MODULE 1 IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY is the study of the Earth, the materials of which it is 1. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction
made, the structure of those materials, and the processes acting materials, their structure and properties.
upon them. It includes the study of organisms that have inhabited
our planet. An important part of geology is the study of how Earth's 2. The knowledge of Erosion, Transportation and Deposition (ETD)
materials, structures, processes and organisms have changed over by surface water helps in soil conservation, river control, coastal and
time. harbor works.

BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY 3. The knowledge about the nature of the rocks is very necessary in
tunneling, constructing roads and in determining the stability of cuts
1. Physical Geology – a branch of geology it deals with the “various and slopes. This, geology helps in civil engineering.
processes of physical agents such as wind, water, glaciers and sea
waves”, run on these agents go on modifying the surface of the 4. The foundation problems of dams, bridges, and buildings are
earth continuously. directly related with geology of the area where they are to be built.
The knowledge of ground water is necessary in connection with
2. Mineralogy – it deals with the study of minerals. Minerals are excavation works, water supply, irrigation and many other purposes.
basic units with different rocks and ores of the earth made up of.
6. Geological maps and sections help considerably in planning many
3. Petrology – it deals with the study of rocks. It deals with the mode engineering projects.
of formation, structure, texture, composition, occurrence, and types
of rocks. It is the most important branch of geology from the Civil 7. If the geological features like faults, joints, beds, folds, solution
Engineering point of view. channels are found, they have to be suitably treated. Hence, the
stability of the structure is greatly increased.
4. Structural Geology (Tectonics) - The details of mode of formation,
causes, types, classification, importance etc. of these geological 8. Pre-geological survey of the area concerned reduces the cost of
structures from the subject matter of structural geology. The rocks, engineering work.
which from the earth’s crust, undergo various deformations,
STRUCTURE OF EARTH
dislocations and disturbances under the influence of tectonic forces.
The result is the occurrence of different geological structures like 1. Crust – the outermost solid layer of the Earth, it ranges from 5-70
folds, fault, joints and unconformities in rocks. km in depth. It consists of two parts, The Oceanic Crust and the
Continental Crust.
5. Stratigraphy – It is the study of rock layers (strata) and layering
(Stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and a. Oceanic Crust – thin part of the crust, lies on the ocean basins.
layered volcanic rocks. It is also the study of Earth’s History through Usually consist of dense basalt.
the sedimentary rock.
b. Continental Crust – thicker part of the crust, it consists of less
6. Paleontology – It is the study of Ancient life, the study of fossils to dense granite.
determine organisms’ evolution and interactions with each other and
their environments of their paleoecology. 2. Mantle – the second part of the layers of the earth, it is about
2,900 km thick. Makes up the 84% of Earth’s Total Volume. It
7. Crystallography – It is the experimental science of determining consists of silicon, iron, magnesium, aluminum, oxygen and other
the arrangement of atoms in the crystalline solids. minerals. Temperature ranges from 1000C, near the crust to 3700C,
near the boundary with the core.
8. Mining Geology – it is an applied science which combines the
principles of economic geology and mining engineering to the 3. Core – innermost part of the Earth. It consists of 2 parts, The
development of a defined mineral resource. It also deals with to outer core and inner core. It has an approximate radius of 3,400km.
know the other physical parameters of ores, details of mineral The core consists of molten iron, nickel, gold, platinum, uranium,
exploration, estimation. etc.
9. Geotechnics – it is the application of scientific methods and a. Outer Core – is about 2,200km thick, with a temperature ranging
engineering principles in the acquisition, interpretation, and use of from 4,500C to 5,500C.
knowledge of materials of the Earth’s crust and materials for the
solution of engineering problems and the design of engineering b. Inner core – has a radius about 1,220 km. The temperature is
works. about 5,500C and the pressure is 3.6 million atmosphere(atm).
10. Hydrology/Geohydrology – Study of the movement, distribution, PLATE TECTONIC AND CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
and quality of water in the earth, including the hydrologic cycle,
water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability. It also Earth is constant moving, moves between 1-6 inches per year. It
deals with the occurrence, movement and nature of groundwater in takes millions of years for the land to move a significant amount
an area.
MAJOR PLATE MINOR
11. Geophysics – It is the study of the physical properties like
density and magnetism of the earth or its parts. African Somali Indian
Antarctic Nazca Caribbean
12. Geochemistry – it deals with the occurrence, distribution, Eurasian Amurian Cocos
abundance, mobility, etc. of different elements in the earth crust. North American Sunda Caroline
South American Philippine Scotia
13. Economic Geology - It is concerned with earth materials that can Indo-Australian Okhotsk Juan de fuca (smallest)
be used for economic and/or industrial purposes. These materials (Australian) Arabian Burma
include precious and base metals, non-metallic minerals, Pacific (largest) Yangtze New hebrides
construction-grade stone, petroleum, natural gas, coal, and water.

