TYPES/CHANNEL OF COMMUNICATION

The channel means medium by which sender transmits the message to the receiver. Our five
senses such hearing, touching, smelling , tasting , seeing are basic natural channels of human
communication. Communication can be classified on the basis of five basic natural channels.
They are: Tactile communication: Communication by touch or taste Olfactory communication:
communication by smell Audio communication: Communication through sound waves Visual
communication: Communication through visual elements or properties.
We use any technically developed medium (like television, newspaper, books etc) with the help of
one or more of these five senses. Similarly, sender uses one or more channels to maximize the
communication effect. For example – multi-media class room where teacher uses projector,
blackboard, lecture, gestures etc. simultaneously.

TYPES/CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
1. ORAL /VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication is simply sending a message through a spoken language that is understood
by both the sender and receiver of the message. Examples of verbal communications include face-
to-face talking, listening to a lecture or seminar, and listening to a television program.
In oral communication, spoken words are used.
It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television,
voice-over internet.
In oral communication, communication is influenced by pitch, volume, speed, pronunciation,
rhythm and pace, tone, structure of argument, stress and clarity of speaking.
Oral communication means spoken communication or communication through speech. Modes of
Oral Communication Research studies have shown that 80% of communication by executives of
a company is in the oral form.
The modes of Oral Communication include: • Telephone/Cellular phone • Messages • Intercom •
Face-to-face discussion • Meetings/Conferences • Presentation • Dictaphone/Dictation •
Conversation • Radio • Teleconferencing • Speeches • Brainstorming sessions • Grapevine •
Interview
Advantages of oral communication
1. Immediate Feedback
 The speaker can immediately understand the reaction of the audience or group, s/he is
addressing while the hearers get a number of clues about how their behavior is being
perceived by the speaker.
2. Time Saving
Oral communication is very fast. It saves the time involved in writing the message and
delivering it through a channel like the postal or courier services.
2. Economical
Oral communication saves the money spent on stationery and the channel of communication.
4. Personal Touch Oral communication builds up a healthy climate in the organization by
bringing superiors and subordinates closer. It is also an effective tool for persuasion.
5. Flexibility
Oral communication provides an opportunity to the speaker to correct himself and make
himself clear by changing his voice, pitch, tone, etc.
6. Secrecy
Oral messages can be more easily kept confidential than written messages. All one has to do
is to ensure that there is no one within the hearing or recording distance.
7. Group Communication
Oral communication is extremely useful for communicating with groups in meetings,
conferences, etc. No classroom teaching would be possible without oral communication.
8. Effectiveness
Because oral communication involves the real or virtual presence of both the parties,
therefore, the message transfer is more effective and that helps in achieving the goal of the
communication more efficiently.
9. Persuasive power
Persuasion is the process of guiding people toward the adoption of an idea, attitude or action
by rational means. It relies on “appeals” and convincing arguments. We live in a world where
persuasive oral messages are around us
Others are
- Has immediate feedback
- Easy to convince the receives
- Allows body movement
- Adjusted delivery can be made
- Easy understanding between receiver and sender
- Use of facial expression
Disadvantages of oral communication
1. Poor Retention
The listener cannot retain oral messages in his memory for a long time. The speaker himself
may not recall what he actually said.
2. No Record
Oral communication does not provide any record for future reference. In the absence of a record,
oral messages have no legal validity.
3. Time Consuming
Oral communication may not always be time saving. Precisely because there is no binding
medium like a page or a book, this form of communication is virtually endless.
4. Misunderstanding
Oral communications are likely to be misunderstood due to poor expression and noise. The
speaker may not be able to make her/him quite clear or the listener may be inattentive. This is
likely to be truer when the two individuals are not on good terms with each other.
5. Lengthy Messages
Oral communication is not suitable for transmitting lengthy messages. Some parts of vital
importance may not receive adequate attention.
6. Lack of Responsibility
Oral messages are not recorded. Therefore, it becomes difficult to hold persons responsible for
mistakes, inaccuracy or falsity in oral communication.
7. Imprecise
People usually take less care when speaking than when writing. Therefore, spoken words tend to
be less precise than written words.
Others are:
-Time consuming
-More difficult in controlling people
-Ommision of message
-Distoration of message
-Personality problems affects the message
 How to Make Oral Communication Effective?
 Clarity: The speaker should pronounce his words “clearly” and “correctly”. He must talk
distinctly and slowly. When a person speaks fast or munches words the oral message is likely to
be misunderstood.

