3.

0 MECHANICAL SOLIDS CONTROL AND

RELATED EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION overall results of solids removal can

The goal of modern solids control be monitored by the use of flow
systems is to reduce overall well meters to determine the actual mud
costs by prompt, efficient removal volume built.
of drilled solids while minimizing The efficiency of solids removal
equipment and/or systems used can
the loss of liquids. Since the size of
be evaluated in two ways:
drilled solids varies greatly — from
1) Efficiency of drilled solids
cuttings larger than one inch in
removal,
diameter to sub-micron size — sev-
2) Efficiency of liquid conservation.
eral types of equipment may be
The greater percentage of drilled
used depending upon the specific
solids removed, the higher the
situation. The fundamental purpose
removal efficiency. The higher the
for solids removal equipment is just
solids fraction of the waste stream,
that — remove drilled solids. The the better. Both aspects should be
end result is reduced mud and considered.
waste disposal costs. For example, a desilter usually
To reach this goal, each piece of does well at removing solids but at
equipment will remove a portion of the cost of significant losses of liq-
the solids, either by screening or uid; sometimes 80% of the volume
centrifugal force. Each type of of the waste stream will be liquid.
equipment is designed to economi- By contrast, a properly operating
cally separate particles of a shale shaker or centrifuge typically
particular size range from the liq- removes 1 barrel or less of mud
uid. Also to operate effectively, with each barrel of solids. Most
each type of equipment must be remaining equipment delivers a
sized, installed, operated, and main- lesser degree of dryness than do
tained properly. the shakers or centrifuges.
The efficiency of the solids con- Most solids control systems
trol system can be evaluated by include several pieces of equipment
comparing the final volume of mud connected in series. Each stage of
accumulated while using the equip- processing is partly dependent
ment to the volume of mud that upon the previous equipment func-
would result if drilled solids were tioning correctly so as to allow the
controlled only by dilution. The next stage to perform its role.

3.1
Should one piece of equipment fail, cone’s discharge to minimize the
the equipment downstream will loss of fluid. The hydrocyclone and
soon lose efficiency or fail com- vibrating screen device is called a
pletely. mud cleaner or mud conditioner. If
The first piece of equipment used a location must be “pitless”, then
to separate the solids from the mud the screens are essential to mini-
is usually a vibrating screen or mize the liquid waste volume.
series of screens. The cuttings that The final step may be to remove
are larger than the mesh openings the ultrafine silt and clay-sized
are removed by the screen but solids with the use of a decanting
carry an adhered film of mud. The centrifuge. On a weighted mud,
screen mesh should be sized to two centrifuges may be used in
prevent excessive losses of whole series: the first to salvage barite, the
mud over the end screen. second to remove fine solids and
The second step is to remove the reclaim the valuable liquid phase.
sand-sized, silt sized and larger clay
particles that were not removed in 3.1 PARTICLE SIZE
the shakers by using hydrocy- AND CUT POINT
clones. Hydrocyclones with a cone Modern drilling rigs may be
diameter of 6 to 12 inches are equipped with many different types
called desanders, and hydrocy- of mechanical solids removal
clones with a cone diameter of less devices depending on the applica-
than 6 inches are called desilters. tion and requirements of a particular
These units should normally be project. Each device has a specific
sized to process 125% of the maxi- function in the solids control
mum flow rate used to drill. process. Equipment commonly uti-
Sometimes a screen is used below lized and the effective removal range
a hydrocyclone to “dry-out” the for each are listed in Figure 3-1.

3.2
 Figure 3-1 Particle Diameter and Ideal Equipment Placement

CUT POINT smaller than the cut point (under-

Notice the removal range, or Cut size).
Point, is given as a range of the Figure 3-2 shows a typical cut
particle size removed. Mechanical point curve. The cut point curve
solids control equipment classifies represents the amount of solids of a
particles based on size, shape, and given size that will be classified as
density. It is typical to refer to parti- either oversize or undersize.
cles as being either larger than the Particles to the right of the cut point
cut point of a device (oversize) or curve, in the area labeled “A”, rep-

3.3
 Figure 3-2 Typical Cut Point Curve

resent the removed, oversize solids. points where 16% and 84%, respec-
Particles to the left of the curve, in tively, of the solids in the feed
the area labeled “B”, represent the stream will be classified as oversize.
undersize solids returned with the These two points are statistically
whole mud. significant because they are one
Particular interest is given to three standard deviation from the D50 in a
points along the cut point curve, normal distribution. An “ideal” clas-
the D50, the D16, and the D84. Given sifier (the dashed line) would show
these three points, the removal very little difference between the
characteristics of screens, hydrocy- D50, D16 and D84.
clones, or other devices can be
compared. Separation Efficiency is a measure
The D50, or median cut point, is of the D50 size relative to the num-
the point where 50% of a certain ber of undersize particles that are
size of solids in the feed stream will removed or oversize particles that
be classified as oversize and 50% as are not removed. The higher the
undersize. The D16 and D84 are the separation efficiency, the lower the

3.4
 Figure 3-3 Separation Curve

false classification. An example will different. Many solids larger than

assist in understanding this concept. the D50 are returned with the under-
Figure 3-3 shows the cut point size solids and many solids smaller
curves for two screens, each with than the D50 are discarded with the
the same D50. Curve No.1 is almost oversize solids.
vertical with a small tail at each If curves number 1 and 2 in
end. This results in a very sharp, Figure 3-3 illustrate typical removal
distinct cut point. Almost all parti- gradients for two different types of
cles larger than the cut point are oilfield shale shakers screens, we
rejected, with very few undersize can draw conclusions about separa-
solids. Almost all particles smaller tion performance. The area between
than the cut point are recovered, the curves marked “A” represents
with very few oversize particles solids Screen No.1 removes and
included. Screen No. 2 returns. Likewise, the
Curve No. 2 is an S-shaped curve area marked “B” represents solids
with a large tail at each end. Even recovered by Screen No.1, but dis-
though the D50 is the same as for carded by Screen No. 2.
Curve No.1, the D16 and D84 are very This is not to say that Screen No.1

3.5
is “better” than Screen No. 2, or 3.2 SEPARATION BY
vice versa; it simply illustrates that SCREENING
two devices with similar “cut point” One method of removing solids
(as measured by the D50 alone) may from drilling mud is to pass the
perform very differently. As an mud onto the surface of a vibrating
example, consider solids removal
screen. Particles smaller than the
from a weighted drilling fluid using
openings in the screen pass
vibrating screens.
through the holes of the screen
An effective solids control pro-
along with the liquid phase of the
gram for weighted mud should
remove as many undesirable, sand- mud. Particles too large to pass
sized solids as practical, while through the screen are thereby sep-
retaining most of the desirable, silt- arated from the mud for disposal.
sized barite particles. Referring back Basically, a screen acts as a “go–no
to Figure 3-3, Screen No. 2 would go” gauge: Either a particle is small
return all the sand in area “A” that enough to pass through the screen
Screen No.1 would catch, and opening or it is not.
Screen No. 2 would remove the silt- The purpose of vibrating the
size material in area “B” (including screen in solids control equipment
all weighting material) that Screen is to transport the cuttings off the
No.1 would recover. screen and increase the liquid han-
Therefore, in a weighted mud, dling capacity of the screen. This
Screen No. 2 would not perform as vibrating action causes rapid sepa-
well as Screen No.1. Further, if the ration of whole mud from the
area to the right of both curves
oversized solids, reducing the
(representing total mass solids
amount of mud lost with the solids.
removal) were calculated, Screen
For maximum efficiency, the
No.1 could prove superior in terms
solids on the screen surface must
of mass solids removal.
As shown by this example, it is travel in a predetermined pattern —
important to view “cut point” as a spiral, elliptical, orbital or linear
continuous curve, rather than a sin- motion — in order to increase par-
gle point. This concept is equally ticle separation efficiency and
true with screens, hydrocyclones, reduce blockage of the screen
centrifuges, or any other separation openings. The combined effect of
equipment — the relative slope and the vibration and the screen sur-
shape of the cut point curve are faces result in the separation and
more important than a single point removal of oversized particles from
on the curve. drilling mud.

3.6
SCREENING SURFACES tensioned screen panels have
Screening surfaces used in solids extended screen life and justified
control equipment are generally the use of 200-mesh screens at the
made of woven wire screen cloth, flowline. The panels consist of a
in many different sizes and shapes. fine screen layer and a coarse back-
ing cloth layer bonded to a support
The following characteristics of
grid (Figure 3-4). The screen cloths
screen cloth are important in solids
are pulled tight, or tensioned, in
control applications.
both directions during the fabrica-
Screens may be constructed with
tion process for proper tension on
one or more Layers. Non-layered
every screen. The pre-tensioned
screens have a single layer, fine-
panel is then held in place in the
mesh, screen cloth (reinforced by
bed of the shaker.
coarser backing cloth) mounted on
a screen panel. These screens will
have openings that are regular in
size and shape. Layered screens
have two or more fine mesh screen
cloths, usually of different mesh
(reinforced by coarser backing
cloth), mounted on a screen panel.
These screens will have openings
that vary greatly in size and shape. Figure 3-4 Pretensioned Screen

To increase screen life, especially

in the 120–200 mesh range, manu- Today, fine screens may be rein-
facturers have incorporated two forced with one or more coarse
design changes: backing screens. The cloth may
1) A coarse backing screen to also be bonded to a thin, perforat-
support fine meshes, and ed metal sheet. This extra backing
2) Pre-tensioned screen panels. protects the fine screen from being
The most important advance has damaged and provides additional
been the development of preten- support for heavy solids loads. The
sioned screen panels. Similar panels screens equipped with a perforated
have been used on mud cleaners plate may be available with several
since their introduction, but earlier sizes options for the perforation to
shakers did not possess the engi- allow improved performance for a
neering design to allow their use given situation.
successfully. With the advent of Most manufacturers limit them-
modern, linear-motion shakers, pre- selves to one support grid opening

3.7
size to reduce inventory and pro-
duction costs. The opening size is
typically 1” for maximum mechani-
cal support. Brandt / EPI™ provides
screen panels with a variety of
openings to allow rig personnel to
choose the desired mechanical sup-
port and total open area (translating
to more liquid flow), depending on
the application.
Mesh is defined as the number of
openings per linear inch. Mesh can
be measured by starting at the cen-
ter of one wire and counting the Figure 3-5 Eight Mesh Screen
number of openings to a point one
inch away. Figure 3-5 shows a sam- Tensile Bolting Cloth. Both of these
ple 8 mesh screen. A screen are square mesh weaves, differing
counter is useful in determining in the diameter of wire used in
screen mesh (see Figure 3-6). their construction.
Market grade cloths use larger
SCREEN CLOTH diameter wires and are more resis-
There are several types of wire tant to abrasion and premature
cloth used in the manufacture of wear. Tensile bolting cloths use
oilfield screens. The most common smaller diameter wire and have a
of these are Market Grade and higher Conductance. Since screen