Engineering Geology This deals with the application of geological

knowledge in the field of civil engineering, for execution of safe, PLATE BOUNDARIES
stable, and economics constructions like dams, bridges, and
tunnels.
The movement of tectonic plates is most evident at the boundaries • To assess the losses, which are likely to take place in furniture due
between the plates. to earthquake shocks,

There are three main types of boundaries: • To provide factors of safety, to stop or minimize the loss due to
sever earth shocks.
1. Convergent Boundaries - A convergent boundary is where two
tectonic plates push together. Sometimes one plate will move under
the other. This is called SUBDUCTION. Although the movement is
slow, convergent boundaries can be areas of geological activity such MODULE 2
as the forming of mountains and volcanoes. They can also be areas
GEOLOGICAL WORKS BY RIVERS
of high earthquake activity. • The Mariana Trench is the deepest part
of the ocean. It is formed by a convergent Pacific Plate is being The geological work by river may be broadly divided into three well-
subducted under the Mariana Plate. Ex. Himalayan Mountains, defined phases: erosion, transport and deposition.
Mount Everest (Indian plate and Eurasian plate)
1. River Erosion - By erosion is meant disintegration and
2. Divergent Boundaries - A divergent boundary is one where two decomposition of the rocks and soil material by a natural agent
plates are getting pushed apart. The area on land where the through mechanical, chemical, and other physicochemical
boundary occurs is called a RIFT. New land is formed by magma processes accompanied by removal of the disintegrated or
pushing up from the mantle and cooling as it reaches the surface. decomposed product to far off places by the same agent. Stream
and rivers are the most powerful sub aerial agents of erosion.
3. Transform Boundaries - A transform boundary is one where two
Others are wind and ice
plates slide past each other. These places are often called FAULTS
and can be areas where earthquakes often occur. • One 2. Potholes – These are various shaped depressions of different
famous transform boundary is the San Andreas Fault in California. It dimensions that are developed in the river bed by excessive
is the boundary between the North American Plate and the Pacific localized erosion by the streams. The pot holes are generally
Plate. It is the cause of so many earthquakes in California. cylindrical or bowl-shaped outline these are commonly formed in the
softer rocks occurring at critical location in the bedrock of a stream.
• Scientists are now able to track the movement of tectonic plates
The formation process for a pothole may be initiated by a simple
using GPS.
plucking out of a protruding or outstanding rock projection at the
Earthquakes An earthquake is what happens when two blocks of the river bed by hydraulic action
earth suddenly slip past one another. The surface where they slip is
3. River Valleys – A valley may be defined as a low land surrounded
called the fault or fault plane.
on sides by inclined hill slopes and mountain. Every major river is
HYPOCENTER – location below the earth’s surface where the associated with a valley of its own. In fact, rivers are responsible for
earthquake starts the origin, development, and modification of their valleys through
well-understood process of river erosion.
EPCIENTER - the location directly above it on the surface of the
earth a. Origin – a river valley may have a modest origin when traced
backward in the geological history of the area. On a gentle sloping
FORESHOCKS - smaller earthquakes that happen in the same surface, river water gets collected along lower level and flows as
place as the larger earthquake that follows small streamlets. In a short time, small gullies are produced where
rainwater gets naturally collected from adjoining slopes, further
MAINSHOCK - largest, main earthquake erosion deepens and widens an original gully that can accommodate
bigger volumes of water.
AFTERSHOCKS - smaller earthquakes that occur afterwards in the
same place as the mainshock. b. Valley deepening – It is achieved by cooperative action of all the
processes involved in erosion. Deepening is obviously caused due
SEISMOGRAPHS – instrument earthquake is recorded
to cutting down of the river bed.
SEISMOGRAM – recording made
c. Lengthening of River Valley – A peculiar type of process called
MAGNITUDE - measures the energy released at the source of the headword erosion is generally held responsible for lengthening of
earthquake, determined from measurements on seismographs. river valleys.

INTENSITY - measures the strength of shaking produced by the d. River Capture (Piracy) – A peculiar phenomenon of capture of
earthquake at a certain location. Intensity is determined from effects draining basin of one river by another river fast eroding its channel in
on people, human structures, and the natural environment. headword direction has been seen at many places.

Causes of earthquake e. Stream achieved valley widening – the stream cut down more
their channels and also remove away the loose soil and rocks from
1. Earthquakes due to superficial movements the banks thereby widening the valley directly.

2. Earthquakes due to volcanic eruptions 4. Georges and Canyons – The process of valley deepening often
gives rise to magnificent surface features known as Georges and
3. Earthquake due to folding or faulting. Canyons.
ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS Georges – are very deep and narrow valley with very steep and high
walls on either side.
The time and intensity of the earthquake can never be predicted.
The only remedy that can be done at the best, it is provide additional Canyon – a specific type of George where the layers cut down by a
factors in the design of structure to minimize the losses due to river are essentially stratified and horizontal in attitude.
shocks of an earthquake. This can be done in the following way:
5. Waterfalls – These are defined as magnificent jumps made by
• To collect sufficient data, regarding the previous seismic activity in stream or river water at certain specific parts of their course where
the area. there is a sudden and considerable drop in the gradient of the
channel. Many falls are easily attributed to unequal erosion of the
channel rocks within a short distance due to the inherent nature of 2. Loess – is used for wind blown deposits of silt and clay grade
the rocks. particles. Typically, Loess is unconsolidated, unstratified and porous
accumulation of the particles.
6. Stream Terraces – These are bench like ledges or flat surfaces
that occur on the sides of many river valleys. From a distance they GEOLOGICAL WORKS OF GROUNDWATER
may appear as successions of several steps of a big natural
staircase rising up the river bed The dissolution of soluble rocks by groundwater is controlled by a
number of factors such as:

a. Climate e. Flow Velocity

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT BY RIVERS
b. Geological Structure f. Temperature
a. Suspended Load – Made up of fine sand, silt and clay sediments
that are light enough to be transported in the stream water in a state c. Composition of Rocks g. Pressure
of suspension.
d. Composition of Groundwater h. Depth
b. Bed Load – This fraction of the river loads comprises the heavier
1. Dolines – These are also termed as Swallow holes or sink holes.
particles of sand, pebbles, gravels, and cobbles, and other type of
A typical doline is circular or an oval depression, which when
materials which are moved along the other side of the roads.
followed in depth becomes a bowl-shaped or cylindrical in cross
c. Dissolved Load – It includes particles of material soluble in water, section.
which the river may gain due to its solvent action on the rock of the
2. Caves – These may be defined as naturally carved out
channel. Rivers from the land part carry calcium carbonate, calcium
underground cavities of various dimensions that always have
sulphate, and sodium chloride and other soluble salts from
horizontal opening on the surface. They are similar to tunnels with
limestones, gypsums, anhydrites and rock salts.
the exception that a cave does not normally have an exit on the
DEPOSITION BY RIVERS other end.

DEPOSITION - process of dropping down of its loads by any moving 3. Blind valley – a bind valley is a valley like feature where a stream
natural agent flowing through it in the upper reaches suddenly disappear in the
lower reaches.
1. Alluvial fans and cones – these are cone shaped accumulation of
stream deposits that are commonly found at places where small The most commonly known cave deposits are Stalactites (ceiling)
intermittent streamlets coming down from hill slopes enter the low and Stalagmites(ground).
lands.
GEOLOGICAL WORKS OF OCEANS AND SEAS
2. Natural Levees – these are essentially riverbank deposits made
Marine 2/3 of earths surface
by a river along its bank during floods.
MARINE EROSION
GEOLOGICAL WORKS BY WINDS
1. Hydraulic Action – This is the process of erosion by water
WINDS – air in motion
involving breaking, loosening and plucking out of loose, disjointed
WIND EROSION methods blocks of rocks from their original places by the strong forces
created by the impact of sea waves and currents.
1. Deflation –process of removal of particle of dust and sand by
strong wind 2. Marine Abrasion – This involves the rubbing and grinding action of
seawater on the rocks of the shore with the help of sand particles
2. Wind Abrasion –This type of erosion involving rubbing, grinding, and other small fragments that are hurdled up again these rocks.
polishing the rock surface by any natural agent.
3. Corrosion – it is the solvent action of seawater which is
3. Attrition by wind – The sand particles and the like, lifted by the particularly strong in environment where the shore is of vulnerable
wind from different places are carried away to considerable chemical composition.
distances. The wear and tear of load particles suffered by them due
to mutual impacts during the transportation process is termed as VERY COMMON OF MARINE EROSIONS
attrition.
1. Headlands and Bays - Originally Uniform sloping shoreline
SEEDIMENTATION TRANSPORT BY WIND composed of materials of unequal hardness, the softer rocks get
eroded easily and quickly. Seawater enters the inland spaces so
• Sources of sediments – Materials of fine particle such as clay, silts created along the shore, these from the bays. The stronger rocks,
and sand. however, resist erosion to a great extent and stand for a
considerable time. These may get smoothened and variously
• Methods of Transport – Suspension & Siltation modified but still stand as projecting parts of original as headlands
• Transport power of the wind – the transporting power of the wind 2. Sea Cliffs – A sea cliff is a seaward facing steep front of a
depends on its velocity as also on the size, shape and density of the moderately high shoreline and indicates the first stage of the work of
particles. The amount of load already present in the wind at a given waves on the shore rocks. There may be a number of sea cliffs seen
point of time also determines its capacity to take up further load. on a shore line. They are outstanding rock projection having
smoothened seaward sloping surface.
DEPOSITON BY WIND AEOLIAN DEPOSITS
3. Wave-Cut Terraces – it is a shallow shelf type structure, carved
AEOLIAN DEPOSITS - These winds made deposits may ultimately
out from the shore rocks by the advancing sea waves. The waves
take the shape of landform.
first of all cut a notch where they strike against the cliff rock again
1. Dunes – These are variously shaped deposits of sand-grade and again. The notch is gradually extended backward to such a
particles accumulated by wind. A typical sand dune is defined as depth below the overlying rock that the latter becomes unsupported
broad conical heap. A typical dune is characterized with a gentle from below. The cliff eventually falls down along the notch. A
windward side and a steep leeward slope platform or bench is thus created over which the seawater may rush
temporarily and periodically. The resulting structure is called a wave indistinguishable from the original, normally distinguishable, as they
curt terrace cannot be superimposed. If the resulting object is indistinguishable
from the original, is because the inversion center is inside the object.
WEATHERING
The rotation operations (both proper and improper) occur with
It is the process where rock is dissolved, worn away or broken down respect to a line called rotation axis.
into smaller and smaller pieces.
a) A proper rotation is performed by rotating the object 360°. /n,
Types of Weathering where n is the order of the axis. The resulting rotated object is
always indistinguishable from the original.
1. Organic Weathering (Decomposition) – plants break up the rocks
with their growing roots or plant acids help dissolve rocks b) An improper rotation is performed by rotating the object 360°. /n
followed by a reflection through a plane perpendicular to the rotation
2. Mechanical Weathering (Disintegration) – physically breaking up
axis.
rocks.
32 possible unique combinations of symmetry operations
3. Chemical Weathering (Denudation)– it is the decomposition or
decay of rocks and minerals. CRYSTAL FORM is a set of planar faces which are geometrically
equivalent and whose spatial positions are related to one another by
Engineering importance of rock weathering:
a specified set of symmetry operations.
As engineer is directly or indirectly interested in rock weathering
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
specially when he has to select a suitable quarry for the extraction of
stones for structural and decorative purposes. The process of 1. Isometric – Also known as the Cubic System. Its crystallographic
weathering always causes a loss in the strength of the rocks or soil. axes are equal of length and mutually perpendicular, occurring at
For the construction engineer it is always necessary to see that: right angles to one another. (Ex. Cubes, Hexoctahedron). Examples
of this system is Halite, Magnetite, and Garnets.
1. To what extent the area under consideration for a proposed
project has been affected by weathering; and 2. Tetragonal – a crystal system is referred to three mutually
perpendicular axes. Two Horizontal axes are of equal length, with
2. What may be possible effects of weathering processes typical of
the vertical can be shorter or longer. (Ex. Rectangular Prisms)
the area on the construction materials
Examples of these minerals are Zircon and Cassiterite.
MODULE 3
3. Hexagonal – three crystallographic axes which intersect at 120
MINERALOGY deg. and a fourth which is perpendicular to the other three.
(Hexagonal Prisms) Example of this systems are Quartz, Beryl,
MINERAL is a homogenous, natural occurring, solid, and generally Apatite.
inorganic substance with a definable chemical composition and an
orderly internal arrangement of atoms. 4. Orthorhombic - a crystal system is referred to three mutually
perpendicular axes. Each of which is different length than the others.
CRYSTALS are minerals bounded by smooth planar surfaces that Examples of this system is Olivine and barite.
are arranged in a symmetrical fashion. It is composed small building
blocks called “Unit cells” 5. Monoclinic – system is referred to three unequal axes. Two of
these are inclined toward each other at an oblique angle; these are
UNITS CELLS - smallest unit of volume that permits identical cells depicted vertically. Example of this system are Pyroxene,
to be stacked together to fill all space. Orthoclase, azurite, and malachite