Brevity: When a speaker keeps on talking for long, his message is lost in a sea of words and his
listeners tend to become inattentive. Therefore, the message must be kept as short as possible.
However, the speaker should not appear unclear, abrupt or discourteous.
 Precision:
An oral message becomes more effective when it is precise and concise e.g. the message should
not be vague or incomplete.
 Right words:
The first caution is to ensure that you know the meaning of the words that you use. Some words
have more than one meaning while some others carry different meanings for different persons.
Be sure about what your words will convey to a trained reader.
 Avoid Hackneyed Phrases:
Speakers often use hackneyed phrases and clichés like ‘you know’, ‘I see’, ‘you see’, ‘what I
mean’, ‘isn’t,’ etc. Such phrases interrupt the flow of speech and obstruct the quick grasp of
meaning besides causing boredom. Speakers should ensure that they do not use these phrases
unconsciously or consciously.
 Understand the Listener:
A good speaker must understand the listener before talking. People vary in terms of their
education, culture, intelligence level, maturity, etc.
 Natural Voice:
The speaker should use his natural way of speaking. In order to look sophisticated, some
speakers use a foreign accent. This reduces the effectiveness of communication.
 Logical Sequence: Before speaking, different ideas to be conveyed should be arranged in a
logical order. It helps to make the speech forceful.
 Conviction: A speaker must have conviction in what he says. Careful understanding, the
sincerity of speech, and intelligent planning are required to develop conviction in speech.

Principles of Oral Communication

 Simplicity: The communication should be simple so that every type of audience finds it easy
to understand.
 Source of information: The sources of information used in the communication should be
reliable and the audience should be informed about the source to increase their confidence.
 Adequacy: The quantity, weightage, expansion and the subject matter should be decided in a
wise manner, communication that are lengthy, too detailed and difficult are boring.
Overabundance of information puts strain on the mental ability. Thinking and working of the
audience.
 Consistency: The figures and information used in the communication should not be in conflict
with the policies, objectives and programmes of the institutions.
 Principle of time: The communication should not take more time that intended. Principle of
time leaves a good impression on the audience.  Balance between uniformly and adaptability:
One should try to strike a balance between uniformity and changeability or adaptability of words.
To develop a mutual understanding with the audience and to remove the unnecessary difficulty
of meanings the presenter should keep in mind the age, education, ability, knowledge and
organizational position of the audience.
 Emotional Appeal: In some communication there is a lack of logic and intellect therefore
there should be an emotional appeal in the communication so that a positive response can be
taken from the audience.
 Consultation: To make a communication effective the communicator should consult all the
related people. This way one can get some new advice and ideas.
 Feedback: After communication the communicator should try to find the views, Ideas,
opinions, objections and feelings of the audience. This develops an understanding between the
two and the objective of communication is also fulfilled.
 Purpose: In the communicator mind the purpose of the communication should be absolutely
clear and defined. Objectives could be one or more. The purpose of the communication could be
to inform, encourage, sympathies and entertain.
 Empathy: The communicator should put himself in the place of audience while doing the
communication. This brings about a similar opinion and creator mutual understanding. 
Rehearsal: Before communication one should rehearsal at least thrice. This increases
selfconfidence and makes the communication easier.
 Selection of main idea: The main idea or should be decided beforehand. This makes the
communication easier and interesting.
 Introduction: It is said that first impression is the best impression. Thus, the communicator
should introduce the communication with expertise, patience, cleverness and effectively that the
audience can connect to it right till the end.  Easiness: A friendly behavior should be used with
the audience. As a result he can say opinion with ease and the audience too will accept it.
 Researching the topic: Information, figures and other facts related to the communication
should be collected so that some new ideas can be joined with the basic thought that is change
should be acceptable
Types of Verbal Communication
1. Intrapersonal Communication
This form of communication is extremely private and restricted to ourselves. It includes the
silent conversations we have with ourselves, wherein we juggle roles between the sender and
receiver who are processing our thoughts and actions. This process of communication when
analyzed can either be conveyed verbally to someone or stay confined as thoughts.
2. Interpersonal Communication
This form of communication takes place between two individuals and is thus a one-on-one
conversation. Here, the two individuals involved will swap their roles of sender and receiver
in order to communicate in a clearer manner.
3. Small Group Communication
This type of communication can take place only when there are more than two people
involved. Here the number of people will be small enough to allow each participant to
interact and converse with the rest. Press conferences, board meetings, and team meetings are
examples of group communication. Unless a specific issue is being discussed, small group
discussions can become chaotic and difficult to interpret by everybody. This lag in
understanding information completely can result in miscommunication.
4. Public Communication
This type of communication takes place when one individual addresses a large gathering of
people. Election campaigns and public speeches are example of this type of communication.
In such cases, there is usually a single sender of information and several receivers who are
being addressed.

2. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
This is a way in which we express our feelings, emotions, attitudes, opinions and views through non

vernal cues: body movement, facial expression, posture, gestures, mode of dressing.

Its sub-disciplines
K-Kinesics

O-Occulesics

P-Paranguage/Paralinguistic

P-Proxemics

A-Artifacts

C-Chronemics

T-Tactics

a. Kinesics

Its postures, gesture, head nods, leg movements

b. Occulesics

Includes facial expression (the power of the eyes), face that shows feelings of anger, envy, happiness,

sneers, dislike, tension and sadness.

c. Paralinguistic

This is the power of vocal cues that accompany our speech like volume, pitch, tone, intonation,

modulation, the rate of the speech.

d. proxemics

The cultural iceberg- it is the study of distance between people and objects

It is also distance as the science of space

According to Edward Hall, an American Anthropologist defined the 4 space zones

 _The intimate zone (0-0 .5m)

_The personal zones (0. 5-1.2m)

_The social zone (1.2-3m)

_The public zone (3m)

e. Artifactics

they include appearance, clothing, style, perfume, personal objects like pens, telephone, briefcases,

clean fingers, laced shoes ,well combed hair, no smelling mouth.

f. Chronemics

It is the concept of time and its impact on people

Example; time keeping

g. Tactics

Communication through the language of the touch

Example; touching self, others and object

-Repeat the verbal communication , complement verbal communications regulates

interactions , substitute verbal communication .
It refers to the type of communication that does not use words. It may be both intended and
unintended. The categories of nonverbal communication include:
1. Body language
This is the study of bodily movements that form a part of nonverbal communication. Our
body consciously as well as unconsciously conveys messages, moods and attitudes. Body
language includes;
A. Facial expression- the face is said to be the mirror of that mind. Whatever we feel is
reflected on our face. The thoughts of the mind and the feelings of the heart often find
expression on the face.
B. Gestures- they are small body movements that transmit some message. Some gestures
have an almost universal meaning, such as a handshake. There are other gestures that have
regional meanings.
C. Posture- it refers to the way one stands, sits or walks. It is the position adopted by the
body. It helps in conveying a message. Each movement or position of the body has
expressive or defensive functions. It reveals an individual’s state of mind and his grip on the
subject matter of communication. Posture acquires meaning in association with other
symbols and in the context of communication.
D. Clothes and accessories- an individual is often judged by their appearance. Clothes play
an important role in enhancing personality. Clothes and accessories relate to physical as well
as socio-cultural characteristics. Appropriateness for the occasion is essential, the formality
of the occasions, the time of day, the season/weather, status, occupation, personality, cultural
background of the people who will be present and the conventions/dress code should provide
great guidance on what to wear.
E. Eye contact- eye contact constitutes an important factor of face-to-face communication.
It is necessary for indicating that both sender and receiver are interested in the
communication. Through eye contact the speaker gets signals whether the channel of
communication is open or not.
2. Paralinguistic- it means like language but not actually a language. It includes the qualities
of
the voice, the way we use our voices as well as the sounds people make without uttering of
words e.g. eeeh, she etc. The voice has characteristics like tone, volume, speed, stress, pause
and pronunciation. A message is understood by the listener not only by the content, but also
by the manner in which the speaker conveys it.
3. Proxemics- is the study of the use of space. A lot of communication takes place
nonverbally through the manner in which we use the space around us. Space can broadly be
classified as intimate, personal, social and public space. Everyone has different limits about
space and it can vary between different circumstances. Therefore, assess what is acceptable
for others and respect their wishes.
4. Chronemics- this is the study of the use of time. You use time to communicate when you
keep time or you keep people waiting. When you communicate is it considered
psychologically and chronologically appropriate.
5. Haptics- it is the study of the use of touch. How individuals use touch to communicate
with others.
6. The physical environment within which interpersonal communication takes place can
have a significant impact on the way in which the encounter proceeds. There are certain
features which contribute to whether the environment feels a relaxed and comfortable place
in which to interact with other people or a harsh and stressful place which makes
communication difficult. This is referred to as ambience- the general atmosphere in a
physical setting
The factors which influence ambience include
Use of colors- the use of colors for the walls, furnishings and decorations will have an
influence on the ambience.
 Noise levels- when the noise levels are low, it creates a relaxing atmosphere. Soft
furnishings, carpets, door stoppers etc. can absorb sound.
 Lighting- natural light is preferable but there must be sufficient light available throughout
the room and for each individual.
 Seating- there should be appropriate seats and they should be arranged appropriately in the
room.
 Cleanliness- the rooms should be kept clean and tidy with proper ventilation.
 Temperature- it should be adequately regulated i.e. through the use of windows, fans
and heaters.
 Decorations- this includes wall hangings, flowers, plants etc. These can create a relaxing
or stressfuless ambience.
Functions of non- verbal communication
1. To provide information, either consciously or unconsciously.
2. To regulate the flow of conversation.
3. To express emotion.
4. To qualify, compliment, or expand verbal messages.
5. To control and influence others.
6. To facilitate specific tasks such as teaching someone how to hold a bat or playing golf etc
Advantages
1. Cheap
2. Used for repletion
3. Emphasize
4. Suitable for the deaf and dump
5. Used in case you don’t want others to know what you are saying
 6. Used to express emotion e.g in tone or facial expression

