This Study Guide Is Better Than The Textbook

James Stewart’s Father

May 15, 2023

1 Calculus I Review
1.1 Limits
LIMIT LAWS ON A BUDGET
1. limx→∞ f (x) ± g(x) = limx→∞ f (x) ± limx→∞ g(x)

2. limx→∞ f (x) · g(x) = limx→∞ f (x) · limx→∞ g(x) (works for constants)

3. limx→∞ [f (x)]n = [limx→∞ f (x)]n for n ∈ Z

If f (x) ≥ g(x), limx→∞ f (x) ≥ limx→∞ g(x)

RAT ION ALIZIN G T HE N UMERAT OR :

√
Find limx→0 t2 +9−3
t2

√ 2
Multiply the fraction by to get = This is obviously = 6.
2
√t +9−3 √ t √ 1
. 1
t2 +9−3 t2 ( t2 +9−3) t2 +9−3 3+3

SQUEEZE T HEOREM : If f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ h(x) and limx→∞ f (x) = limx→∞ h(x) = L, then limx→∞ g(x) = L as well.

sin(x)
Find limx→∞ x

Notice that −1 ≤ sin(x) ≤ 1. Because x approaches ∞, we can assume x > 0, so −1

x ≤ sin(x) ≤ x1 . These two
expressions both converge to 0, so by the squeeze theorem, limx→∞ sin(x)
x = 0.

IN T ERMEDIAT E VALUE T HEOREM : If f is continuous on [a,b] and N is between f(a) and f(b) then there exists
c ∈ (a, b) = N

Is there a number that is 1 more than its cube?

Let the number be x. Set up the equation x = x3 + 1 so that x3 − x + 1 = 0. Then apply the IVT on the
interval (-1, 1) which gives some c between (-1, 1) such that c3 − c + 1 = 0.

If limx→a g(x) = b, and f(x) is continuous at b, then limx→a f (g(x)) = f (b). In other words, limx→a f (g(x)) = f (limx→a g(x)).

L’HOSPITAL’S RULE: For indeterminate limits:

′
f (x)→0 or ∞ f (x)
limx→a g(x)→0 or ∞ = limx→a g ′ (x)

1
For indeterminate products, write it as a quotient.

limx→9 sin(x) ln(x)

A: Notice that this equals limx→∞ 1

x
. This is an indeterminate form of ∞
∞ so we apply LH to get
tan(1/x)
2
limx→∞ x
1
csc2 ( x )
and we apply LH again to get

For indeterminate differences, write it as a quotient.

limx→0 csc(x) − cot(x)

cos(x) 1−cos(x) sin(x)

Notice how csc(x) − cot(x) = 1
sin(x) − sin(x) = sin(x) . From here we can apply LH to get cos(x) whose limit
is clearly 0.

limx→1+ ln(x7 − 1) − ln(x5 − 1)

7
x7 −1
By logarithmic rules, ln(x7 − 1) − ln(x5 − 1) = ln( xx5 −1
−1 ). As x approaches 1 from the right, x5 −1 becomes with
6
LH, 7x
5x4 . The limit is clearly 7
5, so our answer is ln( 75 ).

limx→0 cot(x) − 1
x

−x sin(x) − sin(x)−x cos(x)

We can rewrite as x cos(x)−sin(x)
x sin(x) and apply LH to get sin(x)+x cos(x) . Differentiating again, we get 2 cos(x)−x sin(x)
which has a limit of 20 = 0.

For indeterminate powers, say limx→a f (x)g(x) is of the form 00 , ∞∞ , or 1∞ . Then write y = f (x)g(x) so that ln(y) =
g(x) ln(f (x)). Thus we have limx→a y = limx→a eg(x) ln(f (x)) .

√
limx→0+ x x

√ √ √
x
Take the ln: limx→0+ ln(x) x. Next rewrite: ln(−x) and apply LH twice: x
√
2 x
→ x. Clearly the limit here is
0 so our answer is e0 = 1.

2
1.2 Graphing, Continuity, and Differentiability
DIFFEREN T IABILIT Y :

A function is usually not differentiable if there is a:

• corner or kink (limits disagree)

• discontinuity or vertical tangent line

CON T IN UIT Y :

Types of discontinuities:

• Removable Discontinuity: A single extraneous point.

• Jump Discontinuity: When the limits from both directions on a point disagree.

• Infinite Discontinuity: A vertical asymptote.

- operations with continuous functions are continuous functions as well (including nesting)

- all polynomials are continuous over R

- rational, exp, trig, log, and root functions continuous over their domain

- absolute max/min at c means f (c) ≥ / ≤ f (x) for all x

- local max/min at c means that when x is near c, f (c) ≥ / ≤ f (x)

-State intervals of continuity from a graph or function; identify discontinuities

GRAPH AN ALYSIS :

′
CRIT ICAL N UMBER : c ∈ DOMAIN is a critical number when f c = 0 or DN E. Note: The converse is not true, for
instance, take the graph of x3 has a horizontal tangent at (0,0) which is clearly not a local extremum.

