must not drink that. (= it is forbidden to drink that; it is not allowed)
o You don't have to drink that. (= you don't need to drink that but you can if
you want)
o You mustn't tell John (= Do not tell John)
o You don't have to tell John (= you can tell John if you want to but it is not
necessary)

MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS - COULD

DEFINITION
The modal verb could is most often used as a past-tense version of can, indicating what
someone or something was able to do in the past; it can also be used instead of can as
a more polite way of making a request or asking for permission. Could is also used to
express a slight or uncertain possibility, as well as to make a suggestion or offer.
 152

Past ability
When describing what a person or thing was physically, mentally, or functionally able
to do in the past, we use could instead of can. For example:

 ―When I was younger, I could run for 10 miles without breaking a sweat!‖
 ―Back in the 1970s, our TV could only get about four channels.‖
 ―She couldn‘t read until she was nearly 12 years old.‖
 ―Could your family afford any food during the Great Depression, Grandma?‖

We also use could instead of can when describing an ability that is desired or
wished for. (This is known as the subjunctive mood, which is used for describing
hypothetical or unreal situations.) For example:

 ―I wish I could swim; it looks like so much fun.‖

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Conditional sentences in the past tense are called second conditionals. Unlike the
first conditional, we use the second conditional to talk about things that cannot
or are unlikely to actually happen.
To create the second conditional, we usually use the past simple tense after
the if clause, followed by would + a bare infinitive to describe what would be the
expected (if unreal) result of the condition.
However, if we want to describe what we would be able to do under a certain
condition, we can use could instead. For example:
 153

 ―If I got that promotion at work, I could finally afford a new car!‖
 ―If we moved to California, I could surf every day!‖

We often use could in what‘s known as a mixed conditional, which occurs when
the tense in one part of a conditional sentence does not match the other half.
This often occurs
with could when a present-tense verb is being used in an if conditional clause to
express a hypothetical scenario that is likely to or possibly could happen. For
example:

 ―If I get some money from my parents, we could go to the movies.‖

 ―We could visit our friends at the beach if you ask your boss for Friday off.‖
Asking for permission
When we ask someone for permission to do something, it is often considered
more polite to use could instead of can. However, we can only make this
substitution when asking for permission—when stating or granting permission,
we can only use can (or, more
politely, may). For example:

 ―Dad, could I spend the night at my friend‘s house?‖

 ―Could we invite Sarah to come with us?‖
 ―I was wondering if I could take a bit of time off work.‖
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Making a request
Just as we use could instead of can to be more polite when asking for permission,
it is also considered more polite to substitute could when making a general
request. For example:

 ―Could you please be quiet?‖

 ―Could you help me with this assignment?‖

Note that we can also do this with the modal verb would:

 ―Would you ask Jeff to come over here?‖

 ―Would Tina help me paint this fence?‖

As a rhetorical device
Sometimes, we use could as a rhetorical device to politely introduce or
emphasize an opinion or sentiment about something, in which case we
invert could with the subject. For instance:

 ―Could I just say, this has been a most wonderful evening.‖

 ―And could I clarify that I have always acted solely with the company‘s interests in
mind.‖
 ―Could I add that your time with us has been greatly appreciated.‖

Note that we can accomplish the same thing by using the

verbs let or allow instead, as in:
 155

 ―Let me clarify: this decision is in no way a reflection on the quality of your work.‖
 ―Allow me to add, we were greatly impressed by your performance.‖

Possibility and likelihood

Like can, we can also use could to describe actions or outcomes that are possible
or likely. Unlike using could to talk about an ability, this usage is not restricted to
the past tense. For instance:

 ―I think it could rain any minute.‖

 ―She could be in big trouble over this.‖
 ―Due to this news, the company could see a sharp drop in profits next quarter.‖
 ―Be careful, you could hurt someone with that thing!‖
 ―Answer the phone! It could be your father calling.‖

Making a suggestion
Similar to expressing a possible outcome, we can also use could to suggest a
possible course of action. For instance:

 ―We could go out for pizza after work on Friday.‖

 ―You could see if your boss would let you extend your vacation.‖
 ―I know it will be tricky to convince your parents, but you could try.‖

Adding angry emphasis

 156

We also use could to add emphasis to an angry or frustrated remark. For

example:

 ―My mother has traveled a long way to be here—you could try to look a little
more pleased to see her!‖
 ―You could have told me that you didn‘t want a party before I spent all this time
and effort organizing one!‖