Disadvantages
1. Expensive
2. Misinterpretation
3. Requires training
4. No permanent record
5. Not convenient for somebody who is far.
6. Not suitable for the blind.

3. AUDIO -VISUAL COMMUNICATION

is a productive form of communication. Using sound and lighting equipment ,improves
communication by heightening the awareness of your audience’s sight and hearing.
examples
-Video tape conversion to DVD
-ICD projector rentails
-Onsite recording audio / video
Cassette tape conversion to CD / MP3 format
-Adverts in television , live telecasts , short films , cinema screen , video tape
Advantages
- The main advantage of audio-visual communication is the ability for one to convey what they
are communicating in an effective way.
-Makes a great impressions of pictures in the minds of the audiences
-Suitable in mass publicity / propaganda and education
-Used to educate and train workers
-To popularize products (advts)

There are two main types of audio-visual communication,

-live communication at an event
-communication through published content.

..The use of audio----visual aids can help one communicate in both instances.
Visual aids can powerfully help the effectiveness of a speech. Many speeches benefit from
having objects, images, key quotes, or data presented in a clear and dramatic fashion. Visual aids
vary in kind, but there are similar benefits and tips for dealing with any kind of supplementary
evidence that is shown to an audience

Reasons to Use Audio-visual /audio/visual Aids

 Improves audience understanding and memory
 Serves as notes
 Provides clearer organization
 Facilitates more eye contact and motion by the speaker
 Contributes to speaker credibility
 The visual aid adds an additional focus for the audience
The Characteristics of Good Audio-visual Aids
 It should be large enough to be clearly visible to the entire group.
 Avoid unnecessary decoration.
 The important parts should be accentuated by use of effects such as bright color.
 It should show good workmanship and careful developed.
 Abstract ideas, should present a sequence of procedure that cannot be clarified without it.
 Whether reduced or enlarged, keep the visual to a scale and maintain proportionately.
 It should be displayed properly.
 Avoid too much writing and the writing should be within the comprehension of the learners.
 After use, it must be preserved using appropriate storage technique.

Characteristics of a well design visual aids

Because your visual aids will be seen while the audience is listening to you, you will need to be
sure that all visuals are as simple as possible and as easy to read:
•Avoid too much information on any single visual.
•Use boldface type in a font size that can be easily read.
•Use sans serif type because it produces a sharper image for slides and transparencies.
•Limit the fonts you use to two per visual.
•Avoid all caps.
•Use a type--size and font--that contrasts distinctly with the background.
•Avoid visuals that use too many colors--more than four on any one aid.
•If you are preparing slides or transparencies for video conferencing, use the plain background
and a color such as yellow or light green and black text. Color can enhance a visual, but it can
also reduce the effectiveness of the message. The point is to use good judgment in visual design.
Use visual aids, but don't overdo color or text.
Equipment used for audiovisual presentations
 Television  whiteboard  LCD projectors  photos  Film projectors  flip chart  Slide
projectors  handouts  slide show  PowerPoint  microphone  music  Overhead projectors

Examples of audio-visual/audio comm

Radio
Radio is always and everywhere produced for audiences. Each station or network will always
have a particular audience in mind when constructing it's format.
Features of the radio
 The radio is said to have the ability to stimulate the mind's eye i.e. in giving the audience a
sense of the world that is entirely lacking in any visual clues it demands more audience
participation.
 Radio has the ability to keep the audience company.
 Radio is listened to in more circumstances and in more places around the world.
 It is a conveniently cheap medium.
 It is a portable medium.
 It is a conveniently oral medium whenever literacy is low.
 In countries with many languages it is possible to communicate in almost all ethnic languages.
 The radio has a wide reach and great penetration.

