Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure Ms Simran Shahani

Discovery of Electrons:
The lightest particle in an atom is the electron which carries a negative charge and was
discovered by [Link] and William crooks.
Q. How are Cathode Rays produced? What are its major characteristics?
A. Experiment conducted which led to the discovery of an electron:
The apparatus used for this type of experiment is called discharge tube which consists of glass
tube fitted with two metal electrodes connected to a high voltage source and a vacuum pump.
When electrodes inside evacuated, discharge tube are connected with high voltage source at very
low pressure (1mm of Hg), as the high voltage current start passing between electrodes a streak
of bluish light originate and travel in straight line from cathode (-ve electrode) to anode (+ve
electrode), which caused a glow at the wall of opposite end. These rays are known as cathode
rays.
The Cathode rays were deflected towards positive plate in electric and magnetic field which
shows that these rays possess negative charge and it is due to this negative charge, the particle
was named an Electron.
Properties of Cathode Rays (Electrons)

 They travel in a straight line from cathode towards Anode.

 They produce sharp shadow of an opaque object placed in their path.
 They have negative charge and bend towards positive plate in electric and magnetic field.
 These rays when strike with glass and other material cause material glow.
 The (e/m) charge and mass ratio of cathode particles is 1.7588x10 8 coulomb per gram. This is
same for all electrons, regardless of any gas in discharge tube.
 They can produce mechanical pressure indicating they possess kinetic energy (K.E).

Discovery of Protons: (Q. How are Anode/Canal Rays/Protons produced? What are its major
characteristics?
Goldstein discovered the particle and Thomson investigated the properties of a proton.
Experiment: Protons were observed in the same apparatus of the cathode rays tube but with
perforated cathode. It was discovered that the positively charged cathode rays passed through
the holes of cathode, where upon striking, the tube glows. Hence, these rays became known as
Canal Rays (proton).
Remember: Canal rays are not emitted by the anode, rather they are produced due to stricking of
electrons with the residual gas molecules in the discharge tube. Electrons ionize the gas
molecules.

Ms Simran Shahani
 Properties of Anode Rays (also known as Canal Rays)

 They travel in straight line from Anode towards Cathode.

 They produce sharp shadow of object placed in their path.
 They have positive charge and bend towards negative plate in electric and magnetic field.
 The (e/m) charge and mass ratio of positive particles is much smaller than electron. It varies
according to nature of gas present in tube.
 The mass of proton is 1836 times more than electron.
Q. Define:
Atomic number (Z): The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called Atomic Number.
Atomic number represented by Z. The elements are identified by their atomic number.
Atomic number = Z = Number of protons in nucleus = Total number of electrons around nucleus
Mass number (A): The total sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the
mass number. It is represented by A.
(Mass no) A = (no. of protons) Z + (no. of neutrons) N
Q. List down the Properties of Neutrons, Electrons and Protons

Neutrons Electrons Protons

They are neutral particles They are negative particles They are positive particles
They are electrically neutral They have negative charge and bend They have positive charge and bend
(no charge). towards positive plate in electric and towards negative plate in electric and
magnetic field. magnetic field.
The mass of a neutron is The (e/m) charge and mass ratio of The mass of proton is 1836 times more
equivalent to that of a cathode particles is 1.7588x108 than electron.
proton. coulomb per gram.

Rutherford’s Atomic Model (Q. Describe Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment for the discovery of
the nucleus)
Experiment: Rutherford took a thin sheet of gold and bombarded it with alpha (µ) particles
obtained from a radioactive element (Like Polonium). These rays scattered from the atom and
examined on a zinc sulphide (ZnS) screen.
Observations:
- Most of the particles passed straight and un deflected through the sheet and produced
illumination on the zinc sulphide screen.

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 - Very few alpha (µ) particles undergo small and strong deflection after passing through
gold sheet.
- A very few alpha (µ) particles (one of 8000) retraced their path.
Conclusions:
- An atom consists of two parts nucleus and extra nuclear part.
- Majority of the alpha particles passed straight line and un-deflected, shows that most
volume occupied by atom is empty.
- Alpha particles are positively charged and their deflection indicates that the spelling of
atom has a positive charge, which is named as nucleus.
- The mass is concentrated in the nucleus and the electrons are distributed outside the
positively charge nucleus.
- The electrons are revolving around the nucleus in extra nuclear part in orbits.