Making offers
In addition to using could to make a suggestion, we can also use it to make an
offer to do something for someone. For example:

 ―Could I give you a hand with dinner?‖

 ―Could we help you find what you need?‖
 ―Could I give you a ride home?‖

Rhetorical questions
Could is sometimes used informally in sarcastic or rhetorical questions that
highlight a behavior someone finds irritating, unacceptable, or inappropriate. It is
often (but not always) used with be as a main verb. For example:

 ―Could you be any louder? I can barely hear myself think!‖

 ―Oh my God, Dad, could you be any more embarrassing?‖
 ―Danny, we‘re going to be late! Could you walk any slower?‖
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MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS - MIGHT

DEFINITION
The modal verb might is most often used to express an unlikely or uncertain
possibility. Might is also used to very formally or politely ask for permission, and it is
used as the past-tense form of may when asking permission in reported speech. It can
also be used to suggest an action, or to introduce two differing possibilities.

Expressing possibility
When we use might to indicate possibility, it implies a very weak certainty or likelihood
that something will happen, occur, or be the case. For instance:

 ―I‘m hoping that she might call me later.‖

 ―We might go to a party later, if you want to come.‖
 ―You should pack an umbrella—it looks like it might rain.‖
 ―There might be some dinner left over for you in the fridge.‖

In conditional sentences
We also often use might to express a possibility as a hypothetical outcome in
a conditional sentence. For example:

 ―If we don‘t arrive early enough, we might not be able to get in to the show.‖
 ―We still might make our flight if we leave right now!‖
 ―If we‘re lucky, we might have a chance of reversing the damage.‖
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Politely asking for permission

Although may is the ―standard‖ modal verb used to politely ask for permission,
we can also use might if we want to add even more politeness or formality to the
question. For example:

 ―Might we go to the park this afternoon, Father?‖

 ―Might I ask you a few questions?‖
 ―I‘m finished with my dinner. Might I be excused from the table?‖

However, even in formal speech and writing, this construction can come across as
rather old-fashioned, especially in American English. It more commonly occurs in
indirect questions—i.e., declarative sentences that are worded in such a way as to
express an inquiry (though these are technically not questions). For example:

 ―I was hoping I might borrow the car this evening.‖

 ―I wonder if we might invite Samantha to come with us.‖

Past tense of may

When we use reported speech, we traditionally conjugate verbs one degree into
the past. When may has been used, especially to ask for permission, in a sentence
that is now being reported, we use might in its place, as in:

 ―He asked if he might use the car for his date tonight.‖
 ―She wondered if she might bring a friend to the show.‖
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However, this rule of conjugating into the past tense is largely falling out of use
in modern English, and it is increasingly common to see verbs remain in their
original tense even when being reported.

Making suggestions
Might can also be used to make polite suggestions to someone. This is much less
direct and forceful than using should: it expresses a suggestion of a possible
course of action rather than asserting what is correct or right to do. For example:

 ―You might ask your brother about repaying that loan the next time you see him.‖
 ―It tastes very good, though you might add a bit more salt.‖
 ―You might try rebooting the computer; that should fix the problem for you.‖

Suggesting a possibility
In a similar way, we can use might to suggest a possible action or situation to
another person. For example:

 ―I was wondering if you might be interested in seeing a play with me later.‖

 ―I thought you might like this book, so I bought you a copy.‖

Adding angry emphasis

Just as we can with the modal verb could, we can use might to make a suggestion
as a means of adding emphasis to an angry or frustrated remark. For example:
 160

 ―My mother has travelled a long way to be here—you might try to look a little
more pleased to see her!‖
 ―You might have told me that you didn‘t want a party before I spent all this time
and effort organizing one!‖

Introducing differing information

Another use of might is to introduce a statement that is contrary to or different
from a second statement later in the sentence. This can be used as a means of
highlighting two different possible outcomes, scenarios, or courses of action. For
example:

 ―Sure, you might be able to make money quickly like that, but you‘re inevitably
going to run into difficulties down the line.‖
 ―I might not have much free time, but I find great satisfaction in my work.‖
 ―Our organization might be very small, but we provide a unique, tailored service
to our clientele.‖

As a rhetorical device
Sometimes, we use might as a rhetorical device to politely introduce or
emphasize an opinion or sentiment about something, in which case we
invert might with the subject. For instance:

 ―Might I just say, this has been a most wonderful evening.‖

 ―And might I clarify that I have always acted solely with the company‘s interests in
mind.‖
 161

 ―Might I add that your time with us has been greatly appreciated.‖

Note that we can accomplish the same thing by using the

verbs let or allow instead, as in:

 ―Let me clarify: this decision is in no way a reflection on the quality of your work.‖
 ―Allow me to add, we were greatly impressed by your performance.‖

SHALL VS. WILL

The rule below about shall/will also applies to should/would, as described at the end.