Figure 3-6 Screen counter and Magnified View of Screen mesh

3.8
 in larger screen openings, with larg-
er particles passing through the
screen. The larger the diameter of
the wire, the smaller the particles
that will pass through the screen.
Remember, it’s the size of the open-
ings in a screen, not the mesh
count, that determines the size of
the particles separated by the
screen. Also, normally the larger the
Figure 3-7 One-half Inch Opening
diameter of the wire used in the
selection is a compromise between weaving process, the longer the
screen life, liquid capacity, and par- screen cloth will last.
ticle separation, both types are in
wide use. PERCENT OPEN AREA
Percent Open Area is the amount
OPENING SIZE of the screen surface which is not
Size of Opening is the distance blocked by wire. The greater the
between wires in the screen cloth wire diameter of a given mesh
and is usually measured in fractions screen, the less open space
of an inch or microns. Figure 3-7 between the wires. For example, a
shows a screen with a 1/2 inch 4 mesh screen made of thin wire
opening. has a greater percent of open area
Screens of the same mesh may than a 4 mesh screen made of thick
have different sized openings wire (see Figure 3-8).
depending on the diameter of the The higher the percent of open
wire used to weave the screen area of a screen the greater its theo-
cloth. Smaller diameter wire results retical throughput. Open area can

4 Mesh: .080 Wire 4 Mesh: .072 Wire 4 Mesh: .063 Wire

46.2% Open Area 50.7% Open Area 56.0% Open Area

Figure 3-8 Percent of Open Area

3.9
be increased for a given mesh by oblong — or rectangular — shaped
using smaller diameter wire, but at openings and are referred to as
the sacrifice of screen life. The Rectangular (or Oblong) Mesh
choice of any particular screen cloth screens. This is illustrated in Figure
therefore involves a compromise 3-9.
between throughput and screen life. Use of a single number in refer-
Calculating the percent open area ence to a screen usually implies
for layered screens is difficult and square mesh. For example, “20
inaccurate. This is due to the ran- mesh” usually identifies a screen
dom and wide variety of openings with 20 openings per inch in either
present. Conductance of a screen is direction. Oblong mesh screens are
an experimental measure of the generally labeled with two num-
flow capacity of a screen. The high- bers. For example, a 60 x 20 screen
er the conductance of a screen, the has 60 openings per inch in one
greater its flow capacity. direction and 20 openings per inch
in the other direction.
SHAPE OF OPENING It has become common industrial
Shape of Opening is determined practice to add the two dimensions
by the screen’s construction. of an oblong mesh screen and refer
Screens with the same number of to the sum of the two numbers as
horizontal and vertical wires per the mesh of the screen.
inch produce square-shaped open- For example, a 60 x 20 mesh
ings and are referred to as Square screen is often called an “oblong
Mesh screens. Screens with a differ- 80” mesh. This screen has oblong
ent number of horizontal and openings measuring 1040 x 193
vertical wires per inch produce microns, much larger than the

SQUARE MESH OBLONG MESH

Figure 3-9 Shape of Opening

3.10
 openings smaller than a “square
OBLONG MESH SQUARE MESH 200” mesh screen (74 x 74
microns). However, the actual
B-20 S-16
B-40 S-30
opening size and shape of a lay-
B-60 S-40 ered screen is a combination of the
B-80 S-50 multiple screen layers and will pro-
B-100 S-60 duce a wide variety of opening
B-120 S-80 sizes and shapes. Therefore, the
“layered 210” mesh screen will
Figure 3-10 Equivalent Screen Sizes remove some solids smaller than 74
microns, but will also allow some
square openings of a “square 80” particles larger than 74 microns to
mesh screen (177 x 177 microns). pass through the screen openings.
The “oblong 80” will allow much
larger, irregularly-shaped particles SCREEN PLUGGING
to pass through its openings than AND BLINDING
the 80 x 80 square mesh screen. Screen Plugging and Blinding,
while present to some degree on
EQUIVALENT SCREEN MESH rig shakers fitted with coarser
Screen manufacturers now com- screens, is most frequently encoun-
pare different types of screen tered on fine screen shakers. If the
through charts, such as the one mesh openings plug with near-size
shown in Figure 3-10. The oblong- particles or if the openings become
mesh screens listed in the left-hand coated over, the throughput capaci-
column remove similar sized solids ty of the screen can be drastically
as the square-mesh screens listed in reduced and flooding of the screen
the right-hand column. These may occur.
screens are referred to as “equiva- Plugging can often be controlled
lent”. In actual field use, the by adjusting the vibratory motion or
conductance and screen life of the deck angle, but sometimes requires
oblong mesh screens is noticeably changing screens to a coarser or
higher than the equivalent square finer mesh. A coarser screen should
mesh screen, but the shape of the be used only as a temporary solu-
cut point curve discussed earlier is tion until the particular formation
not as sharp or distinct. responsible for near-size particle
In a similar fashion, a layered generation is passed. Changing to a
screen will often be designated by finer mesh screen often presents a
a single number, e.g. “layered 210” better, more permanent solution.
mesh. This implies a screen with Screen blinding is caused by

3.11
sticky particles in viscous mud coat- Drilling rate affects screen capacity
ing over the screen openings or by because increases in drilled solids
the evaporation of water from dis- loading reduce the effective screen
solved solids or from grease and area available for mud throughput.
requires a screen wash-down to The mesh of the screen in use is also
cure. This wash-down may simply directly related to shaker capacity
be a high pressure water wash, a because, in general (but not always),
solvent (in the case of grease, pipe the finer a screen’s mesh, the lower
dope or asphalt blinding), or a mild its throughput. Increased viscosity,
acid soak (in the case of blinding usually associated with an increase
caused by hard water). Stiff brush- in percent solids by volume and/or
es should not be used to clean increase in mud weight, has a
fine screens because of the fragile markedly adverse effect on screen
nature of fine mesh screen cloth. capacity. As a general rule, for every
Screen life of fine mesh screens 10% increase in viscosity, there is a
varies widely from design to 2–5% decrease in throughput capaci-
design, even under the best of con- ty. Figure 3-11 shows the
relationship of mud weight, viscosity,
ditions, because of differences in
and screen mesh on shaker capacity.
operating characteristics. Screen life
can be maximized by following
these general precautions:
• Keep screens clean.
• Handle screen carefully when
installing.
• Keep screens properly ten-
sioned.
• Do not overload screens.
• Do not operate shakers dry.

SCREEN CAPACITY
Screen Capacity, or the volume of Figure 3-11 Shaker Capacity v. Mud Weight,
Viscosity, and Screen Mesh
mud which will pass through a
screen without flooding, varies
widely depending on shaker model Mud type also has an effect on
and drilling conditions. Drilling rate, screen capacity. Higher viscosities
mud type, weight and viscosity, bit generally associated with oil-base
type, formation type, screen mesh — and invert emulsion mud usually
all affect throughput to some degree. result in lower screen throughput

3.12
than would be possible with a water- usable screen area of a screen
base mud of the same mud weight. panel by corrugating the screen sur-
Some mud components such as syn- face, similar to the surface of a
thetic polymers also have an adverse pleated air filter or oil filter. 3-D
effect on screen capacity. As a result, screen panels are most effective
no fine mesh screen can offer a stan- when installed as the submerged,
dard throughput for all operating feed-end screen on linear-motion
conditions. shakers to take full advantage of
Due to the many factors involved the additional screen area. Past the
in drilling conditions, mud charac- fluid end point, a three-dimensional
teristics and features of certain screen tends to “channel” the
models, capacities on fine screen drilled solids and increases solids
shakers can range from 50 to 800 bed depth and the amount of liquid
GPM. Multiple units, most common- carried off the screen surface.
ly dual or triple units, can be used Using a flat screen at the discharge
for higher throughput requirements. end of the shaker eliminates chan-
Cascade shaker arrangements, with neling, increases cuttings dryness,
scalping shakers installed upstream and decreases fluid loss.
from the fine screen shakers, can
also increase throughput. STANDARDIZATION
Standardization of screen cloth
THREE-DIMENSIONAL designations has been recommend-
SCREEN PANELS ed by the API committee on
To increase screen capacity with- Standardization of Drilling Fluid
out increasing the size or number Materials, in API RECOMMENDED
of shale shakers, three-dimensional PRACTICE 13E (RP13E), THIRD
screen panels are available. The EDITION, MAY 1, 1993. The pur-
design of these 3-D, Pinnacle™ pose for this practice is to provide
shaker screens: standards for screen labeling of
• Provides even distribution of shale shaker screen cloths. The pro-
fluid across the screen surface cedures recommended for labeling
• Eliminates unwanted fluid loss allow a direct comparison of sepa-
near the screen edges ration potential, the ability to pass
• Improves dryness of solids dis- fluid through a screen, and the
charge amount area available for screen-
• Allows the use of finer screens ing.
The API screen labeling includes
3-D screen panels increase the of the following:

3.13
1. Manufacturer’s designation; These designations give the end
2. Separation Potential and user a more accurate assessment of
3. Flow Capacity. solids removal capability and liquid
throughput capacities of competi-
The Manufacturer’s designation tive screens.
contains the individual company’s
procedures for naming their 3.3 SHALE SHAKERS
screens. It may include the type of The first line of defense for a prop-
screen panel, composition and erly maintained drilling fluid has
other data required by the manufac- been, and will continue to be, the
turer. shale shaker. Without proper screen-
The API separation potential is ing of the drilling fluid during this
reported in the terms of three “Cut” initial removal step, reduced effi-
points. The term “Cut” point is not ciency and effectiveness of all
the same as the traditional cut downstream solids control equip-
point. The “Cut” point allows a ment on the rig is virtually assured.
ranking of a screen’s separation The shale shaker, in various
potential that can be used to com- forms, has played a prominent role
pare screen performance. Three in oilfield solids control schemes
values (D50, D16, and D84) imply the for several decades. Shakers have
opening sizes and variation in evolved from small, relatively sim-
opening size of the screen. ple devices capable of running only
Flow capacity is the rate at which the coarsest screens to the models
a shaker can process mud and of today. Modern, high-perfor-
solids. Under constant conditions, a mance shakers of today are able to
shale shaker has a flow capacity use 100 mesh and finer screens at
that depends upon screen conduc- the flowline in most applications.
tance and area. The area available This evolutionary process has
for screening is the net unblocked taken us through three distinct eras
area, in square feet, available for of shale shaker technology and per-
fluid passage through the screen formance as shown in Figure 3-12.
panel. Conductance defines the These eras of oilfield screening
ease of passage of a fluid through a development may be defined by
piece of wire cloth. Conductance is the types of motion produced by
calculated from the mesh count and the machines:
wire diameters of the screen. • Elliptical, “unbalanced” design
Transmittance is the product of • Circular, “balanced” design.
conductance times panels area. • Linear, “straight-line” design

3.14
 transport with the basket in a flat,
horizontal orientation, as shown in
Figure 3-12, B. This design often
incorporates multiple decks to split
the solids load and to allow finer
mesh screens, such as 80–100
square mesh (150–180 micron)
screens.
The newest technology produces
linear, or straight-line, motion,
Figure 3-12, C. This motion is
developed by a pair of eccentric
shafts rotating in opposite direc-
tions. Linear motion provides
superior cuttings conveyance and is
able to operate at an uphill slope to
provide improved liquid retention.
Better conveyance and longer fluid
retention allow the use of 200
Figure 3-12 Shale Shakers square mesh (74 micron) screens.
Today, shale shakers are typically
The unbalanced, elliptical motion
separated into two categories: Rig
machines have a downward slope
Shakers and Fine Screen Shakers.
as shown in Figure 3-12, A. This
slope is required to properly trans-
RIG SHAKERS
port cuttings across the screen and
off the discharge end. However, the The rig shaker is the simpler of
downward slope reduces fluid two types of shale shakers. A rig
retention time and limits the capaci- shaker (also called “Primary Shale
ty of this design. Optimum Shaker” or “Coarse Screen Shaker”)
screening with these types of shak- is the most common type of solids
ers is usually in the 30–40 mesh control equipment found on drilling
(400–600 micron) range. rigs. Unless it is replaced by a fine
The next generation of machine, screen shaker, the rig shaker should
introduced into the oilfield in the be the first piece of solids control
late 1960s and early 1970s, pro- equipment that the mud flows
duces a balanced, or circular, through after coming out of the
motion. The consistent, circular hole. It is usually inexpensive to
vibration allows adequate solids operate and simple to maintain.