CRYSTAL LATTICE –created by repeating the pattern of the unit cell 6. Triclinic - system is referred to three unequal axes. All are inclined
over and over in all directions. toward each other at an oblique angle. None of the axes are
perpendicular to any other axes, Examples of this system are
LATTICE is an array of points which define a repeated spatial entity Plagioclase and axinite.
called a unit cell.
Crystal Forms
MOTIF is the fundamental part of a symmetry design that, when
repeated, creates the whole pattern 1. Monohedron (Pedion) 6. Pyramid

TYPES OF SYMMETRY 2. Parallelohedron (Pinacoid) 7. Dipyramid

1. Translational Symmetry – describes the periodic repetition of a 3. Dihedron 8. Trapezohedron

motif across a length or through an area or volume.
4. Dispehoid 9. Scalenohedron
2. Point symmetry – describes the periodic repetition of a motif
around a point. 5. Prism 10. Rhombohedron

REFLECTION is the symmetry operation that occurs when we put 11. Tetrahedron
an object in front of a mirror. The image is found perpendicular to the
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
reflection plane and equidistant from that plane, on the opposite side
of the plane. The resulting object can be distinguishable or 1. Color - Most minerals have a distinctive color that can be used for
indistinguishable from the original, normally distinguishable, as they identification. In opaque minerals, the color tends to be more
cannot be superimposed. If the resulting object is indistinguishable consistent, so learning the colors associated with these minerals can
from the original, is because the reflection plane is passing through be very helpful in identification
the object.
2. Streak - is the color of the mineral in powdered form. Streak
INVERSION operation occurs through a single point called the shows the true color of the mineral.
inversion center. Each part of the object is moved along a straight
line through the inversion center to a point at an equal distance from
the inversion center. The resulting object can be distinguishable or
4. Luster - the property of minerals that indicates how much the 3. Smoky Quartz - is a grey, translucent model of quartz. It ranges in
surface of a mineral reflects light. The luster of a mineral is affected readability from nearly entire transparency to a brownish-grey crystal
by the brilliance of the light used to observe the mineral surface. that is almost opaque. Some also can be black. The translucency
outcomes from herbal irradiation creating free silicon within the
Luster of a mineral is described in the following terms: a. Metallic - crystal.
The mineral is opaque and reflects light as a metal would.
4. Rose Quartz - is a type of quartz which exhibits a pale purple to
b. Submetallic - The mineral is opaque and dull. The mineral is dark rose red hue. The color is commonly taken into consideration as due
colored. The mineral does not reflect light like a metal. to hint quantities of titanium, iron, or manganese, inside the fabric
c. Nonmetallic - minerals are described using modifiers that refer to 5. Quartz Crystal – Colorless in nature, can be faceted into a
commonly known qualities. gemstone. 6. Tiger Eye – Golden yellow with brown stripes and
often has a glow.
d. Waxy - The mineral looks like paraffin or wax.
7. Chalcedony – translucent or opaque that you cannot see through
e. Vitreous - The mineral looks like broken glass.
if help up to the light. Also known as Sard.
f. Pearly - The mineral appears iridescent, like a pearl.
FELDSPAR FAMILY
g. Silky - The mineral looks fibrous, like silk.
"Feldspar" is the name of a large group of rock-forming silicate
h. Greasy - The mineral looks like oil on water. minerals that make up over 50% of Earth's crust.