People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference

between shall and will, or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such
as Shall I call a taxi?). This is not really true. The difference between shall and will is
often hidden by the fact that we usually contract them in speaking with 'll. But the
difference does exist.
The truth is that there are two conjugations for the verb will:

1st conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact)

person verb example example contraction

 162

I shall I shall be in London tomorrow.

I'll

You will see a large building on You'll

you will
the left.

He'll
he, she, it will He will be wearing blue.

We shall not be there when you We shan't

we shall
arrive.

1st conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact)

person verb example example contraction

You will find his office on the You'll

you will
7th floor.

They'll
they will They will arrive late.

2nd conjugation (subjective, strong assertion, promise or command)

 163

person verb example example contraction

I will do everything possible to I'll

I will
help.

You'll
you shall You shall be sorry for this.

It'll
he, she, it shall It shall be done.

We won't
we will We will not interfere.

2nd conjugation (subjective, strong assertion, promise or command)

person verb example example contraction

You'll
you shall You shall do as you're told.

They shall give one month's They'll

they shall
notice.
 164

It is true that this difference is not universally recognized. However, let those who make
assertions such as "Americans never use 'shall'" peruse a good US English dictionary, or
many US legal documents which often contain phrases such as:
 Each party shall give one month's notice in writing in the event of termination.
Note that exactly the same rule applies in the case of should and would. It is
perfectly normal, and somewhat more elegant, to write, for example:
 I should be grateful if you would kindly send me your latest catalogue.

OUGHT TO: MODAL AUXILIARY VERB

INTRODUCTION
A modal verb is a type of auxiliary (helping) verb that has no meaning on its own but it
modifies the main verb, changes its meaning and gives more details about the action.
Ought to is a type of auxiliary modal verb used to express obligation and duty through
advice or recommendations.

Form
Ought to always has the same form even for the third person singular, and we find this
structure in its three forms.

Affirmative
Its structure, in the affirmative form, is:
Subject + ought to + verb + …
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SUBJECT OUGHT TO VERB

I/You ought to work

He/She/It ought to work

We/You/They ought to work

Negative
Its structure, in the negative form, is:
Subject + ought + not + to + verb + …

SUBJECT OUGHT TO + NOT VERB

I/You ought not to work

He/She/It ought not to work

We/You/They ought not to work

Short version of the negative form is: oughtn‘t.

Interrogative
Its structure, in the interrogative form, is:
Ought + subject + to + verb + …?
 166

MARK

OUGHT SUBJECT TO VERB QUESTION

Ought I/you to work …?

Ought he/she/it to work …?

Ought we/you/they to work …?

NOTE: Should or did is used in some places instead. To is not used in question tags.

Example
Affirmative:
 You ought to apologise.
 He ought to work out more.
 They ought to get the diploma soon.
Negative:
 He oughtn‘t to be wasting time.
 Smoking oughtn‘t to be allowed at school.
 They oughtn‘t to have said that to her.
Interrogative:
 Ought I to tell my parents?
 Ought you to be at school?
 Ought we to read the syllabus of the course?
 167

Use
We use ought to when:
 We indicate weaker obligation or duty;
 We give and ask for advice (recommendation).
Ought to can be considered not to be as strong as must.

Summary
The modal verb ought to expresses weaker obligation or advice. It can be considered to
not be as strong as must.
We can use it in its different forms:
 Affirmative: We start with the subject followed by ought to and the verb.
 Negative: We start with the subject followed by ought not to and the verb.
 Interrogative: We start with ought followed by the subject and to and the verb
(the sentence ends with a question mark).