3.15
 MUD TANK
(POSSUM BELLY)
MOTOR

VIBRATOR ASSEMBLY
BELT
GUARD
SCREEN

BASKET
ASSEMBLY

LIQUID and FINE

SOLIDS
DISCHARGE
CHUTE
COARSE SOLIDS DISCHARGE

Figure 3-13 Rig Shaker components

Standard rig shakers generally • Skid with built-in mud box

have certain characteristics in com- (sometimes called a “possum
mon (see Figure 3-13): belly”) and a bypass mecha-
• Single rectangular screening nism.
surface — usually about 4’ x 5’ • Method of tensioning screen
in size. Some designs have uti- sections.
lized dual screens, dual decks
and dual units in parallel to Screen sizes commonly used with
provide more efficient solids rig shakers range from 10 to 40
separation and greater mesh. Figure 3-14 shows the parti-
throughput. Depending on the cle sizes separated by these mesh
particular unit and screen mesh screens. In this graph the area to
used, capacity of rig shakers the left of each line represents
can vary from 100–1600 GPM solids which are smaller than that
or more. mesh size. These would pass
• A low-thrust horizontal vibrator through the screen and would not
mechanism, using eccentric be removed. The area to the right
weights mounted above, or of each line represents solids that
central to, the screen basket. are larger than the mesh size and
• Vibration supports to isolate would be removed from the mud.
the screen basket from its skid. In Figure 3-14, the area to the

3.16
 Figure 3-14 Particle Removal by Rig Shaker Screens

right of the 10 mesh line is con- screen shakers remove cuttings and
fined, because it is limited by the other larger solids from drilling
size of the page. In actual usage, mud, but are designed for greatly
this area is unlimited. This means improved vibratory efficiency over
that a 10 mesh screen will remove simple rig shakers. They are con-
all particles larger than 1910 structed to vibrate in such a way
microns — it doesn’t matter if they that they can use screens as fine as
are the size of BBs, marbles or 150–200 mesh and still give reason-
baseballs — they will be removed able screen life.
and discarded by a 10 mesh screen. They are versatile pieces of equip-
Rig shakers are generally ade- ment and can operate on all types
quate for top hole drilling and for of mud. Figure 3-15 shows the
shallow and intermediate depth range of particle sizes separated by
holes when backed up by other the screens commonly used with
solids control equipment. For deep- fine screen shakers.
er holes and when using expensive A fine screen shaker can be
mud systems, fine screen shakers installed on the rig in one of four
are preferred. ways:
1. Instead of the conventional rig
FINE SCREEN SHAKERS shaker for use from top hole to
The fine screen shaker is the total depth, if it is of a design
more complex and versatile of the capable of using coarse
two types of shale shakers. Fine screens as well as fine screens.

3.17
 Figure 3-15 Fine Screen Shaker Particle Separation

2. Placed in series with the rig screen or screens in the unit.

shaker by tapping into the flow Screens are usually rectangular and
line with a “Y”, thus keeping may be single screens or multiple
the rig shaker available as a screens placed in series or in paral-
“scalping shaker”. lel, as shown in Figure 3-16.
3. Replacing the rig shaker after Single deck, single screens (Figure
top hole is completed. 3-16 A & B) are the simplest design,
4. Downstream from the rig shak- with all mud passing over one
er to accept fluid after it passes screen of uniform mesh. This type
through the coarse screen of shaker requires efficient vibrator
shaker (requires secondary mechanisms to function properly
pump). under all possible drilling condi-
tions and requires high throughput
Because fine screen shakers have (Conductance) per square foot of
a wide variety of designs, they have screen cloth.
few characteristics in common. The Units with screens placed in par-
various designs are differentiated by allel (Figure 3-16 C, D & E) have
screen orientation and shape, two or more screen sections acting
screen tensioning mechanism, as one large screen so that no cut-
placement and type of vibrator and tings can fall between them. All
other special features. screen sections should be the same
mesh, since the coarsest mesh sec-
Screen Orientation and Shape tion determines the unit’s screening
refers to the arrangement of the ability.

3.18
 Shakers with screens stacked in sion rails to be sure they are in
series (Figure 3-16 F) have a coarse good condition and clean
screen above a finer screen, with the • Position the panel on the deck
finer screen being the controlling and inspect the screen to be
mesh size. The operating theory is sure it lays flat
that the top screen will remove • Install both rails loosely to the
some of the cuttings from the mud hookstrip
to take part of the load off the bot- • Push one side of the screen
tom screen and thereby increase against the positioning blocks,
overall screening efficiency. if present; and fully tighten the
screen against these blocks
SCREEN TENSIONING • Evenly tighten the tension bolts
MECHANISMS on the other side
Shakers are designed to use either • Torque to the manufacturer’s
a hookstrip or a rigid panel screen. recommended setting
Hook strip screens are made with-
out a rigid frame and can Rigid panel screen installation
prematurely fail if installed and should proceed as per the manufac-
allowed to operate with uneven turer’s instructions. Panel screens
tension. The shaker manufacturer’s can usually be installed or replaced
instructions for screen installation much quicker than a hookstrip
should be followed, but the follow- screen since the cloth is already
ing steps may apply: pretensioned and the mechanical
• Inspect the supports and ten- devices lock the panel with much
less manual effort.

Figure 3-16 Shaker Screen Configurations

3.19
VIBRATOR MECHANISMS more than justify the higher operat-
Vibrator Mechanisms vary widely ing cost. This is especially true
in design and placement and great- when expensive mud systems are
ly affect the throughput efficiency used.
of fine screen shakers. Most mod- Besides periodic lubrication, fine
ern shakers utilize linear motion screen shakers require the same
vibration with the vibrator mecha- minimum maintenance as rig shak-
nism mounted above the screen ers while making a trip:
bed. One important advantage of • Wash down screens.
linear motion is positive con- • Check screen tension.
veyance of cuttings across the • Shut down shaker when not
screen surface even when the sur- drilling to extend screen life.
face is at a positive angle. This • Dump and clean possum belly.
generally allows the use of an
uphill sloped screen deck, greatly In addition, frequent checks must
increasing throughput capacity and be made for screen plugging and
cuttings dryness. blinding, screen flooding and bro-
Most vibrators are electrically ken screens. All will occur more
operated, although a few are frequently on fine screen shakers
hydraulically operated. In some than on coarse mesh rig shakers.
units the vibration-inducing eccen-
tric weights are separated from the GENERAL GUIDELINES
drive motor, while in others the General rules in operating shale
eccentric weights and motor form shakers — whether coarse screen
an integral assembly. In some units, rig shakers or fine screen shakers
the nature of the vibratory motions — which have not already been
can be easily modified to take mentioned, include the following:
advantage of specific solids-convey- • Use the finest mesh screen
ing characteristics, but most units capable of handling the full
have a fixed vibratory motion. volume from the flow line
under the particular drilling
MAINTENANCE conditions. This will reduce
Because of their greater complexi- solids loading on downstream
ty and use of finer mesh screens, hydrocyclones and screens,
fine screen shakers generally improving their efficiency.
require more attention than rig Several screen changes, nor-
shakers. Nonetheless, their more mally to progressively finer
effective screening capabilities mesh screens over the course

3.20
 of the hole, are quite common. arator is the Mud Cleaner or Mud
• Large cuttings which settle in Conditioner (Figure 3-17).
the mud box (possum belly) of Mud cleaners were developed in
the shaker should never be the early 1970s to remove fine
dumped into the mud system. drilled solids from weighted mud
(Dump them into the sump or without excessive loss of barite and
waste pit.) fluid. They have also proved valu-
• Except in extenuating circum- able tools in closed systems and
stances (such as the presence other “dry” location” applications.
of lost circulating material), all These devices use a combination of
mud should be screened. This desilting hydrocyclones and very
includes make-up mud hauled fine mesh vibrating screens
in from other locations. (120–400 mesh) to remove fine
• Unless water sprays are drilled solids while returning valu-
absolutely necessary to control able mud additives and liquids back
screen blinding, water should to the active mud system.
not be used on the screen sur- Traditional mud cleaners use mul-
face while drilling. Water tiple 4” or 5” cyclones, mounted
sprays tend to wash smaller over a vibrating screen, and are
cuttings through the screen able to effectively process 400–600
which would otherwise be GPM. The process capacity is limit-
removed by their clinging to ed by screen capacity and its ability
larger particles (piggy-back to discard “dry” solids. With the
effect). introduction of linear motion vibrat-
ing screens, the capacity of the
For a more complete analysis of mud cleaner screen has been great-
different types of screens and shak- ly increased. This, in turn, allows
ers, ask your local Brandt / EPI™ the use of additional hydrocyclones
representative for copies of the lat- and higher, overall process capaci-
est Product Bulletins. ties.
The combination of hydrocy-
3.4 MUD CLEANERS AND clones and linear-motion vibrating
MUD CONDITIONERS screens is called a Mud Conditioner
In many cases, combinations of to differentiate these machines from
vibratory screening and settling/ earlier mud cleaners. Mud condi-
centrifugal force are used together tioners often combine both
to provide an effective separation. desander and desilter cones mount-
The most familiar combination sep- ed above the screen deck to take

3.21
 full advantage of the higher process
capacity, usually 1000–1500 GPM,
and reduce the overall size and
weight of the unit, when compared
to mud cleaners.
After removal of large cuttings
with a shaker, feed mud is pumped
into the mud cleaner/conditioner’s
hydrocyclones with a centrifugal
pump. The overflow from the
cyclones is returned to the mud
system. Instead of simply discarding
the underflow, the solids and liquid
exiting the bottom of the cyclones
are directed onto a fine screen.
Drilled solids larger than the screen
openings are discarded; the remain-
ing solids, including most barite in
a weighted system, pass through
the screen and are returned to the
mud system.
The cut point and amount of mass
solids removed by a mud cleaner/
conditioner depends primarily on
the mesh of the fine screen used,
Figure 3-18. Since there are many
designs of mud cleaners/condition-
ers available, performance and
economics will vary with machine
and drilling variables.