i. Resinous - The mineral looks like hardened tree sap (resin). Common feldspars include orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), albite
(NaAlSi3O8), and anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8). Feldspar minerals have
j. Adamantine - The mineral looks brilliant, like a diamond. many uses in industry. They are used to manufacture a wide variety
of glass and ceramic products. They are also widely used as fillers in
5. Crystal Form – The external shape of a mineral (or its form) is paints, plastics and rubber. Several popular gemstones are feldspar
determined largerly by its internal atomic structure. minerals. These include moonstone, sunstone, labradorite,
amazonite and spectrolite
6. Tenacity – is the characteristic describes how the particles of a
mineral hold together or resist separation or breakage.

a. Brittle - Mineral crushes to angular fragments (quartz). Examples of Different Feldspars.

b. Malleable - Mineral can be modified in shape without breaking 1. Moonstone – gem consists of microscopically thin and alternating
and can be flattened to a thin sheet (copper, gold). layers of feldspar minerals of different compositions.
c. Sectile - Mineral can be cut with a knife into thin shavings (talc). 2. Sunstone – a gem that contains tiny plate shaped and highly
reflective particles with a common orientation. They reflect like a
d. Flexible - Mineral bends but doesn't regain its shape once glittery flash
released (selenite, gypsum).
3. Labradorite – A gem when light strikes it, the light is scattered and
e. Elastic - Mineral bends and regains its original shape when an iridescent reflection is produced. Flashes in electric blue, green,
released (muscovite and biotite mica) yellow, orange, and pink. This phenomenon is known as
7. Magnetism - is the characteristic that allows a mineral to attract or “labradorescence”.
repel other magnetic materials. It can be difficult to determine the 4. Amazonite – a gem which has a green to bluish-green variety.
differences between the various types of magnetism, but it is worth
knowing that there are distinctions made. AUGITE is a rock-forming mineral that commonly occurs in mafic
and intermediate igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro, andesite
8. Odor - Most minerals have no odor unless they are acted upon in and diorite. It is found throughout the world, wherever they occur. It
one of the following ways: moistened, heated, breathed upon, or is also found in ultramafic rocks and in some metamorphic rocks that
rubbed. form under high temperatures.
9. Taste HORNBLENDE is a field and classroom name used for a group of
10. Density dark-colored amphibole minerals found in many types of igneous
and metamorphic rocks.
11. Specific Gravity
BIOTITE is a name used for a large group of black mica minerals
that are commonly found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

QUARTZ FAMILY MUSCOVITE is the most common mineral of the mica family. It is
an important rock-forming mineral present in igneous, metamorphic
QUARTZ – contains one part silicon and two parts oxygen. Silicon and sedimentary rocks. Like other micas, it readily cleaves into thin
dioxide (SiO2). most abundant mineral found at Earth's surface. transparent sheets. Muscovite sheets have a pearly to vitreous
highly resistant to both mechanical and chemical weathering. luster on their surface.
Examples of Different Quartz Crystals: CALCITE is a rock forming mineral with a chemical formula of
CaCO3. It is extremely commonly found through the world in
1. Citrine - Citrine is a spread of quartz whose color levels from a sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. It is considered to be
faded yellow to brown because of ferric impurities. Natural citrines a “ubiquitous mineral” – one that is found everywhere. It is the
are uncommon; maximum commercial citrines are heat-treated principal constituent of limestone and marble
amethysts or smoky quartzes.
GARNET are a group of silicate minerals and generally used as
2. Amethyst - Amethyst is a shape of quartz that stages from a shiny gemstones and abrasives. Garnet species are found in variety of
to dark or stupid crimson shade. colors; red, orange, yellow, green, blue, pinks, etc. The mineral’s
luster categorized as vitreous or resinous. They usually form at the
convergent plate boundaries where “shale” is being acted upon by MODULE 4
regional metamorphism.
Petrology is the study of rocks, meteorites, and minerals as well as
Coal and Petroleum their occurrences, composition, origin, and evolution of the solar
system. The rock cycle is a concept used to explain how the three
Coal and petroleum are sources of energy that are non-renewable. basic rock types are related and how Earth processes, over geologic
They are made in nature, a long time before and they will finish a time, change a rock from one type into another igneous- rock formed
long-time use. by the cooling and crystallization of magma sedimentary- rock
formed result of weathering process metamorphic-existing rocks
COAL is a combustible, sedimentary, organic rock, formed from
subjected to intense heat or pressure
vegetation. In other words, coal is a fossil fuel created from the
remains of plant that lived millions of years ago. It is considered as
IGNEOUS
non-renewable source of energy. Coal mainly consists of carbon; it
Intrusive/plutonic- formed inside of earth (granite and diorite).
also consists of some metal compounds and some other impurities.
extrusive/volcanic - formed outside/top of earths crust (vesicular or
Coal are mined by Surface mining and Underground mining.
holey texture)
Types of Coal granite/diorite- coarse texture with large mineral grains
basalt and obsidian- very small grains and a relative fine texture.
1. Peat – it is an organic fuel consisting of spongy material formed
by the partial decomposition of organic matter in wetlands such as GRANITE
swamps, moors, bogs, fens and muskegs. The development of peat - light colored grains large enough to be visible with unaided eye.
is favored by warm, moist climatic conditions but it can develop in forms from the slow crystallization of magma compose of quartz and
cold regions such as Siberia, Canada, Scandinavia. feldspar\coarse to medium grained