For example:
 Affirmative: ―You ought to do your homework to understand the subject.‖
= Ought to is used to give a recommendation.
 Negative: ―You oughtn‘t to do your homework to understand the subject.‖
= Oughtn‘t is used to give a recommendation.
 Interrogative: ―Ought you to do your homework to understand the subject?‖
= Ought…? is used to ask for a confirmation of a recommendation.
♦ ―You must do your homework or you will fail the class.‖
= Must expresses a stronger obligation.
 168

SHOULD
Should is an auxiliary verb - a modal auxiliary verb. We use should mainly to:

 give advice or make recommendations

 talk about obligation
 talk about probability and expectation
 express the conditional mood
 replace a subjunctive structure
Structure of should
The basic structure for should is:

main verb

auxiliary verb
should

subject

Note that:
 The auxiliary verb should is invariable. There is only one form: should
 The main verb is usually in the base form (He should go).
 169

Look at the basic structure again, with positive, negative and question sentences:

auxiliary main verb

subject not
should base

work.
+ He should

auxiliary main verb

subject not
should base

go.
- You should not

help?
? Should we

Note that the main verb is sometimes in the form:

 have + past participle (He should have gone.)
 be + -ing (He should be going.)
The main verb can never be the to-infinitive. We cannot say: He should to go.
There is no short form for should, but we can shorten the negative should
not to shouldn't.

Use of should
should for advice, opinions
 170

We often use should when offering advice or opinions (similar to ought to):
 You should see the new James Bond movie. It's great!
 You should try to lose weight.
 John should get a haircut.
 He shouldn't smoke. And he should stop drinking too.
 What should I wear?
 They should make that illegal.
 There should be a law against that.
 People should worry more about global warming.
 should have games for past advice
 should games for present advice
 should games for future advice

People often say "They should...do sthg." Usually, the "they" is anonymous and
means the government, or the company, or somebody else - but not us! Here are
some examples:

o They should fix this road.

o They should have more staff in this shop.
o They should have abolished this tax years ago.
should for obligation, duty, correctness
Another use of should (also similar to ought to) is to indicate a kind of obligation,
duty or correctness, often when criticizing another person:
 You should be wearing your seat belt. (obligation)
 I should be at work now. (duty)
 171

 You shouldn't have said that to her. (correctness)

 He should have been more careful.
 Should you be driving so fast?
 should have games for past obligation
 should games for present obligation
should for probability, expectation
We use should to indicate that we think something is probable (we expect it to
happen):
 Are you ready? The train should be here soon.
 $10 is enough. It shouldn't cost more than that.
 Let's call Mary. She should have finished work by now.
 should have games for past probability
 should games for present probability
 should games for future probability
should for conditionals
We sometimes use should (instead of would) for the first person singular and
plural (I, we) of some conditionals:
 If I lost my job I should have no money.
(If he lost his job he would have no money.)
 We should be grateful if you could send us your latest catalogue.
This is not a very important distinction. (More about the use
of shall/will and should/would.)
should for If I were you I should...
We often use the conditional structure "If I were you I should..." to give advice.
 If I were you, I should complain to the manager.
 172

 If I were you, I shouldn't worry about it.

 I shouldn't say anything if I were you.
Note that we can omit "If I were you..." and just say:
 I should complain to the manager.
 I shouldn't worry about it.
 I shouldn't say anything.
In these cases, the phrase "I should" really means something like "you should".
should for pseudo subjunctive
We often use a special verb form called the subjunctive when talking about
events that somebody wants to happen, hopes will happen or imagines
happening, for example:
 The president insists that the prime minister attend the meeting.
However, this is much more common in American English. British English
speakers often convey the same idea using should:
 The president insists that the prime minister should attend the meeting.
Here are some more examples:

subjunctive using should

typically American English typically British English

The president is insisting that

The president is insisting that
pollution should be reduced.
pollution be reduced.
 173

The manager recommended that The manager recommended that

Mary join the company. Mary should join the company.

It is essential that we should decide

It is essential that we decide
today.
today.

It was necessary that everyone

It was necessary that everyone
should arrive on time.
arrive on time.

should for Why should..?

If we don't understand (or agree with) something, we may use Why should..?, like
this:
 Why should it be illegal to commit suicide? It's your life.
Why should..? and How should..? can also indicate anger or irritation:
 A: Help me with this. B: Why should I?
 A: Where are my keys? B: How should I know?
 174

WOULD
Would is an auxiliary verb - a modal auxiliary verb. We use would mainly to:

 talk about the past

 talk about the future in the past
 express the conditional mood

We also use would for other functions, such as:

 expressing desire, polite requests and questions, opinion or hope, wish and
regret

Structure of would
The basic structure for would is:

main verb

auxiliary verb
would

subject
 175

Note that:

 The auxiliary verb would is invariable. There is only one form: would
 The main verb is usually in the base form (He would go).
Look at the basic structure again, with positive, negative and question sentences:

auxiliary main verb

subject not
would base

tea.
+ I would like

auxiliary main verb

subject not
would base

- She would not go.