APPLICATIONS
Mud cleaners/conditioners should
be considered in these applications:
1. Whenever the application
requires finer screens than the
existing shaker can handle
Figure 3-17 Mud Cleaners and Mud Conditioners
2. Unweighted OBM

3.22
 Figure 3-18
Particle Removal by Mud Cleaner Screens

3. Expensive polymer systems question to answer becomes how

4. When the cost of water is high to achieve the necessary level of
5. Unweighted WBM with high screening at the lowest cost. The
disposal costs and/or environ- alternatives are:
mental restrictions 1) Add additional similar shakers
6. When use of lost circulation to handle the flow rate, 2) Replace
material requires bypassing the the existing shakers with more effi-
shaker cient units or 3) Add a mud
7. Workover and completion fluid cleaner/conditioner downstream
from the existing shakers.
Mud cleaners/conditioners are Any of these may be correct, but
simply a bank of hydrocyclones a thorough study of the capital cost
mounted over a fine-mesh screen. (the actual cost of new equipment,
In many instances (even with mod- plus transportation, rig modifica-
ern fine screen shakers), a finer tions, and installation) and the
separation is required than can be operating cost (screens and other
provided with existing shakers. The expendables, plus fuel) is necessary

3.23
to make the proper choice. Also, When used for this purpose, the
because of the cut points produced screen underflow from the mud
by some “modern” layered screens, cleaner/conditioner is often divert-
the use of mud cleaner/condition- ed to a separate steel waste pit for
ers may be indicated downstream vacuum truck disposal. This may
of linear motion shakers. seem counterproductive, but since
Salvage of the liquid phase of an a vacuum truck can only carry a
unweighted drilling mud often cost- limited amount of sand because of
justifies use of a mud cleaner/ the over-the-road weight restric-
conditioner when the fluid phase of tions, whenever a vacuum truck
the mud or disposal is expensive. must haul normal full-flow desilter
Compared to desanders and desil- waste, the waste must be diluted
ters, whose cyclone underflow may with rig water to reduce density.
be as much as 15 bbl/hr or more, The operator is then billed for the
mud cleaners/conditioners can haulage of a vacuum truck load
achieve efficient solids removal comprised largely of rig water. On
while returning most liquid back to the other hand, since most of the
the active mud system. Use of ultra- solids are removed in semi-dry
fine screens (200 to 325 mesh) form by the mud cleaner/condition-
significantly improves solids control er screen, the remaining solids in
in any high-value fluid system. the screen underflow are dilute
An increasingly important applica- enough to be hauled away without
tion of mud cleaners/conditioners is watering them back. Vacuum truck
the removal of drilled solids from loads often can be reduced to a
unweighted water-base mud in small fraction of those required
semi-dry form. This system is com- with full-flow desilting.
monly used in areas where This approach to dry-solids dis-
environmental restrictions prohibit posal can be carried further by
the use of earthen reserve pits, and using a centrifuge with a mud
expensive vacuum truck waste dis- cleaner/conditioner to form a
posal from steel pits is the “closed” system which eliminates
alternative. The mud cleaner/condi- discarding of any fluid. These sys-
tioner is used to discard drilled tems are being used increasingly in
solids in semi-dry form which is areas where liquid mud waste must
classified as legal landfill in most be hauled a significant distance and
areas and is subject to economical is subject to a high disposal fee.
dry-haul disposal techniques (dump In a closed system, underflow
truck or portable waste containers). from the mud cleaner/conditioner

3.24
screen is diverted to a holding tank lost circulation materials.
and then centrifuged, which results Another mud cleaner/conditioner
in disposal of very fine, semi-dry application is the clean up of
solids and return of liquid to the workover and completion fluids. In
active system. Such a system virtu- order to reduce costs associated
ally eliminates the need for reserve with this expensive task, a mud
pits, minimizes dilution, eliminates cleaner running one or two ultra-
vacuum truck services for disposal fine screens (200 over 325 mesh)
of liquid mud, and meets environ- can be used to remove most of the
mental constraints when drilling solids before they reach cartridge
within ecologically sensitive areas. type filters.
One special mud cleaner/condi- This application can significantly
tioner application is the use of a reduce filter replacement costs,
double-deck unit for salvage of reduce downtime in changing fil-
coarse lost circulation material ters, and allow larger volumes of
(LCM). Usually when running LCM, fluid to be cleaned at a faster rate.
the shale shaker is bypassed and
drilled solids build up rapidly in the INSTALLATION
mud, necessitating a high level of Installation of the mud
dilution and new mud. Use of a cleaner/conditioner is made down-
two-deck mud cleaner/conditioner stream of the shale shaker and the
allows salvage of the LCM while degasser. The same pump used to
minimizing the increase in solids feed the rig’s desander or desilter is
content. often reconnected to feed the mud
Within the mud cleaner/condi- cleaner/conditioner when weight
tioner, a coarse top screen is used material is added. (Most mud clean-
to pre-screen the mud and remove er/conditioners are designed to also
the lost circulation material. This function as desilter on unweighted
material is discharged back into the mud by rerouting the cone under-
active system for recirculation flow or by removing or blanking off
downhole. The drilled solids, mud the screen portion of the unit. The
additives and liquid phase pass mud cleaner/conditioner may then
through the top screen onto the be used to replace or augment the
lower, finer mesh screen, where the rig’s desilter during top hole
drilled solids are separated out and drilling.)
discarded. The cleaned mud then Follow these guidelines when
flows back into the mud system installing mud cleaner/conditioners
and is re-blended with the salvaged to allow peak efficiency:

3.25
• Size the mud cleaner/condi- GENERAL GUIDELINES
tioner cyclones to process To operate mud cleaner/condi-
110–125% of the full circulating tioners at maximum efficiency,
flow rate. remember these fundamentals:
• Take the mud cleaner/condi- • Operate mud cleaners/condi-
tioner suction from the tioners continuously on the full
compartment receiving fluid circulating volume to achieve
processed by the degasser maximum drilled solids
(Weighted Muds). removal.
• When using mud conditioners • Operate mud cleaners/condi-
that have both desander and tioners within the limits of the
desilter cones, use a separate screen capacity. A mud clean-
feed pump for the desander er/conditioner with a cyclone
cones and another feed pump throughput of 800 GPM is of
for the desilter cones. The little value if the cone under-
desander cone suction should flow exceeds the screen
be from the degasser discharge capacity, resulting in flooding
compartment. The desilter and high mud additive losses.
cone suction should be from • Feed the cone underflow to the
the desander discharge com- screen at a single point.
Multiple feed points on the
partment.
screening surface minimize use
• Keep all lines as short and
of the available screen area
straight as possible.
and reduce overall capacity
• Install a guard screen with
and efficiency.
approximately 1/2” openings at
• Screen throughput is reduced
the suction to prevent large by increased solids content and
trash from entering the unit viscosity. The cyclone under-
and plugging the cones. flow plays a critical role in
• Position the mud cleaner/con- overall mud cleaner/condition-
ditioner on the pit high er efficiency. It is often
enough so the overflow mani- desirable to modify the perfor-
fold will gravity-feed fluid into mance characteristics of the
the next downstream com- cones to decrease the amount
partment at an angle of of ultra fines in the cone under-
approximately 45°. flow. This minimizes near-size
• Avoid vertical overflow dis- screen plugging and barite loss
charge lines from hydrocyclones. due to “piggy-backing”.

3.26
• Do NOT judge screen efficien- Earlier mud cleaner designs with
cy simply on the basis of 12–16 cones over a single screen
cuttings dryness or color. The bed have not proven to be practi-
total amount of drilled solids in cal: the ultra-fine mesh screens
the discarded material, along simply cannot handle the under-
with the ratio of barite to flow volume from the cones.
drilled solids, must be deter- One exception to this is the mud
mined to correctly evaluate conditioner; a linear-motion shaker
economic performance. coupled with a manifold of proper-
• A technique for measuring and ly designed hydrocyclones yields a
calculating these values is high-performance Mud Cleaner/
given in Appendix B of this Conditioner with sufficient capacity
handbook. (Note: This tech- for even the largest drilling rigs.
nique is also important when Follow these general guidelines
using 100–mesh, or finer, for correct mud cleaner/conditioner
screens on shakers since these operation:
screens can also remove apprecia- • Run the mud cleaner/condi-
ble amounts.) tioner continuously while
• Select the number of cones to drilling and for a short period
be operated and the particular of time while making a trip for
mesh screen to be used “catch-up” cleaning.
according to drilling condi- • Start up the shaker portion of the
tions. As a general rule, use mud cleaner/conditioner before
the finest mesh screen possible engaging the feed pump(s).
(to process the full circulating • Shut down the feed pump(s)
rate) and size the number of before turning off the vibrating
cones accordingly. screen portion of the mud
cleaner/conditioner. Permit the
In some instances, a number of screen to clear itself, then rinse
cones will have to be blanked off in the screen with water or oil
order for the desired screen mesh to sprays before shutting down
be used. This may involve an experi- the screen portion of the unit.
mental determination of the number • For peak efficiency, operate
of cones and screen mesh to opti- the cones with a spray rather
mize performance. In some cases, than a rope discharge. This is
more than one mud cleaner/condi- just as important with a mud
tioner will be needed. The following cleaner/conditioner as with
example illustrates the point: desilters and desanders.