2. Lignite – it is generally yellow to dark brown or rarely black coal SYENITE

that formed from peat at shallow depths and temperatures lower - intrusive
than 100⁰C. In many countries, lignite is considered to be a brown -composed of alkali feldspar and ferromagnesian mineral
coal. It contains about 60-70% carbon. -slight amount of silica big amounts of alkalis and alumina
3. Sub-bituminous coal – it is called as black lignite. DIORITE
4. Bituminous coal – also known as soft coal. The most abundant -coarse grained
form of coal. -intrusive
-plagioclase feldspar dark colored minerals (hornblende and biotite)
5. Anthracite – also known as hard coal. The most highly -occurs in dikes sills and intrusions
metamorphosed form of coal. It is the least plentiful form of coal; it is -grey to dark grey, black or bluish grey greenish cast small amounts
mostly found in the eastern part of the United States. of quartz, micro line and olivine

6. Graphite Coal – it is used in pencils, where it is commonly called GABBRO

as “lead”. Graphite is an electrical conductor, a semi-metal. -medium/coarsed grained
-dark green pyroxene
By products of coal: -gabbro intermediate or low silica contents -intrusive basalt
-light and dark minerals -significant amounts of olivine and high
1. Coke - it is produced by heating bituminous coal, used as a fuel.
percentage of coarse crystals of plagiclase feldspar
2. Coal Tar – It is a thick black colored viscous liquid. Obtained from - cooled very sowly
coal, uses in explosives, paints, varnishes, plastics, synthetics.
PEGMATITE
3. Coal gas – mixture of carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen. form end stage of magma crystallization
It is obtained during the processing of coal to coke. It is used as a -contains large crystals, contain rare minerals
fuel in industries and lighting purposes. -interlocking crystals larger than 2.5 cm -found in sheets of rocks
(dikes and veins) (batholiths)
Surface Mining – include strip mining, open-pit mining and mountain -MOST ABUNDANT OLD ROCKS
top removal mining, is a broad category of mining in which soil and
rock overlying the mineral deposit are removed. DOLERITE
-Diabase
Underground Mining (Soft Rock) – refers to a group of underground -dark colored igneous rocks -equivalent to gabbro and basalt -
mining techniques used to extract coal, oil shale and other minerals common rock type
or geological materials from sedimentary rocks. - shallow intrusions (dikes and sills)
PETROLEUM is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid that are - grades to basalt when solidifies rapidly
found in geologic formations beneath the earth’s surface. It is -gabbro when more time
produced when sea creatures died and got covered with sand and
clay. Under high pressure, these dead organisms changed into BASALT
petroleum and natural gases. - common rocks on earth’s surface
-black, dark green or brown
Product of Petroleum -rich in iron and magnesium
-composed of olivine pyroxene and plagioclase
(1) Kerosene (2) Petrol (3) Diesel (4) Jet Fuel (5) Liquefied -specimens are compact, fine-grained and glassy
Petroleum Gas (LPG) (6) Lubricants or oils (7) Bilk Tar (8) Paraffin -holes glass bubbles coarsely porous texture
wax (9) Plastics -used in construction, making cobblestone and statues -thermal
insulator
OIL WELL is general term for any boring structure through the
earth’s surface that is designed to find and acquire petroleum oil OBSIDIAN
hydrocarbons. It is used to pump out petroleum. -cools rapidly
-amorphous material known as mineraloid volcanic glass, with
smooth structure breaks conchoidal fracture –
 -flat large sheet like grains talc or micas
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS FORMED FROM SADS, SHELL, Enter
PEBBLES AND OTHER FRAGMENTS OF MATERIAL -soft and
may crumble easily MODULE 5
3 types: OUTCROP appears when weathering and erosion expose part of a
clastic (sandstone form from clast or pieces of rocks) rock layer or formation
organic (biological) (coal form from hard biological materials)
chemical (limestone halite and flint form from chemical precipitation) GEOLOGICAL MAPS
-calcium carbonate salt and silica -uniquely suited to solving problems involving Earth resources,
hazards, and environments. -represent the distribution of different
SEDIMENTARY types of rock and surficial deposits, as well as locations of geologic
structures such as faults and folds.
SANDSTONE -primary source of information for various aspects of land-use
most common type, found in sedimentary basins planning, including the siting of buildings and transportation
-sand size grains rock fragment, mineral and organic material 1/16 systems.
mm to 2mm dia.
-slit clay size particles - calcite, clay silica -tan/yellow FOLDS -rocks deforming plastically under compressive stresses
crumple into folds, do not return into original shape 3 types:
LIMESTONE *MONOCLINE- simple bend, no longer horizontal
-greater than 50% calcium carbonate - precipitated from water, *ANTICLINE- arch upwards and dip away from center of fold
secreted by marine organisms old(center) young (drap over them)
-form from cementation of sand/ mud CaCO3 fine-grained (micrite) ADOME-arch upward to form circular structure
coarse-grained (sparite) holds fossils (coccoliths and foraminifera) *SYNCLINES- fold that bends downward causing youngest (center)
oldest (outside)
SHALE ABASIN- rock bend downward in a circular structure
-laminate or fissile -predominance of silt and clay (especially quartz FAULTS -boundary between 2 bodies of rock along which there has
and calcite) been relative motion large faults ex: san Andreas (california) Tintina
-breaks along thin laminae or parallel layering or bedding called (extending northern british columbia through central yukon into
fissility most abundant sedimentary mudstone(silt and clay) - alaska)
deposited slow-moving water found in lakes and lagoons
2 TYPES OF FAULT DIP-SLIP (normal{tension} and reverse
CONGLOMERATE {compression} fault)
-shaped from rounded gravel and boulder size clasts cemented STRIKE SLIP JOINTS
-usually calcite, silicon or iron oxide -formed strong water
rock under enough stress will eventually fracture : no movement on
BRECCIA either side of fracture more of tension that compression
- shape from angular and boulder size clast -cataclastic breccia-
fragmentation of rocks throughout faulting -volcanic breccias blocks WAVE THEORY
of lava in an ash -hypothermal breccias- forms when a hypothermal
fluid fractures a rock mass SEISMIC WAVES- the waves of energy caused by the sudden
breaking of rock within the earth, energy that travels through earth
METAMORPHIC and is recorded by seismographs
-metamorphosis (change) heat and pressure (squeezing) -ribbonlike
layers and may have shiny crystals two classes foliated- flat TYPES:
elongated put under immense pressure, minerals line up in layers 1. P WAVE/ PRIMARY WAVE- fastest kind, first, can move thru solid
hornblende and mica long platy perpendicular tectonic plate and fluid "compressional waves" particles move in same direction
boundary gneiss non-foliated formed the same way but doesn’t line that the wave is moving :direction of the wave
up 2. S WAVE OR SECONDARY WAVE- can only move thru solid
rock, to conclude that the earths outer core is liquid, up down or side
QUARTZITE to side perpendicular to wave of propagation
-non-foliated quartz-rich sandstone
-the result is a network of interlocking quartz grains SURFACE WAVES
-metamorphosed sandstone LOVE WAVE- fastest move side to side surface of crust, horizontal
-dominated by quartz
RAYLEIGH WAVE- rolls along ground, up and down side to side,
MARBLE larger than other waves
-granular
-derived from limestone and dolomite interlocking grains of calcite or FACTORS INFLUENCING WAVE *
mineral dolomite wavelength *frequency *medium *temperature
SLATE DYNAMIC MODULI - calculated from elastics wave velocity and
-fine-grained foliated density
-alteration of shale and mudstone by means of low grade local STATIC MODULI - directly measured in a deformational experiment,
metamorphism -roofing, floors, flagging -fine particles use wellbore velocity and in situ stress applications
GROUTING -injection of pumpable materials in a soil or rock
GNEISS formation to change its physical characteristics. controlled ground
-foliated water - suitable for soil permeability would create a heavy demand
-common distributed type of rock high grade 320 degrees Celsius on pumping
SCHIST GROUTING METHODS AND MATERIALS
-foliated medium grade
-metamorphosis of mudstone and shale biotite, muscovite, chlorite 1. CEMENT GROUTING- mixture of cement and water
2. BENTONITE GROUTING - mixture of clay with additives, highly PLASTICITY – the ability of certain solids to flow or to change
water resistant gel, permanent barrier to water flow, use in shape permanently when subjected to stress -undergo permanent
foundation of dams and waterbound structures deformation w/o rupture plastic deformation - occurs many ,metal-
3. CHEMICAL GROUTING - mixture of sodium silicate and calcium forming processes and geologic processes
chloride, use in soil with medium coarse grade
4. RESIN GROUTING-very low viscosity, able to penetrate fine
sands, opposite of chemical grouting 5. BITUMINOUS GROUTING- MODULE 6
bitumen emulsion, injected to fine sand as an impermeable barrier to
GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
water
LITHOLOGY refers to the types of rocks that make the are or the
ROCK MECHANICS general physical characteristic of rock in a particular area.
SOIL - uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed A. SITE INVESTIGATIONS
organic matter use as construction material supports structural
foundations - sustainability of site