 Audiences talk to it, apparently finding it easier sometimes to call radio phone- ins and confide
in an anonymous listening audience than in their own friends and family
Advantages of the radio
1. It has wide coverage.
2. It is inexpensive.
3. Has excellent local coverage.
4. It is less time consuming to produce radio programs.
Disadvantages for Radio
1. It encourages passive listening.
2. Has low recall by the audience.
3. Has little emotional impact.
4. The information may be misheard.
5. The information is brief.
6. It is often considered a background friend that does not command audience attention.

Television
a system for converting visual images (with sound) into electrical signals, transmitting them by
radio or other means, and displaying them electronically on a screen.
Advantages for Television

 It is an expensive, but very powerful medium.

 It tends to be used mainly for the long term task of creating brand awareness.It can be used to
create a rapid response.
 The fact that a message has been seen on TV can give credibility to the message source.

 The ability of the TV as a medium is enhanced by its appeal to the senses of both sight and
sound and it uses movement and color to develop a message.
 With the development of digital broadcasting, the ability of the medium to segment audiences
is increasing
 The audience easily recalls the information relayed on TV.
Limitations of the TV
 The production cost of program is high.
 There is clutter.
 It requires many professionals to produce a TV program.
 Airtime on TV is expensive.
 It is time-consuming to produce TV programs.
 It relies on power (electricity)
 There is no guarantee that the target audience will be watching the information.
 The use of decoders and remote controls has important implications for TV message.
Organization charts or organograms.
They are used extensively in business to simplify and illustrate the way in which organizations or
particular parts of them are structured.
They show the hierarchical relationships between different levels and divisions.
They are useful for seeing at a glance the distribution of management authority and reporting
relationships between staff.
Flow charts
They are used to show the way in which the series of events or stages in a process are linked.
They are very useful as instructional aids and as references for ensuring that all of a series of
operations are carried out. They are used extensively in manuals to illustrate the stages involved
in completing a particular procedure.
Graphical presentation
o Graphs and charts should be given clear but brief titles.
o The axes of graphs should be clearly labelled and the scales of values clearly marked.
o Diagrams should be accompanied by the original data or at least by a reference to the source of
the data.
o Avoid excessive detail. o There should be a key relating any shading or pattern used on a chart
to what it represents.
o It is advisable to cross reference all graphs and charts within the text, such as see Figure X or
see attached Appendix y.
Advantages of using graphic presentation
 It provides a quick way for the audience to visualize what you are saying-numbers, trends, up
and down.
 It is able to emphasize main point.
 It is easy to prove a point.
 It's a more compact way to conveying information.
 It is more interesting than just verbal or written communication.

Disadvantages if using graphic communication in business

 It is time consuming to make.
 It may be technical in nature.
 It may be costly depending on the medium used

. Visual communication
Advantages
- Reinforces
- Interesting
- Provide additional visual stimulants
- Provide visual records
- Easy to understand
- Provide ideas
- Simplifies written / oral communication

Disadvantages

-Many be difficult to interpret

-Require comprehension skill of interpretation
-Can be damaged by rain ; posters
- Is costly
- Storage may be expensive
- Time consuming when it is being produced
-Does not allow time to evaluate

4.. Written Communication

-Is an interpretable signs put on a surface
Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their organization in correct order in
sentences formation as well as cohesive composition of sentences.

Advantages of written Communication

1. It is a permanent means of communication.
2. It develops and enhances an organization's image.
3. It provides ready records and references.
4. Legal defenses can depend upon written communication as it provides valid records.
5. It forms the basis of contracts or agreement.
6. It can be presented independently of interpersonal skills.
7. It can reach a wide range of people.
Others
Can be stored for future reference
Can be used as evidence for transactions
It confirms you spoken agreement
It is well planned
It can be copied to many people

Disadvantages of written communication

1. The information may be easily misinterpreted.
2. It can at times prove to be expensive.
3. It requires skills and competencies in language and vocabulary use.
4. There is delayed feedback
5. It provides evidence. There are times when one wants to Communicate without any evidence
of the Communication being kept.
6. It may be time consuming to produce the written communication. (Sagwa 2015, of 158-159)
others
Un - suitable for illiterate people
Take long to write and send
High cost of stationary
No immediate feedback
Non - verbal sign cannot be observed

BUSINESS LETTERS
purpose
1. For external communication.
2. Introductions and prospecting to new clients and potential clients.
3. Describing the purpose of other enclosures within the correspondence such as product
launches.
4. Summarizing key points made at a previous meeting.
5. Arranging for future meetings.
6. Updating or mini progress reports.
7. Job applications.
8. Responding to complaints.
9. Provides an authoritative proof. A commitment in writing binds the parties concerned to the
text of writing. A letter signed by a responsible person is an authoritative proof of what is said in
it and can be produced as evidence.