? Would you help?

Note that the main verb is sometimes in the form:

 have + past participle (He would have gone)

 be + -ing (He would be going)
 176

The main verb cannot be the to-infinitive. We cannot say: He would to like coffee.
Be careful! Note that would and had have the same short form 'd: He'd finished =
He had finished
He'd like coffee = He would like coffee

USE OF WOULD
would for the past
We often use would as a kind of past tense of will or going to:
 Even as a boy, he knew that he would succeed in life.
 I thought it would rain so I brought my umbrella.

Using would as as a kind of past tense of will or going to is common in reported

speech:
 She said that she would buy some eggs. ("I will buy some eggs.")
 The candidate said that he wouldn't increase taxes. ("I won't increase taxes.")
 Why didn't you bring your umbrella? I told you it would rain! ("It's going to rain.")
We often use would not to talk about past refusals:
 He wanted a divorce but his wife would not agree.
 Yesterday morning, the car wouldn't start.

We sometimes use would (rather like used to) when talking about habitual past
behaviour:
 Every weekday my father would come home from work at 6pm and watch TV.
 Every summer we'd go to the seaside.
 Sometimes she'd phone me in the middle of the night.
 177

 We would always argue. We could never agree.

would games for past habit
would for the future in past
When talking about the past we can use would to express something that has not
happened at the time we are talking about:
 In London she met the man that she would one day marry.
 He left 5 minutes late, unaware that the delay would save his life.
would for conditionals
We often use would to express the so-called second and third conditionals:
 If he lost his job he would have no money.
 If I had won the lottery I would have bought a car.

Using the same conditional structure, we often use would when giving advice:
 I wouldn't eat that if I were you.
 If I were in your place I'd refuse.
 If you asked me I would say you should go.

Sometimes the condition is "understood" and there does not have to be an "if"
clause:
 Someone who liked John would probably love John's father. (If someone liked
John they would probably love John's father.)
 You'd never know it. (for example: If you met him you would never know that he
was rich.)
 Why don't you invite Mary? I'm sure she'd come.
 178

Although there is always a main verb, sometimes it is understood (not stated) as

in:

o I'd like to stay. | I wish you would. (would stay)

o Do you think he'd come? | I'm sure he would. (would come)
o Who would help us? | John would. (would help us)
would for desire or inclination
 I'd love to live here.
 Would you like some coffee?
 What I'd really like is some tea.
would for polite requests and questions
 Would you open the door, please? (more polite than: Open the door, please.)
 Would you go with me? (more polite than: Will you go with me?)
 Would you know the answer? (more polite than: Do you know the answer?)
 What would the capital of Nigeria be? (more polite than: What is the capital of
Nigeria?)
would for opinion or hope
 I would imagine that they'll buy a new one.
 I suppose some people would call it torture.
 I would have to agree.
 I would expect him to come.
 Since you ask me I'd say the blue one is best.
would for wish
 I wish you would stay. (I really want you to stay. I hope you will stay.)
 They don't like me. I'm sure they wish I'd resign.
 179

Note that all of these uses of would express some kind of distance or remoteness:

o remoteness in time (past time)

o remoteness of possibility or probability
o remoteness between speakers (formality, politeness)
would for presumption or expectation
 That would be Jo calling. I'll answer it.
 We saw a police helicopter overhead yesterday morning. | Really? They would
have been looking for those bank robbers.
would for uncertainty
 He would seem to be getting better. (less certain than: He seems to be getting
better.)
 It would appear that I was wrong. (less certain than: It appears that I was wrong.)
would for derogatory comment
 They would say that, wouldn't they?
 John said he didn't steal the money. | Well, he would, wouldn't he?
would that for regret (poetic/rare)
This rare, poetic or literary use of would does not have the normal structure:
 Would that it were true! (If only it were true! We wish that it were true!)
 Would that his mother had lived to see him become president.
 180

MODALS IN THE PRESENT AND PAST

Modals in the present and past

Generally speaking modals in the past have the following form:
 modal + have + past participle
Example:
 Present:
You should see a doctor.
 Past:
You should have seen a doctor
Except for modals that express obligation, ability and lack of necessity:
 Obligation:
Present = I must / have to work hard. -- Past = I had to work hard.
 Ability:
Present = I can run fast. -- Past = I could run fast when I was young.
 Lack of necessity:
Present = You don't have to / needn't take your umbrella. -- Past = You didn't have to /
didn't need to take your umbrella.