CLOSED IN T ERVAL MET HOD : to find abs. max/mins on [a,b]:

1. Find y-values of critical numbers on (a,b)

2. Find y-values of endpoints a and b

3. Select the largest and smallest from each list, giving the absolute max/min of f.
′
FIRST DERIVAT IVE T EST FOR LOCAL EX T REMA : If f (x) exists and changes from positive to negative, there
is a local maximum. If it changes from negative to positive, there is a local minimum. If it doesn’t change sign, there are no
local extrema.

FIRST DERIVAT IVE T EST FOR ABSOLU T E EX T REMA : Let c be a critical number of a continuous function f. If
′ ′ ′
f (x) > 0 for all x < c and f (x) < 0 for all x > c then f(c) is the absolute maximum value of f. Conversely, if f (x) < 0 for
′
all x < c and f (x) > 0 for all x > c then f(c) is the absolute minimum value of f. Often it helps to make a sign chart.

CON CAVIT Y : A function above all its tangents is called concave upwards; a function below all its tangents is called concave
downwards.
′′ ′′
CON CAVIT Y T EST : If f (x) > 0 for x ∈ l then f(x) is concave upwards on l. If f (x) < 0 for x ∈ l then f(x) is concave
downwards on l.

3
IN FLECT ION POIN T : A point where the concavity of a function changes.
′′ ′ ′′
SECON D DERIVAT IVE T EST : say f (x) is continuous near c. If f (x) = 0 and f (x) > 0 then there is a local min at
′ ′′
c. f (x) = 0 and f (x) < 0 then there is a local max at c.

GRAPHIN G FUN CT ION S

1. Determine the Domain and Range

2. Find the x and y intercepts

3. Evaluate the symmetry

4. Find the asymptotes

5. Find the intervals of increase/decrease

6. Find the concavity

7. Locate local extrema

8. Brute force, input x or y values.

4
 2x2
Use the guidelines to sketch y = x2 −1 .

The domain is x2 ̸= −1, 1. The range is e

The x-intercepts are: (0,0). The y-intercepts are: (0,0).
There is symmetry about the y-axis because f (−x) = f (x).
The horizontal asymptotes are: y=2. The vertical asymptotes are: x=-1, 1.
2 −1)2 . Thus, the intervals of increase are (−∞, 0) and decrease
By the quotient rule, the first derivative is (x−4x
(0, ∞).
12x2 +4
The second derivative is (x 2 −1)3 . Thus, the intervals of concavity up are (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞) and concavity

down is (−1, 1).

The only local maxima is at (0, 0) by the first derivative test.
We draw the following graph:

(1)

-Sketch Graphs given information

5
Given the following conditions:
′ ′ ′
f (0) = 0, f (−2) = f (1) = f (9) = 0,
limx→∞ f (x) = 0, limx→6 f (x) = −∞,
f ′ (x) < 0on(−∞, −2), (1, 6) and (9, ∞)
f ′ (x) > 0on(−2, 1) and (6, 9)
f ′′ (x) > 0on(−∞, 0), and (12, ∞)
f ′′ (x) < 0on(0, 6) and (6, 12)

We start by plotting (0, 0) and noting that the function has horizontal tangents at −2, 1, and 9 that may
be local extrema. We also know a horizontal asymptote at y=0 and a vertical asymptote at x=6. Next, the
function is decreasing on (−∞, −2), (1, 6), and (9, ∞), and increases on (-2,1) and (6,9). The derivative changes
sign at points -2 (to +), 1 (to -), 6 (to +), and 9 (to -). It is concave up on (−∞, 0), and (12, ∞) and concave
down on (0,6) and (6,12). Hence, the inflection points are x=0 and 12.
We first mark the intervals of increase/decrease, and concavity, and determine whether our local extrema are
maximum or minimums using the first or second derivative tests. We get that -2 is a minimum, 1 is a maximum,
9 is a maximum, and 6 may be an asymptote. Then we conclude that the maximum at 9 is above the x-axis
because it is decreasing and has a horizontal asymptote at the x-axis. With these conclusions, we draw the
following graph:

(2)

6
1.3 Understanding Derivatives
-Know power rule, constant multiple rule, sum/difference rule, product rule, quotient rule, chain rule (also in Leibniz notation),
power rule derived from chain rule

-Know how to find equation of tangent at a point on a graph

-Know implicit differentiation and application of chain rule

-Know logarithmic differentiation of equations: ln of both sides, simplifying according to log rules, implicit differentiation
with respect to x, substituting for y, and solving for y’.