3.27
• Check cones regularly for bot- MAINTENANCE
tom plugging or flooding, since Maintenance of mud cleaners/
a plugged cone allows solids conditioners generally combines the
to return to the mud system. If requirements of desilters and fine
a cone bottom is plugged, screen shakers:
unplug it with a welding rod • Periodic lubrication
or similar tool. If a cone is • Check screen tension
flooding, the feed is partially • Inspect the screen to ensure it
plugged or the bottom of the is free of tears, holes, and
cone may be worn out. dried mud before start up
• When a significant amount of • Shut down unit when not cir-
culating to extend screen life
barite is added to increase mud
• Check feed manifold for plug-
weight, shut down the mud
ging of cyclone feed inlets
cleaner/conditioner for one or
• Check cyclones for excessive
two full circulations. This permits wear and replace parts as nec-
the fresh barite to thoroughly essary
mix with the system and reduce
losses over the screen. 3.5 SEPARATION BY
• Use low-volume sprays on the SETTLING AND
screen surface to reduce CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
“piggy-backing” only if 1) this Using vibrating screens to remove
liquid addition to the mud is drilled solids from mud uses only
permissible, and 2) the resul- one characteristic of solids particles
tant reduction in barite discard — their size. Another factor which
outweighs the resultant reduc- affects separation is particle density.
tion in drilled solids discard. Solids control devices which take
advantage of both particle size and
This must be determined
particle density speed up the set-
experimentally on a case-by-
tling process by application of
case basis.
centrifugal force.
These devices utilize Stoke’s Law
In some cases, adding a small as the basis for their operation.
stream of cleaned mud from the Stoke’s Law defines the relationship
hydrocyclone overflow (reflux) pro- of factors governing the settling
vides the same reduction in velocity of particles in a liquid. This
“piggy-backing” without reducing relationship may be stated in its
the overall efficiency of the unit. simplest form as:

3.28
• Check cones regularly for bot- MAINTENANCE
tom plugging or flooding, since Maintenance of mud cleaners/
a plugged cone allows solids conditioners generally combines the
to return to the mud system. If requirements of desilters and fine
a cone bottom is plugged, screen shakers:
unplug it with a welding rod • Periodic lubrication
or similar tool. If a cone is • Check screen tension
flooding, the feed is partially • Inspect the screen to ensure it
plugged or the bottom of the is free of tears, holes, and
cone may be worn out. dried mud before start up
• When a significant amount of • Shut down unit when not cir-
culating to extend screen life
barite is added to increase mud
• Check feed manifold for plug-
weight, shut down the mud
ging of cyclone feed inlets
cleaner/conditioner for one or
• Check cyclones for excessive
two full circulations. This permits wear and replace parts as nec-
the fresh barite to thoroughly essary
mix with the system and reduce
losses over the screen. 3.5 SEPARATION BY
• Use low-volume sprays on the SETTLING AND
screen surface to reduce CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
“piggy-backing” only if 1) this Using vibrating screens to remove
liquid addition to the mud is drilled solids from mud uses only
permissible, and 2) the resul- one characteristic of solids particles
tant reduction in barite discard — their size. Another factor which
outweighs the resultant reduc- affects separation is particle density.
tion in drilled solids discard. Solids control devices which take
advantage of both particle size and
This must be determined
particle density speed up the set-
experimentally on a case-by-
tling process by application of
case basis.
centrifugal force.
These devices utilize Stoke’s Law
In some cases, adding a small as the basis for their operation.
stream of cleaned mud from the Stoke’s Law defines the relationship
hydrocyclone overflow (reflux) pro- of factors governing the settling
vides the same reduction in velocity of particles in a liquid. This
“piggy-backing” without reducing relationship may be stated in its
the overall efficiency of the unit. simplest form as:

3.28
• Larger particles (of the same greatly reduces the waste water
density) settle more rapidly remediation treatment costs.
than smaller ones.
• High density solids settle 3.6 SAND TRAPS
more quickly than low density A sand trap (Figure 3-19) is a set-
ones. tling tank, usually the first
• High acceleration and low vis- compartment of the first pit in the
cosity speed up the settling rate. mud system. A shale shaker would
normally sit on top of the sand trap
Settling pits, hydrocyclones, and and discharge into it.
centrifuges all utilize this principle Sand traps can serve an important
in their operation. Settling pits sim- role in solids control by protecting
ply use the force of gravity to downstream equipment against the
separate solids. The larger and/or results of torn shale shaker screens
heavier a solid is, the faster it will or by-passed shakers by removing
settle through fluid in a settling pit. large particles which could plug
There is no way to speed up this cyclones or other equipment down-
natural settling process other than stream. In normal operation they
reducing the viscosity of the fluid, also play a minor solids removal
or flocculating the solid particles role by settling out a portion of the
with the addition of chemicals. coarse drilled solids which pass
Settling pits are often large and through the shaker screen.
require closure or remediation. The Normally, sand traps should have
reduction in waste mud achieved a top weir over which mud can
through efficient solids control flow into the next compartment, a

Figure 3-19 Cutaway View of Sand Trap

3.29
slanted bottom, and a quick-open- settling process. Feed energy is
ing, quick-closing dump valve or transformed into centrifugal force
gate so that settled solids can be dis- inside the cyclone to accelerate par-
charged with minimum fluid loss. In ticle settling in accordance with
some highly sensitive environments, Stoke’s Law. In essence, a cyclone
the extra liquids lost from dumping is a miniature settling pit which
the sand trap cannot be allowed and allows very rapid settling of solids
the desander suction is arranged to under controlled conditions.
allow processing of the sand without Hydrocyclones are important in
creating a lot of liquid waste. solids control systems because of
their ability to efficiently remove
3.7 HYDROCYCLONES particles smaller than the finest
Hydrocyclones (also referred to as mesh screens. They are also uncom-
cyclones or cones) are simple plicated devices, which make them
mechanical devices, without mov- easy to use and maintain.
ing parts, designed to speed up the A hydrocyclone (see Figure 3-20)

LIQUID DISCHARGE
CLEANED DRILLING MUD
(OVERFLOW)

FEED NOZZLE VORTEX FINDER

DRILLING MUD

SAND AND SILT, DRIVEN

DRILLING MUD MOVES TOWARD WALL AND
INWARD AND UPWARD DOWNWARD IN
AS SPIRALLING VORTEX ACCELERATING SPIRAL

SAND AND SILT

(UNDERFLOW)

Figure 3-20 Hydrocyclone

3.30
consists of a cylindrical/conical applied to the cone inlet.
shell with a small opening at the Centrifugal pumps must be prop-
bottom for underflow discharge, a erly sized for cones to operate
larger opening at the top for liquid efficiently. Centrifugal pumps are
discharge through an internal “vor- constant energy (head) devices
tex finder”, and a feed nozzle on and not constant pressure
the side of the body near the cylin- devices. Feed head is constant
drical (top) end of the cone. regardless of mud weight; pres-
Drilling mud enters the cyclone sure varies with mud weight.
using energy created by a centrifu- Although centrifugal pump theory
gal feed pump. The velocity of the and sizing exercises are beyond the
mud causes the particles to rotate scope of this text, if you are not
rapidly within the main chamber of able to properly size your centrifu-
the cyclone. Heavy, coarse solids gal pump to create 75 feet of inlet
and the liquid film around them head to your set of cyclones, it is
tend to spiral outward and down- highly recommended that you con-
ward for discharge through the tact the Technical Services Staff at
solids outlet. Light, fine solids and Brandt / EPI™ for assistance.
the liquid phase of the mud tend to Remember, more errors in hydrocy-
spiral inward and upward for dis- clone applications are made with
charge through the liquid outlet. centrifugal pumps, rather than with
Design features of cyclone units the cyclones themselves.
vary widely from supplier to suppli- The size of oilfield cyclones com-
er, and no two manufacturers’ monly varies from 4” to 12”. This
cyclones have identical operating measurement refers to the inside
efficiency, capacity or maintenance diameter of the largest, cylindrical
characteristics. section of the cyclone. In general
In the past, cyclones were com- — but not always — the larger the
monly made of cast iron with cone, the coarser its cut point and
replaceable liners and other wear the greater its throughput. Typical
parts made of rubber or cyclone throughput capacities are
polyurethane to resist abrasion. listed in Figure 3-21.
Newer designs are made entirely of Manifolding multiple cyclones in
polyurethane, and are less expen- parallel can provide sufficient
sive, last longer, and weigh less. capacity to handle the required cir-
Most well designed oilfield culating volume plus some reserve
cyclones operate most efficiently as necessary. Manifolding may ori-
when 75 feet of inlet head (±5 ft) is ent the cyclones in a vertical

3.31
 CONE
SIZE 4Ó 5Ó 6Ó 8Ó 10Ó 12Ó
(I.D.)

CAPACITY
50Ð75 70Ð80 100Ð150 150Ð250 400Ð500 400Ð500
(GPM)

FEED
PRESSURE 30Ð40 30Ð40 30Ð40 25Ð35 20Ð30 20Ð30
(PSI)

Figure 3-21 Hydrocyclone Capacities

position or nearly horizontal — the a cyclone is to discard maximum

choice is one of convenience, as it abrasive solids with minimum fluid
does not affect cyclone perfor- loss, both solids and liquid aspects
mance. of removal must be considered. (A
The internal geometry of a simple technique for comparing the
cyclone also has a great deal to do efficiencies of two cyclones is given
with its operating efficiency. The in Appendix B of this handbook.)
length and angle of the conical sec- In a cyclone, larger particles have
tion (and the ratio of cone diameter a higher probability of reporting to
to cone length), the size and shape the bottom underflow (apex) open-
of the feed inlet, the size of the vor- ing, while smaller particles are
tex finder, and the size and more likely to report to the top
adjustment means of the underflow (overflow) opening. The most com-
opening all play important roles in mon method of illustrating particle
a cyclone’s effective separation of separation in cyclones is through a
solids particles. cut point curve.
Operating efficiencies of cyclones Figure 3-22 shows the approxi-
may be measured in several differ- mate cut point ranges for cyclones
ent ways, but since the purpose of used with unweighted water-base

CONE
SIZE 4Ó 5Ó 6Ó 8Ó 10Ó 12Ó
(I.D.)

CUT
POINT 15Ð20µ 20Ð25µ 25Ð30µ 30Ð40µ 30Ð40µ 40Ð60µ
(MICRONS)

Figure 3-22 Hydrocyclone Capacities

3.32
mud and operated at 75 feet ±5 feet
of inlet head.