Modals in the Present Modals in the Past

You must / have to stop when

Obligation You had to stop.
the traffic lights are red.

You should have seen a

Advice You should see a doctor.
doctor
 181

You mustn't have

Prohibition You mustn't smoke here.
smoked there.

I could run fast. now I am

Ability I can run fast.
old.

He must have been rich. He

He has a Rolls Royce.
had a big house and an
He must be very rich.
Certainty expensive car.
He can't be American. His English
He can't have written that
is terrible.
poem. He was illiterate.

She could drive her father's

Permission Can I go out?
car when she was only 15.

I guess it may / can / could

It may / can / could / might rain.
Possibility / might have been Lacy on
It's cloudy.
the phone.

You don't have to /

Lack of You didn't have to / didn't
needn't buy any tomatoes. There
necessity need to buy tomatoes.
are plenty in the fridge.
 182

CAPITALIZATION RULES

Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining
letters in lowercase. Experienced writers are stingy with capitals. It is best not to use
them if there is any doubt.

Rule 1. Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a period.
Rule 2. Capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns.

Examples:
the Golden Gate Bridge the Grand Canyon
a Russian song
a Shakespearean sonnet a Freudian slip

With the passage of time, some words originally derived from proper nouns have taken
on a life, and authority, of their own and no longer require capitalization.

Examples:
herculean (from the mythological hero Hercules) quixotic (from the hero of the classic
novel Don Quixote) draconian (from ancient-Athenian lawgiver Draco)

The main function of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within any
group of people, places, or things. We can speak of a lake in the middle of the country,
or we can be more specific and say Lake Michigan, which distinguishes it from every
other lake on earth.
 183

CAPITALIZATION REFERENCE LIST

 Brand names
 Companies
 Days of the week and months of the year
 Governmental matters
Congress (but congressional), the U.S.
Constitution (but constitutional), the Electoral College, Department of
Agriculture. Note: Many authorities do not
capitalize federal or state unless it is part of the official title: State Water
Resources Control Board, but state water board; Federal Communications
Commission, but federal regulations.
 Historical episodes and eras
the Inquisition, the American Revolutionary War, the Great Depression
 Holidays
 Institutions
Oxford College, the Juilliard School of Music
 Manmade structures
the Empire State Building, the Eiffel Tower, the Titanic
 Manmade territories
Berlin, Montana, Cook County
 Natural and manmade landmarks
Mount Everest, the Hoover Dam
 Nicknames and epithets
Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson; Babe Ruth, the Sultan of Swat
 184

 Organizations
American Center for Law and Justice, Norwegian Ministry of the Environment
 Planets
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, but policies vary on
capitalizing earth, and it is usually not capitalized unless it is being discussed
specifically as a planet: We learned that Earth travels through space at 66,700
miles per hour.
 Races, nationalities, and tribes
Eskimo, Navajo, East Indian, Caucasian, African American
 Religions and names of deities
Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the devil,
satanic.
 Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival
 Streets and roads

LOWERCASE REFERENCE LIST

Here is a list of categories not capitalized unless an item contains a proper noun
or proper adjective (or, sometimes, a trademark). In such cases, only the proper
noun or adjective is capitalized.

 Animals
antelope, black bear, Bengal tiger, yellow-bellied sapsucker, German shepherd
 Elements
 185

Always lowercase, even when the name is derived from a proper

noun: einsteinium, nobelium, californium
 Foods
Lowercase except for brand names, proper nouns and adjectives, or custom-
named recipes: Tabasco sauce, Russian dressing, pepper crusted bluefin tuna,
Mandy's Bluefin Surprise
 Heavenly bodies besides planets Never capitalize the moon or the sun.
 Medical conditions
Epstein-Barr syndrome, tuberculosis, Parkinson's disease
 Minerals
 Plants, vegetables, and fruits
poinsettia, Douglas fir, Jerusalem artichoke, organic celery, Golden Delicious
apples
 Seasons and seasonal data
spring, summertime, the winter solstice, the autumnal equinox, daylight saving
time
Rule 3. A thorny aspect of capitalization: where does it stop? When does the Iraq
war become the Iraq War? Why is the legendary Hope
Diamond not the Hope diamond? Everyone writes New York City, so why does
the Associated Press Stylebook recommend New York state? There aren't always
easy formulas or logical explanations. Research with reference books and search
engines is the best strategy.

