Concept of Stress

• The main objective of the study of mechanics

of materials is to provide the future engineer
with the means of analyzing and designing
various machines and load bearing structures.

• Both the analysis and design of a given

structure involve the determination of stresses
and deformations. This chapter is devoted to
the concept of stress.

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 Axial Loading: Normal Stress
• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• The force intensity on that section is defined as

the normal stress.
F P
  lim  ave 
A0 A A

• The normal stress at a particular point may not be

equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy
P   ave A   dF    dA
A

• The detailed distribution of stress is statically

indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
alone.
1-2
 Centric & Eccentric Loading
• A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.

• A uniform distribution of stress is only

possible if the concentrated loads on the end
sections of two-force members are applied at
the section centroids. This is referred to as
centric loading.

• If a two-force member is eccentrically loaded,

then the resultant of the stress distribution in a
section must yield an axial force and a
moment.

• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded

members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
1-3
 Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the
member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane
of section C and are called shearing forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the section
and is equal to the load P.
• The corresponding average shear stress is,
P
 ave 
A
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the
member surfaces to maximum values that may be
much larger than the average value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to
be uniform.
1-4
 Shearing Stress Examples
Single Shear Double Shear

P F P F
 ave    ave  
A A A 2A
1-5
 Bearing Stress in Connections
• Bolts, rivets, and pins create
stresses on the points of contact
or bearing surfaces of the
members they connect.

• The resultant of the force

distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin.

• Corresponding average force

intensity is called the bearing
stress,
P P
b  
A td

1-6
 Stress in Two Force Members
• Axial forces on a two force
member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• Transverse forces on bolts and

pins result in only shear stresses
on the plane perpendicular to bolt
or pin axis.

• Will show that either axial or

transverse forces may produce both
normal and shear stresses with respect
to a plane other than one cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

1-7
 Stress on an Oblique Plane
• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle q with the normal plane.

• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.

• Resolve P into components normal and

tangential to the oblique section,
F  P cosq V  P sin q

• The average normal and shear stresses on

the oblique plane are
F P cosq P
   cos2 q
Aq A0 A0
cosq
V P sin q P
   sin q cosq
Aq A0 A0
cosq
1-8
 Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
 cos2 q   sin q cosq
A0 A0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
P
m    0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
m  sin 45 cos 45   
A0 2 A0

1-9
 Stress Under General Loadings
• A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into
two segments by a plane passing
through Q

• The distribution of internal stress

components may be defined as,
F x
 x  lim
A0 A

V yx Vzx
 xy  lim  xz  lim
A0 A A0 A

• For equilibrium, an equal and

opposite internal force and stress
distribution must be exerted on
the other segment of the member.
1 - 10
 State of Stress
• Stress components are defined for the planes
cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
• The combination of forces generated by the
stresses must satisfy the conditions for
equilibrium:
 Fx   Fy   Fz  0
Mx  My  Mz  0
• Consider the moments about the z axis:
 M z  0   xy Aa   yxAa
 xy   yx
similarly,  yz   zy and  yz   zy

• It follows that only 6 components of stress are

required to define the complete state of stress
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 Factor of Safety
Structural members or machines Factor of safety considerations:
must be designed such that the • uncertainty in material properties
working stresses are less than • uncertainty of loadings
the ultimate strength of the
• uncertainty of analyses
material.
• number of loading cycles
FS  Factor of safety
• types of failure
u ultimate stress
FS   • maintenance requirements and
 all allowable stress
deterioration effects
• importance of member to structures
integrity
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function

1 - 12
 Elastic anisotropy
• Elastic anisotropy occurs when the relationship between stress and
strain in a material depends on its orientation
• Rotate an applied stress, and the strain response will differ
• An anisotropic material has physical properties that depend on
direction, whereas a heterogeneous material has properties that
depend on location
• All single crystals and single crystal materials are anisotropic
• Crystal anisotropy means that easy axis and plane magnetization
requires relatively less amount of work
• Young's modulus is stress state-dependent, becoming more
anisotropic as the stress state becomes more anisotropic