Layout of business letters

In order to accommodate the above features and show them clearly for the recepient, business
letters follow a series of principles in their layout and presentations. The use of a standard layout
allows people to write and to read letters more quickly, since they know where every separate
part should appear .Although most companies have their own organizational or house styles for
presenting letters, the style remains relatively constant.
There are two main types of layouts and these are:-
1. Fully blocked layout
2. Semi-blocked or indented layout

1. Fully blocked layout.

In this layout, everything begins at the margin, with spaces in between the various sections and
paragraphs. This format uses open punctuation-this means that there is no punctuation in the
address or other preliminary details and there are no commas after the salutation or
complimentary close. This is the modern layout or style of writing business letters. A letter in
this format saves time because indentation is not required for any part.
2. Semi-blocked/Indented layout
This layout is generally used by individuals when writing to companies, but may also be used by
some commercial organizations. The sender's address appears at the top right-hand corner. The
receiver's address appears at the left hand side. The complimentary close and the signature and
the name typed beneath it are centered or at the right hand side at the foot of the letter. If this
layout is used by a company, the letterhead may be printed to appear at the right hand side, at the
center or across the full width of the sheet.

Parts of a business letter

All letters have several features in common and these are:-
1. Sender's address or letterhead. The letterhead is pre-printed stationery. It shows the name of
the organization, their logo, post office address, physical address, telephone numbers, website
and email address. The letterhead saves writing or typing the details on every letter. It is
consistent. It also ensures correctness of the information on the all letters sent. It gives a stamp of
authority and gives a good impression of the company's efficiency. If the letterhead is not
available, the heading consists of a return address but not an individual's name.
2. The inside address- it identifies the receiver of the letter. The addresse's name is preceded by
a courtesy title e.g. Mr, Mrs, Dr etc. Sometimes the word 'The' forms part of the inside address.
3. Attention line- to ensure prompt attention, sometimes a letter which is addressed to a firm or a
company is marked to a particular officer in that organization. It is considered as part of the
inside address. E.g. Attention: The Sales Manager or Attention Mr So and So.
4. Date- always type the date in full logical order of day, month year or month day, year. The
months should never be abbreviated. Dates allow one to put the correspondence in order and to
monitor the development of ideas over a given period of time.
5. References- they enable both the sender and the receiver to link the subject matter of the letter
to previous, related correspondences and other documentation. References also help in filing and
retrieval of documents. Our reference refers to the sender's reference and your reference is the
receiver's reference.
6. Salutation- it usually contains the word dear. It is like greeting a person. The relationship
between the sender and the receiver determines the salutations.
7. Subject heading- it is used to let the receiver know at a glance what the letter is about. It's
purpose is to save time and space. It's usually underlined to make it prominent. It may be general
or specific. It helps in filing.
8. The body of the letter- this is the message. It should be brief but contain all the necessary
detail and be courteous. Write in fairly short paragraphs. In the opening paragraph, one may refer
to previous correspondence, or acknowledge receipt of previous correspondence. Establish the
circumstances, background or reason for the letter. First paragraphs can be very brief and they
expand on the subject heading. In the middle paragraphs or main body of the letter, give details
where necessary and keep out irrelevant material. Describe in sequence events or ideas relating
to the opening paragraph. These are the paragraphs in which you give specific details about the
general matter established in the opening paragraph. In the concluding paragraph, conclude in a
courteous or friendly manner depending on how well you know the reader e.g. you might select
one course of action to be taken, ask for more information from the reader or give clear
directives to be followed.
9. Complimentary close- this is the formal conclusion of the letter. It's form is decided by the
form of the salutation. 10. Signature- a space is left after the complimentary close for the
signature. After the signature, print or write the sender's name. After the name, write the
designation of the sender.
10. Signature- a space is left after the complimentary close for the signature. After the signature,
print or write the sender's name. After the name, write the designation of the sender
11. Enclosures- it is common for letters to enclose other documents which are related to the
subject matter of the correspondence. It is indicated by Enc at the foot of the letter with details of
what the enclosures are. It ensures that the receiver does not discard the items with the envelope.
12. Copies- this is the possible notification to the receiver that the letter has been copied to
another person. It is denoted by cc, followed by the name of the person the letter has been copied
to.
Types of business letters
1. Confirmation letter
This letter follows up a conversation and ensures both parties have a written statement of what
was agreed. It can be useful for identifying any misunderstanding early and for copying to
anyone else who needs to be aware of the arrangements.
2. Letters of acknowledgement
They are usually sent after one has received items or enquiries. They might also be sent to
acknowledge the receipt of a document or another item which demands subsequent attention.
This type of letter is polite and can also save an enquirer a lot of time that would have been used
through follow-up letters or calls.
3. Letters of enquiry
 These are letters which seek to get more information about particular goods or services. It is a
letter from a prospective buyer to a seller. Be very specific about the kind of information that you
require. The letter should be brief but courteous, suggesting a course of action in a polite but
fairly forceful manner which is appropriate for it's reader.
4. Letters of application
These letters should be correctly addresses and dated. If responding to an advertisement,
acknowledge the source of the advertisement. Make a formal application statement and refer to
relevant enclosures. Link the advertised position with your own current position and aspirations.
If you have been sent a detailed job description, answer the points in the job description in turn
showing how you are the appropriate candidate for the position. Keep the letter short. Enclose all
the relevant and required documents. Do not make false claims in the letter.
5. Appointment letters
It is written by an employer who has been selected for a particular post. An appointment letter
mentions many details, some of them are:-
a. The consolidated salary.
b. The other benefits.
c. . The leave rules.
d. The date of joining.
e. The working timings.
f. The nature of duty.
g. The designation.
h. The period of notice required from either side in case of termination or resignation.
i. The probation period, if any.
j. The terms of engagement i.e if the job is permanent or temporary