√
x3/4 x2 +1
Differentiate y = (3x+2)5

We take the natural logarithm of both sides. After simplifying with log rules: ln(y) = 34 ln(x) + 21 ln(x2 + 1) −
5 ln(3x + 2). Next, we differentiate implicitly with respect to x, giving y1 dx
dy
= 4x
3
+ 2x2x
2 +2 − 3x+2 . Solving for
15
√
x3/4 x2 +1
y ′ , we have y( 4x
3
+ x
x2 +1 − 3x+2 ).
15
Here we can substitute back for y = (3x+2)5 .

Linearization for approximation of value near a: L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)

√
a) Linearize the function x √
+ 3 at a = 1.
b) Approximate the value of 4.05.

a) The derivative of the function is 2√x+3

1
. Plugging in, we get 7
4 + x4 . (when x is near 1)
b) Inputting x = 1.05, we get 2.0125.

USEFUL DERIVAT IVES

dx a = a ln a
d x x

dx loga x = x ln a
d 1

dx a = a ln a
d x x

dx tan(x) = sec (x)

d 2

dx csc(x) = − csc(x) cot(x)

d

dx sec(x) = sec(x) tan(x)

d

dx cot(x) = − csc (x)

d 2

dx sin (x) = √1−x2

d −1 1

dx cos (x) = √1−x

d −1 −1
2
d
dx tan −1
(x) = 1
1+x2
d
dx csc −1
(x) = √1
|x| x2 −1

dx sec (x) = |x|√1x2 −1

d −1

dx cot (x) = 1+x

d −1 −1
2

7
1.4 Related Rates
1. Define variables and known and unknown derivatives

2. Use the chain rule to find a more accessible unknown

3. Write one variable in terms of the other and find the derivative

4. Substitute and solve

The volume of a sphere increases at 100 cm2 /s. Find the instantaneous rate of radius increase when r = 25.

Let V be the volume and r be the radius. Then dV dt = 100. We must solve for dt . Notice that by the chain rule,
dr

dt = dr · dt . By the Volume formula for a sphere, V = 3 πr . Differentiating, we have dr = 3 π3r = 4r .

dV dV dr 4 3 dV 4 2 2

Inputting our given value for dt : 100 = 4r · dt and inputting r = 25, dt = 25 .

dV 2 dr dr 1

1.5 Optimization
STEPS OF OPTIMIZATION:

1. Define equations for what you know and don’t know

2. Substitute down to one equation, one variable: take derivative

3. Verify if the derivative is a local max/min

A farmer has 2400 ft of fencing and wants to fence off a rectangular field that borders a straight river. He needs no
fence along the river. What are the dimensions of the field that has the largest area?

Let w and l be the dimensions, where w is parallel to the river. Ideally, we use all the fencing, so we have the
equation w + 2l = 2400. Thus we must maximize l(2400 − 2l) which has derivative 2400 − 4l. The expression
equals 0 at l = 600. The dimensions should be 600 x 1200.

A cylindrical can is to be made to hold 1 L of oil. Find the dimensions that will minimize the cost of the metal to
manufacture the can.

Let r be the radius and h be the height. The surface of a cylinder is 2πr2 +2πrh and the volume is πr2 h = 1000
because 1 L = 1000 cm3 . Thus we have to minimize 2πr2 + 2πr ∗ 1000 πr 2 = 2πr + r . The derivative of this is
2 2000
q q
4πr + −2000
r2 = 0 so 4πr3 = 2000 and r = 3 500pi and h = 2
3 500
pi .

8
1.6 FTC and Integration Basics
FTC: Not even gonna bother to write it.. if you forgot this smh

Easily forgettable integral identities:

Rb Rc Rc
a
f (x)dx + b
f (x)dx = a
f (x)dx
Rb
If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M on [a, b] then m(b − a) ≤ a
f (x)dx ≤ M (b − a)

-know u-substitution and don’t forget to change the bounds on definite integrals

1.7 Stuff you should know just because

-domain, range of trig functions:

(3)

9
 (4)

-log rules:

(5)

-trig identities and formulas gigachad sheet:

(6)

10
-integral of 1/x = ln—x— (don’t forget abs value sings)

-NEVER FORGET THE +C IF YOU DONT ALREADY HAVE TRAUMA FROM THIS SMH

11
2 Calculus II
2.1 Techniques of integration/improper integrals
Rb
f (x)dx
Average value of a function f over [a, b] : a
b−a

Rb Rb
INTEGRATION BY PARTS: f (x)g ′ (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − g(x)f ′ (x)dx or f (x)g ′ (x)dx = f (x)g(x)]ba − g(x)f ′ (x)dx
R R
a a