HYDROCYCLONE CUT POINT feed

Particle separation in cyclones can

vary considerably depending on
such factors as feed head, mud
weight, percent solids, and proper- NO CROWDING CROWDING
AT THE APEX AT THE APEX
ties of the liquid phase of the mud.
Generally speaking, increasing any SPRAY DISCHARGE ROPE DISCHARGE
of these factors will shift the cut
point curve to the right, increasing Figure 3-23 Spray v. Rope Discharge
the size of solids actually separated
by the cyclone. by the inner spiral reporting to the
By itself, the cut point does not overflow. Solids which otherwise
determine a cyclone’s overall effi- would be separated are forced into
ciency because it ignores the liquid the overflow stream and returned
loss rate. The amount of fluid in the to the mud system. This type of dis-
cone underflow is important; if the charge can also lead to plugged
solids are too dry, they can cause cones and much higher cyclone
“roping” or “dry-plugging” of the wear.
underflow. While a spraying cyclone appears
In contrast, a cyclone operating to discharge more fluid, the benefits
with a spray discharge (see Figure of more efficient solids removal and
3-23) gives solids a free path to less cone wear outweigh the addi-
exit. A cone operating in spray dis- tional fluid loss. In cases where a
charge will remove a significantly dry discharge is required, the
greater amount of solids than a underflow from hydrocyclones can
cone in “rope” discharge. be screened or centrifuged to
recover the free liquid.
ROPE DISCHARGE
3.8 DESANDERS
Hydrocyclones should not be
Desanders are hydrocyclones larger
operated in rope discharge because
than 5” in diameter (6”, 8”, 10” or 12”
it will drastically reduce the cone
ID). Generally, the smaller the cone,
separating efficiency. In a rope dis-
the smaller size particles the cone
charge, the solids become crowded
will separate (see Figure 3-24).
at the apex, cannot exit freely from
Desanders are primarily used to
the underflow, and become caught

3.33
 Figure 3-24
Particle Removal by Desander Cyclones (200 Mesh Screen Included for Comparison)

remove the high volumes of solids • Keep all lines as short and
associated with extremely fast straight as possible with a min-
drilling of a large diameter hole. imum of pipe fittings. This will
Desanders are installed down- reduce loss of head on the
stream from the shale shaker and feed line and minimize back-
degasser. The desander removes pressure on the overflow
sand sized particles and larger discharge line.
drilled solids which have passed • Do not reduce the diameter of
through the shaker screen and dis- the overflow line from that of
cards them along with some liquid the overflow discharge mani-
into a waste pit. The partially clean fold.
mud is discharged into the next pit • Direct the overflow line down-
downstream. ward into the next downstream
compartment at an angle of
INSTALLATION approximately 45°. The over-
When installing a desander, follow flow discharge line should not
these general recommendations: be installed in a vertical posi-
• Size the desander to process tion — doing so may cause
110–125% of the total mud cir- excessive vacuum on the dis-
culation rate. charge header and pull solids

3.34
 through the cyclone overflow, MAINTENANCE
reducing the cyclone’s efficien- Maintenance of desanders normal-
cy. ly entails no more than checking all
• Keep the end of the discharge cone parts for excessive wear and
line above the surface of the flushing out the feed manifold
mud to avoid creating a vacu- between wells. Large trash may col-
um in the line. lect in feed manifolds which could
• Position the underflow trough cause cone plugging during opera-
to easily direct solids to the tion. Preventive maintenance
waste pit. minimizes downtime, and repairs
• Install a low equalizer line to are simpler between wells than dur-
permit backflow into the ing drilling.
desander suction. Operating Use of desanders is normally dis-
desanders at peak efficiency is continued when expensive
a simple matter, since most materials such as barite and poly-
desanders are relatively mers are added to a drilling mud,
uncomplicated devices. because a desander will discard a
high proportion of these materials
Here are a few fundamental prin- along with the drilled solids.
ciples to keep in mind: Similarly, desanders are not gener-
• Operate the desander unit at ally cost effective when an oil-base
the supplier’s recommended mud is in use, because the cones
feed head (usually around 75 also discard a significant amount of
feet). Too low a feed head the liquid phase.
decreases efficiency, while
excessive feed head shortens 3.9 DESILTERS
the life of cyclone wear parts. A desilter uses smaller hydro-
• Check cones regularly to cyclones (usually 4” or 5” ID) than
ensure the discharge orifice is a desander and therefore generally
not plugged. removes smaller particles. The
• Run the desander continuously smaller cones enable a desilter to
while drilling and shortly after make the finest particle size separa-
beginning a trip for “catch-up” tion of any full flow solids control
cleaning. equipment — removing solids in
• Operate the desander with a the range of 15 microns and larger
spray rather than a rope dis- (Figure 3-25). This makes it an
charge to maintain peak important device for reducing aver-
efficiency. age particle size and removing

3.35
 Figure 3-25
Particle Removal by Desilter Cyclones (200 Mesh Screen Included for Comparison)

abrasive grit from unweighted mud. • Take the desilter suction from
The cyclones in desilter units the compartment receiving
operate on the same principle as fluid processed by the
the cyclones used on desanders. desander.
They simply make a finer cut, and • Do NOT use the same pump to
the individual cone throughput feed both the desander and
capacities are less than desander desilter. If both pieces of
cones. Multiple cones are usually equipment are to be operated
manifolded in a single desilter unit at the same time, they should
to meet throughput requirements. be installed in series and each
Desilters should be sized to process should have its own centrifugal
110–125% of the full rig flow rate. pump.
• Keep all lines as short and
INSTALLATION straight as possible.
Installation of desilters is normally • Install a guard screen with
downstream from the shale shaker, approximately 1/2” openings at
sand trap, degasser and desander, the suction to the desilter to
and should allow ample space for prevent large trash from enter-
maintenance. Here are some funda- ing the unit and plugging the
mentals for installing desilters: cones.

3.36
• Position the desilter on the pit Appendix B for comparing two
high enough so the overflow desanders will work to compare the
manifold will gravity-feed fluid efficiencies of competing desilters
into the next downstream com- operating on the same rig.
partment at an angle of
approximately 45°. Remember GUIDELINES
— no vertical overflow dis- To operate desilters at maximum
charge lines. efficiency, follow these basic guide-
• Keep the end of the discharge lines:
line above the surface of the • Operate the cones with a spray
mud to avoid creating a vacu- discharge. Never operate the
um in the line. desilter cones with a rope dis-
• Install a low equalizer line for charge since a rope underflow
backflow to the desilter’s suc- cuts cone efficiency in half or
tion compartment. worse, causes cone plugging,
• Position the underflow trough and increases wear on cones.
to easily direct solids to the Use enough cones and adjust
waste pit. the cone underflow openings
to maintain a spray pattern.
Running a desander ahead of a • Operate the desilter unit at the
desilter takes a big load off the supplier’s recommended feed
desilter and improves its efficiency. head. This is generally
If the drilling rate is slow and the between 70–80 feet of head.
amount of solids being drilled is Too much energy will result in
only a few hundred pounds per excessive cone wear.
hour, then the desander may be • Check cones regularly for bot-
turned off (to save fuel and mainte- tom plugging or flooding, since
nance costs) and the desilter may a plugged cone allows solids
be used to carry the total desand- to return to the mud system. If
ing/desilting load. Appendix C a cone bottom is plugged,
includes a chart to calculate the unplug it with a welding rod
pounds per hour of solids generat- or similar tool. If a cone is
ed for a range of hole size and rate flooding, the feed is partially
of penetration. plugged or the bottom of the
Operating efficiencies of competi- cone may be worn out.
tive desilters vary widely according • Run the desilter continuously
to differences in design features. while drilling and also for a
The same technique described in short while during a trip. The

3.37
 extra cleaning during the trip ciable amount of barite, because
can reduce overload conditions barite particles fall within the silt
during the period of high size range. Desilters are therefore
solids loading immediately not recommended for use with
after a trip. weighted mud. Similarly, since
hydrocyclones discard some
MAINTENANCE absorbed liquid along with the
A desilter’s smaller cyclones are drilled solids, desilters are not nor-
more likely than desander cones to mally used with oil-base mud,
become plugged with oversized unless another device (centrifuge or
solids, so it is important to inspect mud cleaner/conditioner) is used to
them often for wear and plugging. “deliquor” the cone underflow.
This may generally be done
between wells unless a malfunction 3.10 DECANTING
occurs while drilling. The feed CENTRIFUGE
manifold should be flushed Centrifuges for oilfield applica-
between wells to remove trash. tions were first introduced in the
Keep the shale shaker well main- early 1950s. These early units were
tained — never bypass the shaker adapted from existing industrial
or allow large pieces of material to decanting centrifuges. In the mid-
get into the active system. 1960s, a perforated rotor type
A desilter will discard an appre- machine was developed which

SCROLL
SCROLL FEED CHAMBER

BOWL

WEIRS
FEED PIPE

DRILLING
MUD

HOLLOW LIQUID DISCHARGE

SOLIDS DISCHARGE SHAFT

Figure 3-26 Decanting Centrifuge

3.38
does not perform like a pure wall, forming a layer. These solids
decanter. Commonly called “barite are pushed by a screw conveyor
recovery” centrifuges, these early across a drainage deck, or beach.
designs were limited in capacity Dewatering actually takes place on
and application. Today, the cen- the beach, with the decanted solids
trifuge is even more important part discharged through a series of
of solids control. In addition, the underflow ports. A gear box
increased use of low-solids mud changes the relative speed of the
and environmental dewatering conveyor to the bowl, causing them
applications require higher process to rotate at slightly different rates.
volumes, greater clarification and This speed differential is required
solids capacity, and additional fine to convey and discharge solids.
solids removal. The bowl and conveyor are rotat-
Equipment selection is decided by ed at speeds between 1500 and
site specific requirements. Proper 4000 rpm depending on bowl diam-
system selection is the first step to eter. This rotation develops
effective solids control. centrifugal force sufficient to settle
solids along the inner surface of the
SEPARATION PROCESS bowl wall. A gearbox is used to
A Decanting Centrifuge is so rotate the conveyor and bowl at
named because it Decants, or slightly different speeds (slower or
removes, free liquid from separated faster). This speed differential con-
solids. A decanting centrifuge con- veys and discharges solids from the
sists of a conveyor screw inside a machine.
rotating bowl, see Figure 3-26. Mud, (sometimes diluted with
Decanting centrifuges operate on water), is pumped into the convey-
the principle of exposing the or hub through the feed tube. As
process fluid to increased “G- the conveyor rotates, centrifugal
forces”, thus accelerating the force pushes the feed mud out the
settling rate of solids in the fluid. A feed ports into the bowl. The
rotating bowl creates high G-forces heavy, coarse particles in the mud
and forms a liquid pool inside the are forced against the inner surface
bowl. of the bowl, where the scraping
The free liquid and finer solids motion of the conveyor blades
flow toward the larger end of the moves them toward the solids dis-
centrifuge and are removed through charge ports. A drainage deck,
the effluent overflow weirs. The called the beach, is where dewater-
larger solids settle against the bowl ing of the solids actually takes

3.39
place. The deliquified solids are required to compensate for increas-
then discharged through a series of ing viscosity, generally associated
underflow ports. with increasing mud weight, in
The light, fine solids tend to order to maintain satisfactory sepa-
remain in suspension in the pools ration efficiency. The raw mud feed
between the conveyor flights and rate is substantially decreased as
are carried out the overflow ports mud weight increases.
along with the liquid phase of the In field operation, the decanting
mud. The operating principle is centrifuge is fitted with a housing
similar to that of the cyclone, but it over the bowl, liquid and solids
is mechanical rotation rather than collection hoppers, skid, feed slurry
fluid head which induces the cen- pump, raw mud and dilution liquid
trifugal force required to accelerate connections, power source, meters
the particle settling rate. Residence and controls.
time of fluid in the bowl and a
more “gentle” separation environ- WEIGHTED MUD
ment differentiate separation in a APPLICATIONS
centrifuge from that of a cyclone. The classic application of cen-
Centrifuges make the finest cut of trifuges while drilling takes
any separation device used on the advantage of their ability to make a
rig, usually 2–5 microns. very fine cut — on the order of
Bowl sizes in common oilfield 5–10 microns — when treating
applications include diameters of weighted water-base mud. In this
14”, 15”, 18”, and 24”. Larger 24” application, centrifuges are used
diameter units generally have the intermittently to process a small
highest liquid throughput and solids portion of the volume circulated
tonnage capacity. from the well bore to reduce the
In unweighted mud applications, amount of colloidal-sized and
feed mud capacity can range from improve the flow properties of the
25–250 gpm, depending on unit mud. Viscosity can be effectively
capability and fluid requirements. controlled by discarding a relatively
Solids tonnage rates range from small amount of colloidal size solids
1.25 tons/hour to 8 tons/hour. and replacing the discarded liquid
In weighted mud applications, with fresh make-up water.
feed mud capacity rarely exceeds To remove these colloidal solids,
25 GPM. Total liquid throughput the liquid fraction from the
may be as high as 40 GPM, includ- decanter (or the lighter slurry frac-
ing dilution liquid. Dilution liquid is tion from the perforated cylinder