Q. What are the Postulates of Rutherford’s Atomic Model:

- An atom consists of positively charged, dense and very small nucleus containing protons
and neutron. The entire mass is concentrated in the nucleus of an atom.
- The nucleus is surrounded by large empty space which is called extra nuclear part where
probability of finding electron is maximum.
- The electrons are revolving around the nucleus in circular paths with high speed
(Velocity).
- These circular paths were known as orbits (Shells).
- An atom is electrically neutral because it has equal number of protons and electrons.
- The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of its original atom.
Q. List down the defects of Rutherford’s Atomic Model:
- Rutherford did not explain the stability of an atom.
- In his atomic model, the negatively charged electrons revolve around the nucleus in
circular path and emits energy continuously. Due to continuous loss of energy ultimately
falls into the nucleus.
- If the revolving electron continuous emits energy, then there would be a continuous
spectrum but in contrast to it we get line spectrum from the atoms of elements.
Modern theory of Atomic Structure:
Quantum theory: Quantum theory describes that matter, and light consists of minute particles
that have properties of waves that are associated with them. Light consists of particles known as
photons and matter are made up of particles known as protons, electrons, and neutrons.
Einstein accepted this theory and proposed relationship between mass and energy to explain
photoelectric effect by wave particle duality as E = mc2.

Ms Simran Shahani
Q. What are shells and subshells?
(Shells) The Energy levels or Shell or Orbit are all possible paths on which electrons are revolving
around nucleus, represented by n. These shells are named as K, L, M, N, O and their quantum
numbers are n=1,2,3,4,5, and 6. The shell’s energy increases as the shell becomes distant from
the nucleus of an atom.
K shell – less energy – 1st Energy level → O shell – has more energy than K, L, M, and N shells – 5 th
energy level.
(Subshells) The main energy levels in an electron are divided further into sub-energy levels which
are called subshells. Subshells are a result of many electrons in a shell which repel against one
another and the main shell is split into further subshells which are names as s, p, d and f
subshells.
Q. Define the Electronic Configuration of an atom.
“The distribution of electrons among the different orbits/shells and subshells according to some
rules is known as the electronic configuration of an atom”.
When writing electronic configuration, we must write the:
- Number of electron in an atom
- Arrangement of shells and subshells according to the energy levels
- Maximum number of electrons for shells and subshells.
Q. Which shells are filled first in terms of distribution of electrons in an atom and why?
The most stable electronic configuration is only when an atom is at ground state with less energy
level. An atom will fill the lowest energy level in order to attain the state of less energy. Then the
electrons will move into the L, M, N, O, shells and the energy level increase as this happens.
Isotopes
Q. What are Isotopes?
- Atoms of the same elements having same atomic number but different Mass number are
called isotopes.
Properties/Q. Why do isotopes of the same elements have the same chemical but different
physical properties?
- They have same atomic number and number of protons, but different number of
neutrons.
- These elements have same chemical properties due to same electronic configuration but
different physical properties such as mass, melting or boiling point, density and freezing
point due to difference in mass number.

Ms Simran Shahani
Examples Of Isotopes
1) Isotopes of Hydrogen: There are three isotopes of Hydrogen. These are known as
Protium, deuterium and tritium.
a) Protium:
- The isotope of Hydrogen which contains only one electron and one proton is
known as Protium.
- Represented by H or 1H1
- Its atomic no. is 1 and atomic mass is 1
- Has no neutron
b) Deuterium:
- The isotope of Hydrogen which contains 1 electron, 1 proton and and 1 neutron.
- Represented by 1H2 or 1D2
- Its atomic no. is 1 and atomic mass is 2.
c) Tritium:
- An isotope of hydrogen which consists of 1 electron, 1 proton and 2 neutrons.
- Represented by 1H3 or 1T3
- its atomic no. is 1 and atomic mass is 3.
2) Isotopes of Uranium: There are three common isotopes of uranium with atomic number
92 and mass number 234, 235 and 238. Eg: 234U92, 235U92, 238U92.
3) Isotopes of Carbon: There are two stable isotopes and one radioactive isotope of carbon.
The carbon 12 contain 6 proton and 6 neutron, Carbon 13 possess 6 proton and 7
neutron, carbon 14 contain 6 proton and 8 neutrons. Carbon 12 is the most abundant
(98.89%) isotope.
4) Isotopes of Chlorine: There are two isotopes of Chlorine with atomic number 17 and mass
number 35 and 37. Chlorine 35 is 75% and chlorine 37 is 25% abundant in nature.
Applications. (In book)
Q. What are Radioactive elements: Unstable isotopes that release subatomic particles or energy
as they decay. Examples include Uranium, Iodine, Americium, Carbon-14, etc.
The Isotopes are used in worldwide applications of daily life. Research laboratories, medical
centers, industrial facilities, food irradiation plants and many consumer products all use or
contain isotopes.
Q. Which of the isotopes of Hydrogen contains a greater no. of neutrons?
A. The isotope of hydrogen, Tritium, contains a greater no. of Neutrons (2 neutrons).

Ms Simran Shahani