Find arcsin(3x)dx
R

Let u = arcsin(3x) and dv = dx. Then we have v = x and du = √1−9x 3

2
dx. Now by IBP, x arcsin(3x) −
3x
dx. Use u-substitution, but we already used u so we will use s: s = 1 − 9x2 and ds = −18xdx. Thus we
R
√
1−9x2 √
√
have √1−9x dx = − 16 √ dx. The integral of the integral is 2 s. Thus our answer is x arcsin(3x)− 1−9x +C
R 3x
R ds 2
2 s 3

TABULAR INTEGRATION:

(7)

TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRATION:

12
Expression Substitution Identity

Z
sinm (x) cos2k+1 (x)dx u = sin x, du = cos x 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ

Z
sin2k+1 (x) cosn (x)dx u = cos x, du = − sin x 1 − cos2 θ = sin2 θ

1 − cos(2x)
Z
sin2k (x) cos2p (x)dx sin2 (x) = , repeated use of half-angle ids
2
1 + cos(2x)
cos2 (x) = ,
2
sin(2x)
sin(x) cos(x) =
2

Z
tan2k+1 (x) secn (x)dx u = tan x, du = sec2 x 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ

Z
tanm (x) sec2k (x)dx u = sec x, du = − sec x tan x sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ

sin(A − B) + sin(A + B)
sin A cos B =
2
cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)
sin A sin B =
2
cos(A − B) + cos(A + B)
cos A cos B =
2

TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION:

Expression Substitution Identity

p
a2 − x2 −π π
x = a sin θ, ≤θ≤ 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ
2 2

p
a2 + x2 −π π
x = a tan θ, <θ< 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ
2 2

p
x2 − a2 π
x = a sec θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ
2

13
 Find x
R
√
3−2x−x2

First, we complete the square: √Next, we take u = x + 1 so that we have √u−1

x
. From here
R R
. 4−u2
4−(x+1)2
√
we substituteR u = 2 sin θ, giving du R = 2 cos θdθso 4 − u = 2 cos θ. Notice how the differential is ”inversely”
2
√
substituted: θ 2 cos θdθ =
2 sin θ−1
2 sin θ − 1dθ = −2 cos θ − θ + C. Substituting back in, −2 cos θ = − 4 − u2
2 cos √
and θ = arcsin u2 + C. Subtituting back for u, we get − 3 − 2x − x2 − arcsin x+1 + C.



2

-Know PARTIAL FRACTION DECOMPOSITION

IN T EGRAT ION F ORMU LAS

x
ax dx = ln(a)
a
+C
R

tan(x)dx = ln| sec(x)|+C

R

sec(x)dx = ln| sec(x) + tan(x)|+C

R

csc(x)dx = ln| csc(x) − cot(x)|+C

R

cot(x)dx = ln| sin(x)|+C

R

x2 +a2 = a arctan a + C
dx 1 x
R

√ dx = sin−1 ( xa ) + C, a > 0
R
a2 −x2

x2 −a2 = 2a ln| x+a√

dx 1 x−a
R
|+C
dx
= ln|
R
√
x2 ±a2
x ± x2 ± a2 |+C

IMPROPER INTEGRALS:

Case 1: Infinite intervals

R∞ Rt
a
f (x)dx = limt→∞ a
f (x)dx and vice versa with −∞.

R∞
Find √
4 √1
2 x x4 −1

√ 3 R∞
Substitute u = x4 − 1. Then du = √2x
x4 −1
dx. Our new bounds are 1 and ∞. Inputting, we get 1
du
2(u2 +1) =
−
tan 1(x) ∞ tan− 1(t)−tan− 1(1)
2 ]1 . This is equal to limt→∞ 2 . Observe that limt→∞ tan− 1(t) = pi
2

Case 2: Discontinuities
Rb Rt
a
f (x)dx = limt→b− a
f (x)dx and vice versa with t → a+ .

R3
Find dx
0 x−1

R t dx R 3 dx Rt
Observe the discontinuity at x = 1, so we have limt→1− 0 x−1 + limt→1+ t x−1 . However, limt→1− 0 dx
x−1 =
limt→1− ln|t − 1| − ln|−1| = limt→1− ln|1 − t| = −∞. Thus the integral does not exist.

COMPARISON THEOREM:

Let f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 for all x ≥ a.

R∞ R∞
If a
f (x)dx is convergent, a
g(x)dx is convergent.
R∞ R∞
If a
g(x)dx is divergent, a
f (x)dx is divergent.

14
2.2 Lengths, Areas, and Volumes
Rbp
The arc length of f from a to b is L = a
1 + [f ′ (x)]2 dx.
Rb
The area between the curves f (x) and g(x) from x = a to b is A(x) = a
|f (x) − g(x)|dx. When no bounds are given, one
must calculate the intersection points between the two functions.

Find the region enclosed by the line y=x-1 and the parabola y 2 = 2x + 6.