In the case of brand names, companies are of little help, because they capitalize
any word that applies to their merchandise. Domino's
 186

Pizza or Domino's pizza? Is it Ivory Soap or Ivory soap, a Hilton Hotel or a Hilton
hotel? Most writers don't capitalize common nouns that simply describe the
products (pizza, soap, hotel), but it's not always easy to determine where a brand
name ends. There is Time magazine but also the New York Times Magazine. No
one would argue with Coca-
Cola or Pepsi Cola, but a case could be made for Royal Crown cola.

If a trademark starts with a lowercase word or letter (e.g., eBay, iPhone), many
authorities advise capitalizing it to begin a sentence.

Example: EBay opened strong in trading today.

Rule 4. Capitalize titles when they are used before names, unless the title is
followed by a comma. Do not capitalize the title if it is used after a name or
instead of a name.

Examples:
The president will address Congress.
Chairman of the Board William Bly will preside at the conference. The chairman of
the board, William Bly, will preside.
The senators from Iowa and Ohio are expected to attend.
Also expected to attend are Senators Buzz James and Eddie Twain. The
governors, lieutenant governors, and attorneys general called for a special task
force.
Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, and Attorney General
Dalloway will attend.
 187

NOTE
Out of respect, some writers and publishers choose to capitalize the highest ranks
in government, royalty, religion, etc.

Examples:
The President arrived.
The Queen spoke.
The Pope decreed.

Many American writers believe this to be a wrongheaded policy in a country

where, theoretically, all humans are perceived as equal.
Rule 5. Titles are not the same as occupations. Do not capitalize occupations
before full names.

Examples:
director Steven Spielberg owner Helen Smith coach Biff Sykes

Sometimes the line between title and occupation gets blurred. One example
is general manager: is it a title or an occupation? Opinions differ. Same
with professor: the Associated Press
Stylebook considers professor a job description rather than a title, and
recommends using lowercase even before the full name: professor Robert Ames.

However, titles replacing someone's first name are generally capitalized.

 188

Example: Here comes Professor Ames.

Rule 6a. Capitalize a formal title when it is used as a direct address. The more
formal the title, the more likely it is to be capitalized.

Examples:
Will you take my temperature, Doctor?
We're sorry to report, Captain, that we're headed for choppy waters.
That's what you say, mister. Good afternoon, sweetheart.
Rule 6b. Capitalize relatives' family names (kinship names) when they immediately
precede a personal name, or when they are used alone in place of a personal
name.

Examples:
I found out that Mom is here. You look good, Grandpa.
Andy and Opie loved Aunt Bee's apple pies.

However, these monikers are not capitalized when they are used with possessive
nouns or pronouns; when preceded by articles such as a, an, or the; when they
follow the personal name; or when they do not refer to a specific person.

Examples:
I found out that my mom is here. Joe's grandpa looks good.
He's the father of her first child.
The James brothers were notorious robbers. There's not one mother I know who
would allow that.
 189

Rule 6c. Capitalize nicknames in all cases.

Examples:
Meet my brothers, Junior and Scooter.
I just met two guys named Junior and Scooter.
Rule 7. Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the
compass.

Examples:
We had three relatives visit from the West. Go west three blocks and then turn
left.
We left Florida and drove north. We live in the Southeast.
We live in the southeast section of town.
Most of the West Coast is rainy this time of year. (referring to the United States)
The west coast of Scotland is rainy this time of year.

Some areas have come to be capitalized for their fame or notoriety:

Examples:
I'm from New York's Upper West Side. I'm from the South Side of Chicago.
You live in Northern California; he lives in Southern California.
Rule 8. In general, do not capitalize the word the before proper nouns.

Examples:
We visited the Grand Canyon.
 190

They're fans of the Grateful Dead.

In special cases, if the word the is an inseparable part of something's official title,
it may be capitalized.

Example: We visited The Hague.

Rule 9. It is not necessary to capitalize city, town, county, etc., if it comes before
the proper name.

Examples:
the city of New York New York City
the county of Marin Marin County
Rule 10a. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even
midsentence.

Example: Lamarr said, "The case is far from over, and we will win."
Rule 10b. Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.

Example: Lamarr said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will win."
Rule 11. For emphasis, writers sometimes capitalize a midsentence independent
clause or question.

Examples:
One of her cardinal rules was, Never betray a friend. It made me wonder, What is
mankind's destiny?
 191

Rule 12. Capitalize the names of specific course titles, but not general academic
subjects.