3.40
centrifuge) is discarded. The sand- the centrifuge — to control viscosi-
size and silt-size semi-dry solids ty by removal of colloidal size
fraction from the decanter (or the particles. Centrifuges should be run
heavier slurry fraction from the per- when viscosity reaches the opera-
forated cylinder centrifuge) is tor-established maximum, and the
returned to the active system. machine’s operation should be
Installation of a centrifuge is usual- stopped when viscosity reaches the
ly downstream from all other solids established minimum.
control equipment. Ideally, suction The maximum and minimum lim-
for a centrifuge mud feed would be its should be established as part of
taken from the same pit or compart- the overall mud program. Viscosity
ment which receives the discharge will normally creep up when cen-
from a mud cleaner/conditioner. trifuges are shut down due to the
The centrifuge underflow (solids) size degradation of mud solids,
should be discharged to a well- hence the need for restarting the
stirred spot in the pit for thorough unit. Both over-centrifuging and
mixing with whole mud before the under-centrifuging should be avoid-
solids have a chance to settle out in ed, as the economics of operation
the bottom of the pit. This is espe- are greatly reduced under these cir-
cially important with a decanter, cumstances.
which discharges damp solids, and When centrifuging a weighted
of lesser importance with a perfo- mud, bentonite and chemicals must
rated cylinder centrifuge, which be added back to the mud system.
discharges a pumpable slurry. With The amount of replacement ben-
either type of machine, the under- tonite may be calculated exactly
flow discharge should not be too from mass balance equations, but a
close to the rig pump suction. The good rule of thumb is to add about
overflow (liquid/colloidal solids) one sack of bentonite per hour of
gravity-feed down a constantly centrifuge operation. “Under-cen-
sloping chute or pipe to waste. trifuging” simply will not achieve
Sufficient working space should be the desired reduction in viscosity.
provided for routine maintenance Other applications of decanting
and operating adjustments to the centrifuges have become more
centrifuge. important in recent years because of
Operation of centrifuges in this the decanter’s ability to remove free
application is generally intermittent liquid from the solids discharge. As
rather than continuous. This again part of a “closed loop”, the decanting
relates to the standard purpose of centrifuge is used to dewater the

3.41
under-flow from hydrocyclones and ing more popular for processing
remove ultra-fine particles from the unweighted oil mud, especially if 1)
active mud system. Multiple cen- the mud has been brought in from
trifuges are not uncommon, operated another location and may contain a
either in parallel or in series. large amount of fine drilled solids,
Chemical enhancement (through the 2) slow, hard drilling with a gradual
use of coagulants, flocculants, and buildup of ultra-fine solids is antici-
other chemicals) is becoming more pated or 3) the liquid mud phase is
popular as an economical way to valuable.
reduce dilution requirements and
overall waste volume for haul-off WEIGHTED OIL-BASE
and disposal. MUD APPLICATIONS
The main difference of centrifuge In weighted, oil-base mud applica-
use in these applications versus tions, decanting centrifuges are
their use for viscosity control in
operated in series. The first unit
weighted mud is the continuous
returns the coarse solids fraction
use of the centrifuge and the rout-
(weight material ) to the active sys-
ing of the two discharge streams.
tem, with the light, liquid fraction
UNWEIGHTED MUD being routed to a holding tank (rather
APPLICATIONS than being discarded as in a classic
weighted mud application). A second
In the classic weighted mud appli-
unit, often a higher capacity machine,
cation the solids discharge
(containing the majority of the strips out the solids and discards
weighting material) is returned to them, returning the effluent to the
the mud system. The liquid effluent active system.
(containing the majority of the col- This process is not as effective as
loidal size solids) is discarded. a single unit for viscosity control —
As part of a “closed loop”, larger a large portion of the colloidal size
high capacity (75–250 GPM) solids are returned to the active
decanting centrifuges (and some- mud system in the effluent stream
times standard centrifuges) are used of the second unit — but the efflu-
to maximize fine solids removal. ent stream from the first unit is too
The coarser solids fraction is dis- valuable to discard, especially with
carded in dry form, while the liquid synthetic oil muds. Usually the
and colloidal solids fraction is coarse solids fraction is discarded
returned to the mud system. and the base fluid is retained for re-
Decanting centrifuges are becom- use.

3.42
OPERATING PROCEDURES by mechanical solids control equip-
Operating procedures will vary ment.
from model to model, but a few
universal principles apply to almost
MUD GUNS
all centrifuges: For many years Mud Guns (see
• Before starting a centrifuge, Figure 3-27) were used as the sole
rotate the bowl or cylinder by means of agitation. These devices
hand to be sure it turns freely. usually carry mud from a down-
• Start up the centrifuge before stream compartment and spray it at
starting the mud feed pump high velocity into an
and dilution water feed. upstream compart-
• Set the raw mud and dilution ment to keep solids
feed rates according to the suspended.
manufacturer’s recommenda- However, the true
tions (usually variable with mixing effect of mud
mud weight). guns tends to be
• Remember to turn the feed and localized around the
dilution water off before the point where the noz-
machine is stopped. zle spray discharges,
Centrifuges are relatively easy to leaving dead spots in
other areas of the
operate, but they require special
tank. Mud guns also
skills for repair and maintenance.
increase the load on
Rig maintenance of centrifuges is
downstream solids Figure 3-27
limited to routine lubrication and
control equipment, Mud Gun
speed adjustment of the unit.
since each nozzle may add 100—
3.11 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT 200 GPM of mud into the tank
above and beyond the normal flow
from the well.
AGITATION/MIXING
All compartments in an active MECHANICAL AGITATORS
mud system other than the sand Mechanical Agitators (see Figure
trap must be agitated in order to 3-28) provide more thorough mix-
suspend solids and maintain a con- ing of pits without the problems
sistent mixture throughout the associated with mud guns. Agitators
surface system. Suspension of the use an electric motor to drive
solids prevents their settling and impeller blades which flow the
keeps them in the active mud sys- mud in a pattern throughout the
tem so that they can be separated tank.

3.43
 cy when pumping gas-cut mud, and
the cones will not function properly
if feed head fluctuates or if there is
gas in the incoming mud. Also,
recirculation of gas-cut mud is dan-
gerous and could result in a
blowout, since the density of gas-
cut mud is lighter than the mud
weight that should be maintained in
the well bore.
There are three basic methods of
degassing which can be utilized
separately or in combination. The
three degassing techniques are:
atmospheric, vacuum and cyclonic.

ATMOSPHERIC DEGASSERS
Figure 3-28 Mechanical Agitator
Atmospheric Degassers sit in the
Given proper tank design, agitator mud tank and consist of an elevat-
sizing, and impeller placement, this ed spray chamber and a submerged
method of agitation prevents set- centrifugal pump. The gas-cut mud
tling, enhances the efficiency of is pumped to the spray chamber at
solids removal devices, and main- high velocity through a disc valve.
tains a well blended mud system. The mud strikes the inside wall of
the spray chamber with enough
DEGASSERS force to drive most of the
After passing through a shale entrapped gas out of the mud. The
shaker and a sand trap, all drilling removed gas is usually discharged
mud should be directed through a to atmosphere at pit level and the
degasser, see Figure 3-29. Degassers degassed mud returned to the
are often essential to the solids active system. These devices are
removal process to ensure the simple to operate and maintain, but
proper performance of hydrocy- their effectiveness is often limited
clones used in downstream solids
by the ability of the centrifugal
control devices. The centrifugal
pump to handle gas-cut mud. A
pumps that feed the cyclones have
second method of degassing is pro-
difficulty maintaining their efficien-
vided by the use of a vacuum.

3.44
 Figure 3-29 Degassers

VACUUM-TYPE DEGASSERS degasser spreads the mud into thin

Vacuum-type Degassers separate sheets through centrifugal force,
sprays the mud onto an impact
gas bubbles from drilling mud by
shield for residual gas separation,
spreading the gas-cut mud into thin
and draws off the gases with a vac-
layers and then drawing off the
uum pump.
gases with a vacuum pump. The
mud is usually thinned by flowing it INSTALLATION
over a series of baffles or plates. Actual placement of the degasser
Vacuum degassers are normally and related pump will vary with the
skid-mounted and installed on top design of the degasser, but these
of the mud tanks. recommendations may be used as a
Some models incorporate more general rule:
than one degassing technique with- • Install a screen in the inlet pipe
in a single unit. For example, one to the degasser to keep large

3.45
 objects from being drawn into • Check all fittings for air leaks.
the degassing chamber. Locate • If the unit uses a hydraulic sys-
the screen about one foot tem, check it for leaks, proper
above the pit bottom and in a oil level, and absence of air in
well-agitated spot. the system.
• There should be a high equal-
izer line between the suction DRYING SHAKERS
and discharge compartment. A drying shaker, or dryer, is a
The equalizer should be kept vibrating screen separator used to
open to allow backflow of remove free liquid from cuttings
processed mud to the suction prior to discharge and recover the
side of the degasser. liquid for re-use. Drying shakers are
• Route the liquid discharge pipe usually installed to process the cut-
to enter the next compartment
tings discharged from primary
or pit below mud level to pre-
scalping and/or fine screen shakers.
vent aeration.
A typical drying shaker is a linear-
• Install the gas discharge line to
motion, multi-screen unit, with a
safely vent the separated gas to
feed hopper in place of the tradi-
atmosphere or to a flare line.
tional back tank. Drying shakers are
optimized to provide maximum
Maintenance of degassers varies
considerably depending on make retention time and cuttings dryness.
and model. In general, the follow- Large hole sizes or high penetration
ing guidelines apply: rates may require more than one
• Check to make sure the suction drying shaker to provide acceptable
screen is not plugged. cuttings dryness and liquid recovery.
• Routinely lubricate any pumps Shale shakers are often the cause
and other moving parts and of excess mud loss during drilling
check for wear. operations, primarily due to screen-
• Keep all discharge lines open ing too fine for drilling conditions
and free from restrictions, such and the design of some shakers.
as caused by solids buildup This mud loss can greatly increase
around valves. mud costs and site clean-up costs,
• If the degasser utilizes a vacu- especially when oil-base muds,
um, keep it at the proper OBM, or synthetic-base muds, SBM,
operating level, according to are used. One characteristic of SBM
the manufacturer’s recom- is the increased amount of liquid
mended range for the mud retained on the cuttings, compared
weight and process rate. to WBM or conventional OBM.