2
Notice that we have to differentiate with respect to y. Reordering both equations: x = y + 1 and x = y 2−6 .
Solving 2y + 2 = y 2 − 6 ← y 2 − 2y − 8 = 0 has solutions 4 and −2, so the two graphs intersect at y=4 and
2
y=-2. Now we have the bounds. We hypothesize that y + 1 > y 2−6 . Verifying, 0 > (y − 4)(y + 2). Sure enough,
2 2 3
y2
R4 R4
this is true for y between -2 and 4. Going on: −2 y + 1 − y 2−6 dy = −2 y + 4 − y2 dy = −y
6 + 2 + 4y]−2 = 18.
4

SURFACE AREA: surface area of a solid of revolution obtained by rotating f(x) about the x-axis from x=a to x=b is
Rb
S = a 2πf (x) 1 + [f ′ (x)]2 dx
p

Rb
DISKS VOLUME: volume of a solid between x=a and x=b with A(x) as the perpendicular cross-sectional area: a
A(x)dx.

1. Calculate the intersection points if applicable. Solve for the variable of respect based on the axis of reflection.

2. Calculate the outer radius and inner radius (or the function that defines the cross section’s side)

3. Take the definite integral (use intersection points) of A = π(outer radius)2 − π(inner radius)2 with respect to the proper
variable.

√
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the x-axis the region under the curve y = x from 0 to 1.

We must express the perpendicular cross-sectional area

R 1 as a1function of x. Namely, at some x this area is a
√ 2
circle with radius x so A(x) = xπ. Thus, we have 0 xπ = 2 π = 2 .π

The region R enclosed by the curves y=x and y=x2 is rotated about the line x = −1. Find the volume of the resulting
solid.

The two graphs intersect at (0,0) and (1,1). Because x=-1 is parallel to the y-axis, we differentiate with respect
√ √
to y. We solve for x in each equation: x=y, and x = y. Thus, the outer radius will be 1 + y and inner
√ 2
radius 1 + y. Thus our area is π(1 + y) − π(1 + y)2 = π(2 (y) − y − y 2 ). Taking the integral from 0 to 1,
p

our answer is pi
2.

Rb
SHELLS METHOD: from x = a to b, the volume of the solid obtained by rotating f(x) about the y axis is V = a
2πxf (x)dx.
For variants, replace x with the radius or f (x) with the height.

Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the y-axis the region bounded by y = 2x2 − x3 and y = 0.

R2
Notice that the intersection points are at x=0 and x=2, and our height is 2x2 − x3 . Thus we have 0
2πx(2x2 −
x3 )dx = 16
5 π

15
 Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the y-axis the region bounded by y = x − x2 and y = 0 about
the line x = 2.

Notice that the intersection points are at x=0 and x=1, our height is x − x2 , and our radius is 2-x (make sure
R1
to get the order of subtraction right: x is always smaller than 2). Thus we have 0 2π(2 − x)(x − x2 )dx = pi 2

2.3 Differential Equations

-Euler’s Method for the initial value problem y ′ = F (x, y) with step size h so that xn = xn−1 + h :

yn ≈ yn−1 + hF (xn−1 , yn−1 ) for n = 1, 2, 3...

NATURAL GROWTH: dy
dt = ky

Derive the solutions to the Law of Natural Growth.

First, establish separable equations: divide by y and multiply by dt, getting dy

y = kdt. Then integrate, getting
ln|y| = kt + C. Next, raise both sides to the power e, so y = e e . Input t = 0 to get y(0) = eC . Thus the
C kt

solutions are y = y(0)ekt .

Solutions: y(t) = y(0)ekt

GENERAL APPLICATIONS

• Population growth: dP
dt = kP

• Radioactive Decay: dm
dt = km

• Newton’s Law of Cooling: dy

dt = ky for y = T − Ts .

• Continuously Compounded Interest: A(t) = A0 ert .

A roast turkey is taken from an oven when its temperature has reached 185F and is placed on a table in a room where
the temperature is 75F.
a) If the temperature of the turkey is 150F after half an hour, what is the temperature after 45 minutes?
b) When will the turkey have cooled to 100F?

First, we define the variables. Ts = 75 so y(0) = 185 − 75 = 110.

ln 15/22
a) We have the following equation: 75 = 110ek∗30 . Solving for k, we have k = 30 . We then input it into
ln 15/22
the expression 110e which evaluates to 61.93. Adding 75, we have 136.93F.
30 ·45
ln 15/22 ln 15/22
15 t/30
b) Using k = 30 , we must solve the equation 25 = 110e 30 t . Simplifying, we have 5
22 = 22 . This
corresponds to the time t = 116.05 minutes.

A sample of tritium-3 decayed to 94.5% of its original amount after a year. What is its half-life?

Let us define m as the mass remaining out of 100 mg. Then we have the equation y(1) = 94.5 = 100ek so
k = ln(0.945). Its half-life is t years: 1/2 = 0.945t so t ≈ 12.25.