1 - 13
 Visco-elasticity
• Important properties of materials used in manufacturing
and processing:
– Viscosity
– Viscoelasticity

14
 Viscosity
Fluid property that relates shear stress to shear
rate during flow.
Shear stress=viscosity times shear rate
  
• Due to its high molecular weight, a polymer melt is a thick
fluid with high viscosity.
Most polymer shaping processes involve flow
through small channels or die openings.
– Flow rates are often large, leading to high shear
Ketchup, a highly rates and shear stresses, so significant pressures
viscoelastic fluid (like are required to accomplish the processes.
the polymer melt)

15
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids

Newtonian Material: Viscosity changes by

temperature, not by time or shear rate). Examples: Air,
water, honey, glycerine, Kerosene.

Non-Newtonian Material: Viscosity changes by

temperature, time and shear rate). Examples: Polymer
melt, ketchup, custard, toothpaste, starch
suspensions, paint, shampoo, cream, etc.

16
 Viscosity and Temperature
• Viscosity decreases with temperature, thus the fluid becomes
thinner at higher temperatures

Temperature Viscosity

Figure 13.2 Viscosity as a function of temperature for selected polymers at a shear rate
of 103 s-1.

17
 Viscosity and Shear Rate
•Viscosity of a polymer melt
Shear rate Viscosity
“usually” decreases with shear
rate, thus the fluid becomes
thinner at higher shear rates.

•Figure 13.1 Viscosity relationships for

Newtonian fluid and typical polymer melt.

18
Effect of various parameters on viscosity

Parameter Newtonian fluid Non-Newtonian fluid

Temperature  
Shear rate  no change  or

Time  no change  or

19
 Viscoelastic Behavior
• Material property that determines the strain
that the material experiences when subjected
to combinations of stress and temperature
over time
 Combination of viscosity and elasticity

20
 Elastic versus Viscous Behavior
Viscous Material
All energy added is dissipated into heat.
Examples:
Silicon Oil
Water

Elastic Material
All energy added is stored in the material
Example:
Rubber

21
 Viscoelasticity
• Combination of viscosity and elasticity.

• Examples: Shampoo, hand cream, mayonnaise,

toothpaste, yoghurt.

• Temperature, time and shear rate are important

and affect the properties of viscoelastic materials
(here the polymer melts).
• Example: die swell in extrusion, in which the hot
plastic expands when exiting the die opening.

22
 Viscoelastic Material
Viscoelastic Material:
Exhibits both viscous and elastic
material properties. Deformation of the
material is dependant of the strain rate.
Polymer pellets
Examples:
Paint, polymer melt, bread dough, soft
tissue, shampoo, toothpaste,
mayonnaise, etc.

23
 Rheology

The study of the deformation and flow associated with

physical properties of fluids.

Rheometry is concerned with experimental characterization

of non-Newtonian fluids in the construction of constitutive
equations which are fundamental to analytical
considerations of the more practical situations.
 Applications
Rheology is important and its applications spanning a range of
disciplines. The specific application areas are:
• Polymer Industries,
• Surface Coatings Industries,
• Food Industries,
• Manufacturing & Industrial Applications (eg pumping, mixing,
extrusion, pouring and filling).
 Rheological Effects

• Die swell can be

most easily Die Swell
measured for a
circular cross
section by means
of the swell ratio,
defined as
 Rheological Effects
 A problem in extrusion of polymers is die swell, in which the profile of
extruded material grows in size, reflecting its tendency to return to its
previously larger cross section in the extruder barrel immediately
before being squeezed through the smaller die opening

 Shape memory: Extruded

polymer "remembers" its
previous shape when in
the larger cross section of
the extruder, tries to
return to it after leaving
the die orifice.

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