Points to be kept in mind while writing an appointment letter include:-

 The letter should refer to the I terview and the letter of application.
 It should express the employer's pleasure in the appointment.
 All the details are to be correctly mentioned.
 It should end with good wishes to the candidate for the new job. (Gopal 2009, pg200)

6.Discharge letters
These are the letters that set out the terms of an employee's discharge from service. A discharge
may be honourable or dishonourable. The discharge letter gives:
1. The reason the service is terminated.
2. Date when the employee will be relieved of his/her duties.
3. Benefits payable to the employee. (Jain and Biyani 2007, pg 179)
7. Letters of recommendation
Its purpose is to persuade the reader that the person recommended has the background, skills and
experience necessary for the position. Such letters are usually confidential and sent out at the
request of an organization. They may be kept in the personnel file for future reference if the
person recommended is employed.
A letter of recommendation should include: -
1. The full name of the candidate.
2. The job or benefit the candidate is seeking.
3. Whether the writer is answering a request or taking the initiative.
4. How long and in what context the writer has known the candidate, also the position of the
writer.
5. Facts or information relevant to the position or benefit sought.
6. The writer's overall evaluation of the candidates suitability for the job or benefit sought.
Points to be kept in mind while writing a reference letter
1. It is addressed to the prospective employer.
2. It should not make vague, generalized statements.
3. It should give specific reference to the information sought.
4. It should talk about the candidate's integrity, ability, character etc.
5. The letter should be polite and relevant. (Gopal 2009, pg 202)

8. Sales letters

The objectives of a sales letter are:-

1. It is a source of securing orders.
2. It helps introduce new products and services.
3. It can reach out to more people in a shorter time and in a less expensive way.
4. It reaches people and places where salesmen cannot.
5. It acts as a reminder, if it is sent repeatedly.
6. It can present more information about the product and service.
7. The reader/customer can read the letter at their own convenient time.(Gopal 2009, pg 261)
9. Debt Collection letters
They seek payment for overdue accounts. They are not pleasant letters to write. These letters
should be formed with ultimate care to avoid offending the debtor unnecessarily. There may be a
genuine reason for the delay in payment of the account. Such letters should bear the following
qualities:-
1. Persuade the debtor to pay up.
2. Retain the customer and enhance Goodwill or the reputation of the organization.
3. It should not threaten the customer with legal proceedings until all other means have been
tried and failed.
4. It should regret where the ultimate action is legal proceedings. (Sagwa 2015, pg163).
10. Letters of apology
Even in the most efficient businesses, mistakes occur which need to be rectified by making
speedy and sincere apologies. In letters of apology, accept responsibility for mistakes honestly.
11.Standard letters
They consist of a letter which has several gaps left in it for the insertion of the reciever's name
and address and in the actual body of the letter. The letters are used to deal with recurring
matters in the organization e.g collection of debts, appointments and such. When preparing such
letters, always identify clearly which parts do not form part of the.standars and.will therefore
vary from letter to letter. Ensure that the wording chosen will fit all the intended circumstances.
12. Circular letters
These are letters which companies send to a number of people at the same time. They may
convey information about new facilities or offer the services of a company or perform any
similar function.
13. Complaint letters
These types of letter are very common in most business organizations and are very important
since they deal with matters at the heart of the business transaction.
If you are making a complaint
1. Be specific about the facts by giving information about the who, what, when, where aspects of
your complaint. Be specific.
2. Explain the significance of the problem and how it affects you.
3. Specify what outcome you want but be flexible in your approach.
4. Close politely and positively.
If you are replying to a complaint letter, do not delay your response, even if it is only to confirm
receipt of the letter and to explain that you have to investigate the matter if it is a serious
complaint. Slow empathy and concern for the customer and if you can make an adjustment,
apologize and do so. If the matter is not a legitimate complaint, explain why there will be no
compensation or adjustment.