-Solve Separable Equations

16
ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORIES:

1. Implicitly differentiate; reverse dy

dx to − dx
dy

2. Solve for the constant in terms of x and y; input back in.

3. Apply separable equations and integrate, getting the answer.

Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves x = ky 2

Implicit differentiation with respect to x gives 1 = k2y dx

dy
, which is simplified into dy
dx = 1
2ky . Since k = x
y2 We
2 2
must have −dx
dy = y
2x , so −2xdx = ydy. Integrating, −x + C = 2 y
2 so y
2 + x = C.
2

MIXING PROBLEMS *gonna be emphasized so don’t cry your eyes off about this before reading my amazing study guide*

1. Define variables for the unknown. State what you know and what you want to find. State the concentration of the
substance, which will define the rate out.

2. Find the derivative of the function, which is (rate in) - (rate out). Calculate each of these– units cancel in the same way
differentials do: with multiplication.

3. Subtract to get the differential equation for the derivative and solve it with separable equations and integration.

4. Being mindful of the signs of your terms (in case there are absolute values), input the t value that corresponds to the
unknown. The result is the solution.

A tank contains 20kg of salt dissolved in 5000L of water. Brine that contains 0.03kg of salt per liter of water enters
the tank at a rate of 25L/min. The solution is kept thoroughly mixed and drains from the tank at the same rate.
How much salt remains in the tank after half an hour?

Let y(t) be the amount of kg of salt after t minutes. We know that y(0) = 20 and we want to find y(30).
First, we note that dydt = (rate in) - (rate out). Calculating the rate in (kg/min), we have 0.03 kg/L * 25
y(t)
L/min = 0.75 kg/min. Before calculating the rate out, we calculate the concentration, which is 5000 . Next
y(t)
we calculate the rate out (kg/min): 5000 kg/L ∗ 25L/min = y(t)
200 . Subtracting, we get dy
dt = 150−y(t)
200 . Solve the
separable differential equation to obtain 150−y = 200 which has solutions − ln|150 − y| = 200 + C. Next
R dy R dt t

input y(0) = 20 which causes C = − ln(130). Thus, we have |150 − y| = 130e−t/200 . Inputting t=30, we get
approximately 38.1 kg.

LOGISTIC MODEL: dP
= kP 1 − P
where P is the population, k is the growth rate, and M is the carrying capacity.


dt M

SOLUTIONS: P (t) = M
1+Ae−kt
for A = M −P0
P0

INFECTION POINTS: P = M
2

-EQUILIBRIUM SOLUTIONS TO ANY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION: Occur at dy

dt = 0.

17
2.4 Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates
Parametric Equations defined by x=f(t), y=g(t)

√
Write x = t, y = ln t as a Cartesian equation.

Notice that x2 = t so ln(x2 ) = ln(t) = y. Thus our answer is y = ln(x2 ).

How many times does (sin(2t), cos(2t)) with 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π cycle?

By the Pythagorean identity, x2 + y 2 = 1. Thus the graph is a circle. The points (sin(2(t + pi)), cos(2(t + pi)))
coincide with the points (sin(2t), cos(2t)). Thus the answer is 2.

A cycloid is a curve traced out by a point of a circle that rolls on the x-axis. Its equation is (r(θ − sin(θ)), r(1 − cos(θ)))
where θ is the variable angle of rotation and r is the constant radius.
dy
The first derivative of a parametric equation dy
dx = dt
dx .
dt

d dy
d2 y
The second derivative of a parametric equation dx2 = dt dx
dx .
dt

√
Find the points of inflection and intervals of concavity of the parametric equation x = 3
t, y = t + 3.

2 1
First, we find the first derivative, which is equal to 3t 3 The derivative of this is 2t− 3 . Next, we input into the
1 1
formula, getting 6t 3 . The graph is concave up when 6t 3 > 0, so the graph is concave up on t > 0 or x > 0.
The graph is concave down on t < 0 or x < 0. The inflection point is (0, 3).

 
Note: The equation for a parametric derivative is x, dx
dy
.

RB
AREA UNDER PARAMETRIC CURVE: from a ≤ t ≤ B for (f (t), g(t)) : a
g(t)f ′ (t)dt

RBq
ARC LENGTH OF PARAMETRIC CURVE: between t = a and B : a dt ) + ( dt ) dt
( dx 2 dy 2

RBq
SURFACE AREA OF PARAMETRIC CURVE: when rotated about x-axis, between t = a and B : 2πy a dt ) + ( dt ) dt
( dx 2 dy 2

VOLUME OF PARAMETRIC CURVE: I don’t think this will be on test, but can be derived intuitively with cylinders:
Rb
π a y 2 (t)x′ (t)dt around the x-axis, vice versa with y-axis.