Examples:
I must take history and Algebra 101.
He has a double major in European economics and philosophy.
Rule 13. Capitalize art movements.

Example: I like Surrealism, but I never understood Abstract Expressionism.

Rule 14. Do not capitalize the first item in a list that follows a colon.

Example: Bring the following: paper, a pencil, and a snack.

For more on capitalization after a colon, go to "Colons," Rules 1, 3, and 4.

Rule 15. Do not capitalize "the national anthem."
Rule 16a. Composition titles: which words should be capitalized in titles of books,
plays, films, songs, poems, essays, chapters, etc.? This is a vexing matter, and
policies vary. The usual advice is to capitalize only the "important" words. But this
isn't really very helpful. Aren't all words in a title important?

The following rules for capitalizing composition titles are virtually universal.

 Capitalize the title's first and last word.

 Capitalize all adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.
 Capitalize all pronouns (including it).
 192

 Capitalize all verbs, including all forms of the state of being verbs
(am, is, are, was, will be, etc.).
 Capitalize no, not, and the interjection O (e.g., How Long Must I Wait, O Lord?).
 Do not capitalize an article (a, an, the) unless it is first or last in the title.
 Do not capitalize a coordinating
conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, yet, so) unless it is first or last in the title.
 Do not capitalize the word to, with or without an infinitive, unless it is first or last
in the title.

Otherwise, styles, methods, and opinions vary; for instance, certain short conjunctions
(e.g., as, if, how, that) are capped by some, lowercased by others.

A major bone of contention is prepositions. The Associated Press

Stylebook recommends capitalizing all prepositions of more than three letters
(e.g., with, about, across). Other authorities advise lowercase until a preposition reaches
five or more letters. Still others say not to capitalize any preposition, even big words
like regarding or underneath.

Hyphenated words in a title also present problems. There are no set rules, except to
always capitalize the first element, even if it would not otherwise be capitalized, such
as to in My To-go Order (some would write My To-Go Order). Some writers, editors,
and publishers choose not to capitalize words following hyphens unless they are
proper nouns or proper adjectives (Ex-Marine but Ex-husband). Others capitalize any
word that would otherwise be capped in titles (Prize-Winning, Up-to-Date).
 193

Rule 16b. Many books have subtitles. When including these, put a colon after the
work's title and follow the same rules of composition capitalization for the subtitle.

Example: The King's English: A Guide to Modern Usage

Note that A is capitalized because it is the first word of the subtitle.

Suppose you are reviewing a book whose title on the cover is in capital letters: THE
STUFF OF THOUGHT. Beneath, in smaller capital letters, is the subtitle, LANGUAGE AS A
WINDOW INTO HUMAN NATURE. All
sides would agree that the main title should be written, The Stuff of Thought. But
depending on which capitalization policy you choose, the subtitle might be any of the
following:

Language As a Window Into Human Nature Language as a Window Into Human Nature
Language As a Window into Human Nature Language as a Window into Human Nature

Any title of more than two words can be a challenge. How would you capitalize a title
such as not yet rich? Since the first and last word in any title are always capitalized, the
only question is whether to cap yet. In this case, yet is an adverb, and adverbs are
always capped. So make it Not Yet Rich.

Now suppose the title is rich yet miserable. This time yet is one of the seven
coordinating conjunctions (the others are and, or, nor, but, for, and so). Since
coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized in titles, the right answer is Rich yet
Miserable.
 194

Here are two correctly capitalized titles: Going up the Road and Going Up in a Balloon.
In the first title, up is a preposition, and short prepositions are not capitalized. In the
second title, Up is an adverb and should be capped.

Along the same lines, compare the following three titles: I Got It off the Internet, Please
Put It Off for Today, and I Hit the Off Switch. In the first example, the preposition off is
lowercase. But the word must be capped in the second example because put off,
meaning "to postpone," is a two-word phrasal verb (a verb of two or more words).
One-word verbs, helping verbs, and phrasal verbs are always capitalized. Off is also
capped in the third sentence because the word functions as an adjective in that title,
and adjectives are always capitalized.
Although the seven coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized, you may have
noticed there are many more than seven conjunctions in English.
Most of these are called subordinating conjunctions, because they join a subordinate
clause to a main clause. Familiar examples
include as, although, before, since, until, when.

There are three approaches to capping subordinating conjunctions: capitalize them all,
lowercase them all, or capitalize them if they are words of four letters or more. Take
your pick.

Capitalizing composition titles is fraught with gray areas. Pick a policy and be
consistent.
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