3 PHASES IN SOIL ELEMENT: -exploring ground conditions

(1) VOID RATIO (e) - ratio of volume of voids to the volume of -forsee and provide difficulties
solids
(2) POROSITY (n) - ratio of volume of voids to the total volume,
quality of being porous
(3) DEGREE OF SATURATION (s) - ratio of the volume of water to DESK study
the volume of voids, expressed in percentage
-1st stage of a site investigation, make an initial assessment of the
Moisture content refers to the water content and defined as the ratio ground conditions and identify potential geotechnical problems.
of the weight of the water to the weight of solids in a given volume of
-examine available archival records, literature, maps, imagery and
soil.
Unit Weight is the weight of soil per unit volume photographs relevant to the area or site concerned to ascertain a
Dry Unit Weight refers to the soil that has zero moisture content general picture of the existing geological
UNIT WEIGHT conditions prior to a field investigation.
SI (kN/m^3).
English Units (Imperial Units), (lb./ft^3). *Topographical, geological, and soil maps can provide valuable
information
1. Dry density: It is the weight per unit volume of an absolutely dried
rock specimen, it includes the volume of the pore spaces present in AND PRELIMINARY RECONNAISSANCE
the rock. REMOTE SENSING - identification and analysis of phenomena on
2. Bulk density: It is the weight per unit volume of a rock sample with the earths surface by using borne aircraft or spacecraft.
natural moisture content where pores are only partially filled with
water. USED FREQUENTLY IN ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS - allows the area concerned to be divided
GRANITE(2.7) BASALT (2.9) SANDSTONE (2.6) LIMESTONE(2.2- in topographical; and geological units, plan field work and select
2.6) locations
3. Saturated density: It is the density of the saturated rocks or weight
per unit volume of a rock in which all the pores are completely filled B. EXPLORATION METHODS
with water.
4. true density. It is the weight per unit volume of the mineral matter -aim of a site exploration is to try to determine and thereby
(without pores and water) of which a rock made up. understand the nature of the ground conditions on site and those of
its surroundings.
PERMEABILITY - refers to how connected pore spaces are to one
GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN REPORTS - specimens collected are
another high permeability allow water to flow low permeability - pore
subjected to visual observation and laboratory testing, soil
spaces are isolated and water is trapped
exploration is prepared
STRENGTH -rock hardness-- denote cohesiveness of rock SUBSOIL EXPLORATION REPORT
compressive fracture strength
A detailed report must contained the following:
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
ELASTICITY- resist deformation in volume or shape 1. A description of the scope of the investigation