3.46
The drying shaker is designed to amount of oil remaining on the cut-
expose wet drilled cuttings to an tings!
additional vibrating screen surface Since the amount of oil remaining
and separate some of the bound on the cutting is a function of expo-
liquid coating the surface of the sure time, screen deck length and
solids. The liquid is then returned deck angle will greatly influence
to the active system or transferred cuttings dryness. Screen deck
to a storage tank for future use. length determines the distance a
cutting must travel prior to dis-
DRYING SHAKER DESIGN charge and deck angle influences
The first drying shakers were retention time — the longer the
“high-G” units, operating at 6.5 to 8 screen deck and the steeper the
Gs. Prevalent thinking was that the deck angle, the greater the reten-
additional impact force provided by tion time. However, longer screen
the higher G-force would improve decks may not fit the available
cuttings dryness. Recent field stud- space and too steep a deck angle
ies indicate this is not necessarily will result in cuttings grinding and
true. unacceptable build-up of fine
Oil content on cuttings is primari- solids.
ly a function of retention time on Field tests indicate the optimum
the screen surface and the exposure dryer design provides about 4–5 Gs
of the cutting to the vibrational of force, with a deck design that is
force of the shaker. The G-force flat at the feed end to reduce cut-
greatly affects the speed at which tings grinding and maximize
cuttings move from the feed end of usable screen area. The discharge
the screen surface to the discharge screens should be sloped uphill at
end. At 4 Gs, the conveyance rate is 2.5° to 5° to increase retention time
close to 1 inch per second, while at and maximize cuttings dryness.
7 Gs the conveyance rate is about 5
inches per second. INSTALLATION
Given a screen length of 24 inch- • Locate the drying shaker(s) at a
es and operation at 4 Gs, a cutting lower level from the main lin-
will take approximately 24 seconds ear shakers and other solids
to travel from the feed end of the control equipment. Feed to
screen to the discharge end. the drying shaker should be
Increasing the G-force to 7 G’s through open hopper sized to
reduces the exposure time to 6 sec- eliminate solids build-up or
onds and will actually increase the plugging. Cuttings should be

3.47
 evenly deposited as close to than the screen mesh of the
the feed end of the drying drying shaker. The recovered
shaker as possible to maximize liquid should be processed
usable screen area and cuttings through a decanting centrifuge
dryness. to remove ultra-fine solids
• Provide slides or conveyors to before the mud is returned to
direct “dry” cuttings to solids the active system or storage
collection bins or discharge tank. In some installations, the
chutes decanting centrifuge may be
• Supply a flooded pump suction eliminated, but only after care-
in the liquid collection tank for ful consideration of cuttings
transfer by pump to the desired size and their effect on fluid
storage or processing tank. properties.
• The mesh of the screens on the
drying shaker should be close 3.12 UNITIZED SYSTEMS
to, or finer than, the screens Since 1976, several solids control
on the main shakers to prevent manufacturers have developed
the re-introduction of separat- complete packages of skid-mounted
ed solids to the active system. solids control devices, including all
* Use three-dimensional, Pin- supporting tanks, piping, pumps,
nacle™ screen panels at the motors and accessories. These “uni-
feed end of the dryer to usable tized” systems maximize solids
increase screen area. The mid- control efficiency, ease transporta-
dle screen panel may be either tion and installation, and often
a 3-D or flat panel, depending provide a very high efficiency sys-
on deck angle and desired tem for ecologically sensitive
fluid end point. The discharge drilling sites.
end screen should be a flat Components of unitized systems
screen panel to minimize cut- can vary depending on manufactur-
tings bed depth and maximize er and the particular drilling
liquid recovery. application, but most include one
• Adjust screen deck angle or more of the basic separation
design to properly convey devices installed in series: fine
solids, reduce liquid loss, and screen shaker, degasser, desander,
prevent cuttings grinding. desilter, mud cleaner/conditioner,
• The liquid recovered from the and centrifuge. Desilting require-
drilled cuttings will contain ments are usually met by blanking
base fluid, plus any solids finer off the screens on the mud clean-

3.48
 Figure 3-30 Brandt/EPI™ ISCS unitized System

er/conditioners and operating them 3.13 RIG ENHANCED

as desilters as appropriate. Sand SYSTEMS
traps and agitators are also standard Recent advances in shaker design,
equipment in most units (See along with the custom requirements
Figure 3-30). of operators and increasing empha-
In well-designed systems, all sis on environmental impact, have
pieces of equipment, including created another type of system —
pumps and motors, are properly the Rig-Enhanced System. Like the
sized to provide the greatest degree unitized systems, Rig-Enhanced
of efficiency in the smallest amount Systems (RES) are designed so all
of space. Piping is engineered for pieces of equipment, including
optimum fluid handling with the pumps and motors, are properly
shortest practical suction and dis- sized to provide the greatest degree
charge lines. of efficiency in the smallest amount
Normally the only installation of space. However, RESs utilize as
required for these units is to feed much of the existing rig equipment
the flow line from the well into the and tanks as possible to simplify
shale shaker, connect a discharge installation, reduce equipment cost,
line from the unitized system into and allow further customization of
the rig suction pit, and make the a system for a specific application.
electrical and water connections. Suppliers of both systems com-
The suction pit remains a necessary monly provide 24 hour on-site
part of the surface system in order service for all components in the
to provide mud volume capacity system, which greatly improves
and as a place for mixing-in mud overall efficiency and simplifies
additives. maintenance procedures from the
driller’s standpoint. Considering the

3.49
importance of solids control in solidification, or cuttings discharge
deep drilling and the growing con- into water tight containers for trans-
cern over environmental impact of port to approved waste facilities.
mud waste disposal, these systems In addition to their primary goal,
will be used more often in the “closed loop” systems minimize
future. drilled solids remaining in the
drilling fluid. This reduces dilution
3.14 HIGH EFFICIENCY requirements, waste volume, and
SOLIDS REMOVAL drilling problems. Therefore,
SYSTEMS “closed loop” systems have many
The goal of high efficiency solids applications other than environ-
removal systems, often called mental ones.
“closed loop” systems, is to limit The benefit of a “closed loop”
waste discharge to disposable solids system comes from increased solids
and clear water. These systems removal efficiency with unweighted
combine the equipment found in fluids, including clear brines, and
Section 3.12 with chemically- reduced discharge volume with
enhanced solids removal and weighted fluids. This performance
specialized solids handling tech- has proven extremely effective in
niques. The water is often recycled environmentally sensitive areas or
on location for building new mud, whenever cuttings and liquid mud
as rig wash water, or used for irri- must be hauled from the location
gation. A “closed loop” system prior to disposal. This system pro-
often includes multiple shale shak- vides best results when combined
ers and centrifuges to achieve a with constant, on-pit attention and
high efficiency of performance in supervision. Solids Removal
the large upper hole sections of the Efficiency of 75–95% is typical, with
well where wastes and circulating a 50–55% Solids Discharge
volumes are the greatest. Concentration.
Enhanced solids removal is Proper installation and operation
accomplished with chemical addi- are equally important. Here are a
tion to “pre-treat” the fluid prior to few guidelines to keep in mind:
screening or centrifugation. Pre- • Fines stay with the liquid; that
treatment can include pH is, the smallest particles (col-
adjustment, flocculation/coagula- loidal sized) usually remain
tion, or similar treatment. with the liquid phase of the
Solids handling techniques mud, while the larger particles
include washing cuttings to remove — sand, cuttings, etc. — are
excess chlorides or residual oil, removed from the liquid.

3.50
• Size each piece of full-flow valve within 5 feet of suction
solids control equipment, of a centrifugal pump, as this
except the centrifuges, to han- will drastically reduce the life
dle 110–125% of circulating of the pump.
volume (in order to handle • For maximum efficiency,
backflow within compartments, cyclones should emit a spray
volume from mud guns, etc.). discharge rather than a rope
• Always use the finest mesh discharge.
screen possible that will meet • Use only as many cones on a
throughput and screen life mud cleaner/conditioner as
requirements. required to meet flow capacity,
• Often when a solids control in order to extend screen life
device fails to perform, as it and to avoid flooding the
should, the cause is improper screen.
installation, not equipment • Remember size constraints and
malfunction. possible sloshing and spillage
• Install equipment in proper in rough seas when designing
sequence: as the mud moves offshore systems.
downstream, each device • Special winterizing measures
removes progressively smaller — a shed around the pits,
particles. Never try to make a drains in pumps, steam lines,
single device remove all parti- etc. — may be required in
cle sizes — it is better to allow areas of extreme cold in order
each device to remove its par- to ensure proper functioning of
ticular size range within an the solids control equipment.
overall solids control system. • Size it, install it, operate it
• Each piece of solids control RIGHT!
equipment should discharge
into the next compartment 3.15 BASIC ARRANGEMENT
downstream from where its RULES
suction is taken. Mechanical solids control is the
• All compartments other than most cost-effective method to con-
the sand trap should be agitat- trol drilled solids. The benefits of
ed, preferably by mechanical proper solids control are discussed
agitators. in detail in Section 2. Proper solids
• Keep all piping as short and control requires:
straight as possible. • Proper planning before the
• Never install a 90° elbow or well begins

3.51
• Proper selection, installation, • Upstream Flow Through
and operation of available Equalizer – If the flow into the
equipment suction compartment is greater
• Routine monitoring of fluid than the rate of flow processed
properties to optimize perfor- by the equipment, then mud is
mance flowing downstream through
• Sequential Treatment – It fol- the equalizer. In other words,
lows from previous recom- the flow through compartment
mendations that the solids con- equalizers should always be
trol equipment should be from the discharge to the suc-
arranged so that each piece of tion. If it is not then mud is
equipment removes succes- bypassing the equipment.
sively finer solids. • Dedicated Feed Pumps –
• Compartment Mixing – To pro- Manifolding pumps and equip-
vide a uniform solids load to ment so that multiple
the equipment each compart-
configurations are available
ment, except the sand trap,
depending on valve positions
should be well stirred. If mud
is always a mistake. There
guns are used they should be
should be only one button to
arranged so that no flow
push to begin the pump and
bypasses the solids control
the discharge valve opened
equipment. Agitators are
preferable. slowly to begin operation of
• Arrangement – Each piece of the solids control unit.
solids control equipment must • Use a separate centrifugal
be arranged so that the suction pump for each hydrocyclone
is taken from a compartment device (do not use the same
upstream of the discharge pump for more than one piece
compartment, i.e., there must of equipment).
be a wall or division with an
equalizer opening between the Equipment selection is decided by
suction and discharge, even if site-specific requirements. Proper
it is boards placed in the tank system selection is the first step to
temporarily. effective solids control.

3.52