Responding to complaints should

1. Be as a result of careful investigation as to the facts/events which form the background or
basis for the complaint.
2. Involve checking the accuracy of the statements made and potential responses. 3. Be viewed
as an opportunity to re-establish good relations with the correspondent and his/her organization.
4. Be recorded for the purpose of market research.
5. Be proactive.
6. Be viewed as an important function of the business communication process.
Letters of complaint can help to identify
1. Product/service issues
2. Communication difficulties.
3. Personnel and staff development requirements.
4. Re-evaluation of customer perception and later focus.
5. An improved system for dealing with external communications.
Qualities of good business letters
1. A good letter should be clear to the receiver so as to be easily understood.
2. Concise- this means that the letter should get to the point at once.
3. Correct- the details stayed in the letter must be correct especially where figures and numbers
are used. The details should be carefully checked before the letter is dispatched.
4. Complete- nothing in the letter that is important should be left out especially that information
that affects the direction of a decision or action.
5. Courteous-the letter should be polite and the language used should be considerate so as to
create an atmosphere of maturity and respect for one another.
6. Consistent- the letter should have the same message throughout in that one per of the letter
should not contradict another part.
7. The typing, presentation and layout of the letter should be neat.
6. Computerized telecommunication

-It includes tax , telex , telecommunication , networking , computer

Advantages

- Has high speed transmission

- Is accurate Has instant feedback
- Enhance global communication
- It is mobile information can be moved from one place to another

Disadvantages

-Expensive to student ; computer

-Limited to literate people
-Costy to maintain
-Some cannot work where there is no electricity

References
Bisen, V. (2009). Business Communication. New Age International Publishers. New Delhi.
Gopal N. (2013). Business Communication.New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers. New
Delhi.
Jain, V. K and Biyani O. (2007). Business Communication. S. Chand Publishers New Delhi.
Sagwa, P. N. (2015). Entrepreneurship and Communication. Manifested Publishers Limited.
Nairobi

Course Text Books

 1. Luck, S. L. (2016). Zen and the art of business communication : A step-by-step guide to
improving your business writing skills, Business Expert Press. Retrieved from
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/cuck-ebooks/reader.action?docID=2050916
2. Mizrahi, J. (2015). Writing for the workplace : Business communication for
professionals. Business Expert Press. Retrieved from ProQuest Ebook Central.
3. Alewine, M. C., & Canada, M. (2017). Introduction to Information Literacy for Students.
John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/cuck-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4778152
4. ACRL. (Feb. 2, 2015). Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education.
Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ilframework

Reference Text Books

1. Hisle, D., & Webb, K. K. (2017). Information Literacy Concepts: An Open Educational
Resource, Joyner Library, ECU. Retrieved from
https://media.lib.ecu.edu/DE/tutorial/OER/Information_Literacy_Concepts.pdf
2. Lucas, S. (2016). The Art of Public Speaking. London. McGraw- hill. ISBN:
9780071109116
3. Blundel, R. (2014). Effective Organizational Communication. Edinburgh: Prentice Hall.
ISBN-10: 0273685694
4. Son, L. (2015). Communication Skills, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India. ISBN:978-81-
203-3719-0

Course journals

1. International journal of communication systems ISSN: 1932-8036

https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc
2. Communication Education -https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rced20
3. Communication Monographs -https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rcmm20
4. Communication Reports -https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rcrs20

Reference Journals

1. Journal of Communication - https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/loi/14602466

2. Journal of Library Administration -https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjla20
3. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research- https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjic20
4. Library Management - https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/0143-5124