18
SPEED AND MOTION WITH PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS:

(8)

19
 POLAR COORDIN AT ES :

POLAR TO CARTESIAN: (r, θ) → (r cos(θ), r sin(θ)) CARTESIAN TO POLAR: (x, y) → ( x2 + y 2 , arctan( xy ))

p

Find the Cartesian equation of r = 2 cos(θ).

It’s possible to input r = x2 + y 2 and θ = arctan( xy ) but the question can also be turned into a parametric
p

equation. Take x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. Then input r = 2 cos(θ) to get x = 2 cos2 (θ) and y = 2 cos(θ) sin(θ).
2
Then we follow the parametric to Cartesian method with the Pythagorean identities to get x + yx = 2 which
simplifies to (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1 after completing the square.

dr
sin θ+r cos θ
-DERIVATIVE OF POLAR CURVE If x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ : dy
dx = dθ
dr
cos θ−r sin θ
dθ

-Use derivative to find tangent lines to polar curves: WILL BE REQUIRED

-Know common forms of polar/parametric curves

A Cardioid is a heart-shaped graph that is defined by the polar equation r = 1 + c sin(θ)

A Cycloid is a bunch of semi-circles generated by a circle with radius r defined by (r(θ − sin θ), r(1 − cos θ)).

A Rose looks like a flower with equation r = cos(n0) : for even n, it has 2n loops; for odd n, it has n loops.
Rb
-AREA INSIDE POLAR CURVE: from θ = a to b : A = 1
a 2
[f (θ)]2 dθ

Rbq dr 2
-ARC LENGTH OF POLAR CURVE: from θ = a to b : L = a r2 +


dθ dθ

2.5 Sequences and Series

SQT : squeeze theorem works for limits of sequences

ABS : If limn→∞ |an | = 0 then limn→∞ an = 0

Strategy for evaluating limits: divide by the highest power of n or use LH rule

-bringing functions ”out:” limn→∞ f (an ) = f (limn→∞ an )

A geometric sequence rn converges on r ∈ (−1, 1].

P∞
GEO : A geometric series n=1 arn−1 converges on r ∈ (−1, 1). Its sum is a
1−r

BM : If a sequence is bounded both ways and monotonic, it is convergent

TFD : Test for divergence: If limn→∞ an ̸= 0, the series diverges. It follows that if the series converges, limn→∞ an = 0.
R∞
INT : A series s is convergent if and only if 1
sn dn converges.
R∞ R∞
Remainder: If Rn = s − sn , then s dn
n+1 n
≤ Rn ≤ n
sn dn
R∞ R∞
Sum estimation: sn + s dn
n+1 n
≤ s ≤ sn + n
sn dn
P∞
PST : 1
n=1 np converges on p > 1.

CMT : If a series is always less than a convergent series, it converges. If a series is always greater than a divergent series, it
diverges.

20
LCT : For two series an and bn , if limn→∞ an
is finite and positive, either both series converge or diverge.
P P
bn

R∞
Series remainder estimation: For some convergent series ≤ S, the remainder Tn ≤ n
sn dn
P∞
AST : An alternating series n=1 (−1)
n+1
bn is convergent if bn+1 ≤ bn and lim bn = 0.

Alternating series estimation theorem: For a convergent alternating series s = (−1)n+1 bn , |Rn | = |s − sn | ≤ bn+1
P

ABS : A series an is absolutely convergent if limn→∞ |an | = 0. If it is absolutely convergent, it is also convergent.
P

A series an is conditionally convergent if it converges but does not absolutely converge.

P

RAT : If lim n → ∞| aan+1 | = L < 1, then an is absolutely convergent thus convergent. If L > 1, it diverges. L = 1 is
P
n
inconclusive (notably for p-series/anything that fails the ROT).

ROT : If lim n → ∞ n |an | = L < 1, then an is absolutely convergent thus convergent. If L > 1, it diverges. L = 1 is
p P
inconclusive (notably for anything that fails the RAT).

1. Divide by the highest power of n.

2. If the series is similar to a geometric series or p-series, consider CMT

3. Evaluate limn→∞ an .

4. If the series is alternating, use AST or RAT.

5. If the series has factorials or other products, use the RAT EXCEPT if it is a p-series

6. If the series is of the form (bn )n then use ROT

7. If the series looks like an easily evaluated integral, use the INT.

To find the radius and interval of convergence, use the ratio test and next input x = a−R and x=a+R to evaluate convergence
at endpoints of (a − R, a + R). Alternatively, the function can be manipulated into a sum of geometric series formula.
P∞ f (n) (a)
The Taylor series of f (x) is n=0 n! (x − a)n .

The Mclaurin series of f (x) is the Taylor series at x = 0.

-Find Taylor series by differentiating and integrating.