2. A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil

Hookes’ law - describes the behavior of elastic materials and states
exploration has been conducted.
that for small deformations, the resulting strain is proportional to
applied stress 3. A description of the location of the site, including any structures
nearby, drainage conditions, the nature of vegetation on the site and
Youngs modulus E - ratio of unaxial compressive ( tensile) stress to surrounding it, and any other features unique to the site.
resultant strain
4. A description of the geological setting of the site.
bulk modulus K - change in volume under hydrostatic pressure
5. Details of the field exploration – Number of borings, depths of
shear modulus (μ) ratio of shearing (torsional) stress to strain borings, types of borings involved, and so on.

Poisson’s ratio, σ measure of geometric change of shape under 6. A general description of the subsoil conditions, as determined
uniaxial stress from soil specimens and from related laboratory tests, Standard
penetration resistance and cone penetration resistance, and so on.

7. A description of the water-table conditions

8. Recommendations regarding the foundation, including the type of piece of cylindrical rock drilled and removed from a potential mineral
foundation recommended, the allowable bearing pressure, and any deposit.
special construction procedure that may be needed; alternative
foundation design procedures should also be discussed in this FIELD STRENGTH TEST
portion of the report.
STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (STP) D1586/ - simple and low-
9. Conclusions and limitations of the investigation. cost testing procedure widely used in geotechnical investigation to
determine the relative density and angle of shearing resistance of
The report also should have the following attachments: cohesionless soils and also the strength of stiff cohesive soils

1. Site location map CONE PENETRATION TEST(CPT) D5778 - an in-situ test that is
used to identify the soil type. In this test a cone penetrometer is
2. Plan view of the location of the borings with respect to the pushed into the ground at a standard rate and data are recorded at
proposed structures and those nearby. regular intervals during penetration.
3. Boring logs VANE SHEAR TEST VPT D2573 - The vane shear test is used to
measure the undrained shear strength of cohesive soil especially
4. Laboratory test results
soft clays. The test can be conducted in-situ or in the laboratory. It is
5. Other special graphical presentations simple, quick, and costeffective to carry out. low strength 0.5kg/m2.
known as borehole vane test

E. GEOLOGICAL CONDITION
C. SEISMIC AND ELECTRIC METHODS
1. DAMS – solid barrier
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS are used to determine the geological
sequence and structure of subsurface rocks by measurement of Two major categories: concrete dams, earth dams
certain physical properties, the properties made use of in
Former category :
geophysical exploration are density, elasticity, electrical conductivity,
magnetic susceptibility and grav. attraction. seismic and resistivity Gravity- rigid monolithic structure
methods record the artificial fields of force applied to the area under
investigation, while magnetic and gravitational methods measure Arch – concrete wall of high strength concrete
natural fields of force.
Buttress dams – foundation rocks are competent, slab reinforced
SEISMIC METHODS - compressional waves used, two seismic concrete
surveying, seismic reflection( most extensively used of all
geophysical techniques) and seismic refraction Earth dam – embankments of earth

RESISTIVITY METHODS - e fact that any subsurface variation in Zoned dam- rolled fill dam composed of several zones
conductivity alters the pattern
2. TUNNELS – underground routes or passages
of current flow in the ground and therefore changes the distribution
Type
of electric potential at the surface.
1. traffic
ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS - measurement of one or more
2. hydropower
electric or magnetic field components induced in the ground by a
3. public utility
primary field

MAGNETIC METHODS - accurate measurements are made of the

3. BUILDINGS(FOUNDATIONS)
anomalies produced in the local geomagnetic field by this
magnetization. 3 essential operations
GRAVITY METHODS - used mainly in regional reconnaissance -calculating loads
surveys to reveal anomalies that may be investigated subsequently
by other methods -Determining engineering performances
D. DIRECT PENETRATION, CORE BOTING, CORE LOGGING, -Designing a suitable foundation structure
ETC.
*spread or pad footing – supports a single column
TEST PITS - holes dug prior to construction to help ensure the
conditions are suitable for building projects. *strip or continuous footing – beneath a wall

CORE BORING 4. ROAD CUTTING

auger boring D1452 ( - simplest, trenchless application in which a Topography – location of highways
casing pipe is jacked into earth’s surface while simultaneously
rotating helical augers removed excavated spoil

wash boring D1586 - method for advancing borehole for site

exploration and geotechnical investigation, fast and simple

soil sampling- disturbed and undisturbed (samples have been taken

to minimized disturbance or remolding effects)

CORE LOGGING D5434 - systematic recording and measuring of

as much info as possible req'd to determine lithology, mineralogy,
potential geological hist., structure and alteration zones thru a tiny