TAYLOR’S INEQUALITY: Let Rn be the remainder of f (x) − Tn (x). If |f (n+1) (x)| ≤ M for |x − a| ≤ d, we have |Rn (x)| ≤
M
(n+1)! |x − a|
n+1
for |x − a| ≤ d.

-Use Taylor’s Inequality to show that a Taylor series expansion equals its function for all x; show that limn→inf Rn = 0; often
it helps to relate Rn to a known convergent MacLaurin Series, which will have limit 0 by the Test for Divergence.
P

COMMON MACLAURIN SERIES:

xn
P∞
ex = n=0 n! , R=∞

n x2n+1
P∞
sin(x) = n=0 (−1) (2n+1)! , R=∞

n x2n
P∞
cos(x) = n=0 (−1) (2n)! , R=∞
P∞
1
1−x = n=0 xn , R = 1

n x2n+1
P∞
tan−1 (x) = n=0 (−1) (2n+1) , R=1

21
 n+1 xn
P∞
ln(1 + x) = n=1 (−1) n , R=1
 
P∞ k n
(1 + x) = k
n=0 x , R=1
n

2.6 Stuff you should know just because

Generally, negative combinations indicate the falling factorial a certain number of times.

3 Plagiarized Practice Problems

DISCLAIMER I WAS TOO LAZY TO FINISH THIS SECTION SO HAVE FUN SOLVING :)

Q: Do limits exist at the endpoints of a function?

A: No. There is only one limit, the other left/right limit wouldn’t exist.

tan(x)
Find limx→0 x .

A: As by L’Hospital’s rule, we have an indeterminate form of 0

0 so the limit equals limx→0 sec2 (x) which is clearly 1.

Find the derivatives:

2
a) tan−1 [3x ]
2
A: Let f (x) = tan−1 (x) and g(x) = 3x . Next, f ′ (x) = 1
1+x2 and g’(x) can be calculated using the chain rule with 3x and x2 .
2 2
d x2 2 3x ln(3)2x 3x ln(3)2x
We have dx 3 = 3x ln(3) · 2x. Next we apply the chain rule again to get our answer: 1+[3x2 ]2
= 1+9x2
.

(2x−1)10
b) e4x

A:
√
c) log2 5x + 2

A:

d) csc lnxx

A:
4
e) 2x tan x

A:
√
f) sin4 (x) 5x2 + 1

A:
√
x
g) √
3 4
x +1

A:

h) (sin x)2x

A:

i) x2 + 4y 2 = 10

22
A: Proceeding by implicit differentiation with respect to x: 2x + 4 dx y = 0. Applying the Leibniz Chain Rule,
d 2 d 2
dx y =
d 2 dy
dy y · dx = 2yy ′
. Thus we have 2x + 8yy ′
= 0. Isolating y ′
, we have the differential equation y ′ = − 4y
x
.

The figure below represents an observer at point A watching balloon B as it rises from point C. The balloon is rising at a
constant rate of 2 meters per second and the observer is 100 meters from point C.

(9)

Express your answers in terms of the correct units of measurement:

a. Find the rate of change in x at the instant when y = 75.

A:

b. Find the rate of change in the area of right triangle BCA at the instant when y = 75.

A:

c. Find the rate of change in θ at the instant when x = 125. (Use your calculator and express your answer to the fourth
decimal place.)

A:

Q: limx→∞ x tan(1/x)

A:

Q: A ladder 10ft long rests along a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides away from the wall at a rate of 1 ft/s,
how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6ft from the wall.

A:
P∞ lnn (x)
Q: Find the sum of n=0 (n+1)! and the radius of convergence.

P∞ lnn (x) P∞ xn
P∞ xn
A: Convert this to 1
ln(x) n=1 (n)! . Notice that n=0 n! = ex and
= ex − 1. Then input x = ln(x) to get
n=1 n!
 n+1 
eln(x) − 1 = x − 1. Thus our answer is ln(x)
x−1
. The radius of convergence can be obtained through the AST:  ln(n+2)!ln
(x)(n+1)! 
n (x)  =

 
 ln(x) 
 (n+2)  → 0 as n → ∞. Thus R = ∞.
s r
√
R2 q
Q: Find
2 3
0
x xln(x) 3
xln (x) 4 xln (x) 5 ...dx

2 3 2
1 1 1 1
(x)/6 ln3 (x)/24
A: Rewrite as x · (xP (x
ln(x) ln (x)
(xln (x)
(...) 5 ) 4 ) 3 ) 2 . Expanding, we get xxln(x)/2 xln x ... Notice, by exponent rules,
∞ lnn (x) x−1
this is equal to x . Now, apply the result of the previous problem, getting x
n=0 (n+1)! ln(x) . Then it is easy to see that
1 R2
x ln(x) = e, so our answer is 0 ex−1 dx. This is very easy to calculate: ex−1 ]20 = e − 1e .
R∞
Q: Find 1
−∞ 1+x2
dx.

23