DISCRETE MATHEMATICS set, Relation & Function 2 principle of Mathematical Induction. 26 gasic Counting Techniques 43 Introduction to Propositional Calculus 58 Algebric Structures and Morphism 80 Graph and Tree 95 NOTE: MAKAUT course structure and syllabus of 4” semester has been changed from 2020. Previously DISCRETE MATHEMATICS was in 3° Year both Semesters. This subject has been completely redesigned and shifted in 4" semester in present curriculum. Taking special care of this matter we are providing chapterwise relevant MAKAUT university solutions and some model questions & answers for newly introduced topics, so that students can get an idea about university questions patterns.yy pISCRETE MATHEMATICS set, Relation & Function 2 principle of Mathematical Induction. 26 gasic Counting Techniques 43 Introduction to Propositional Calculus 58 Algebric Structures and Morphism 80 Graph and Tree 95 Thankyou For Purchasing VKS- ig_bihari NOTE: MAKAUT course structure and syllabus of 4" semester has been changed from 2020. Previously DISCRETE MATHEMATICS was in 3° Year both Semesters. This subject has been completely redesigned and shifted in 4" semester in present curriculum. Taking special care of this matter we are providing chapterwise relevant MAKAUT university solutions and some model questions & answers for newly introduced topics, so that students can get an idea about university questions patterns. ig_bihari_POPULAR PUBLICATIONS SET, RELATION & FUNCTION @ Chapter ata Glance Introduction to Relations and Functions This topic “Relations and Functions” is a foundation or fundamental of algebra in mathematics, Relations and functions are.two different words having different meaning mathematically, Man us you might be confused in their difference. We shall study both these concepts in detail her, Same as the relations which we have in our daily life, a kind of relations also exists in algebra fq daily life, relations are like brother and sister, friends, student and teacher and many more. fy mathematics also we sce some relations like a line is parallel or perpendicular to another, any one variable is greater or less than the another variable. Any Set A is subset of B, all these ate examples of relations. One thing which we see in common while studying relations, that it required two different objects to link two different objects via relations. What is the meaning of Relation in math? Understanding Relations requires basic knowledge of sets. A Set is a collection of well defined objects of particular kind. For example a set of outcomes of dice, a set of English alphabet. Relation is always studied between two sets. If we have two non void (or null/empty) sets A and B then the relation R from set A to set B is represented by aRb, where a is the set of elements belonging to set A while b belongs to set B. Relation from a set A to a set B is the subset of the Cartesian product of A and B i.e. subset of A x B, Relation in other way can also be defined as an collection of ordered pairs (a, b) where a belongs to the elements from set A and b from set B and the relation is from A to B but not vice versa. For Example Consider a set A containing elements as {1, 2, 3} and set B contains elements as {2, 4, 6}. ‘Then the relation between Set A and B from A to B will be set of any combinations from Set A to set B. A B From the above diagram; we can see that Relation from A to B i.e. R will be set of (1,4). (12). G4), G.2)}. This relation is a subset of the Cartesian product of two sets A X B. DCM-2DISCRETE MATHEMATICS Let’s take another example where, set A= (15 2, 3}-and set B = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9}. If the Relation between A and B is as: elements of B is the squares of elements of set A, then the relation is written in the form of sets as: R = {(a,b): where b is square of a and a € A & b € B} ‘Then R= {(1,1), (2,4), (3,9)} Same as sets, relation may also be represented algebraically either by the Roster method or by the Set-builder method. Relation can also be defined as a linear operation which establishes relationship between the clement’s of two set's according to some definite rule of relationship. R: {(a, b) | (a,b) EA x Banda Rb} 1 Ais {2,3, 5} Bis {1, 4,9, 25, 30} If aRb— bis square ofa Discrete element of relation are {(2, 4), (3, 9). (5, 25)} Eg:2 A= (Jaipur, Lucknow, Kanpur, Bhopal} B= {Rajasthan, Uttar pradesh, Madhya Pradesh} aRb— ais capital of b, AX B = {Gaipur, Rajasthan), (Lucknow, Uttar Pradsch), (Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh} Total Number of Relation from A to B Let the number of relations from A to B be x. Let A contain ‘m’ elements and B contains ‘n’ elements Number of element's in A xB mxn Number of non-void subset =C?" +C2" + Thus, for A= {1, 2,3) & B= {x, y, 2} ‘Number of non-void subset’s or the number of possible relations = =2” +m 22-1 su What are Functions? Functions are the special class of relation or we can say that special types of relations are called 4s Functions. Function is one of the most important concepts in mathematics as every situation in real life are solved and analysed first '™y"* by writing its mathematical equation or function. A function is like a machine which gives unique output for each input “, ; Funetidn f: that js'fed into it. But every machine is designed for certain defined inputs for e.g. a washing machine is designed for washing cloths and not the wood, Similarly the functions are defined for certain inputs pata Which ‘are calledas* its domain and corresponding oltputs are called Range. DCM-3POPULAR PUBLICATIONS: Let A and B be two sets and let there exist a rule or manner or correspondence ‘f wihch associy to cach clement of A to a unique element in B, then fis called a Function ot Mapping from, Ae B. It is denoted by symbol HAB) or f:A>B or A49B Which reads ‘fis a function from A to BY or fmaps A to B. fan elements a € A is associated with an clement b € B then b is called ‘the f image of a op ‘image of a under f or ‘the value of the function fat a’. Also a is called the pre ~ image of b o¢ argument of b under the function f. we write it as f(a, b) or f:a > b or b= f(a) ‘A relation f from a set A to a set B is called as the function if it satisfies the below conditions: «All the elements of A should be mapped with the elements of B. That is, there should not be any element in A which is being unmapped with B. ice. Wa, (a, f(a) € f, where, a is the elements of set A ‘+ Elements of set A should be uniquely mapped with the elements of set B. ie. if @,b) EF & (a, 0) Ef, @b=c Thus the ordered pairs of fmust satisfy the property that each clement of A appears in some ordered pair and no two ordered pairs have same first elements. See the below figures to understand the above points. : ‘ ‘ £ A AmB Ame A—— e . P . P . . ——T 6 — wes lind sy ey ‘ ny) Ne wid i a Funston NotFunetion Fini Not Function Note: Every function is a relation but every relation is not necessarily a function. Relations What is the domain of a function? Also ‘explain its co-domain and Range Fora relation from set A to set B i.e. aRb, all the elements of set A are called as the domain of the relation R while all the elements of set B are called as the co-domain of the relation R. DCM-4DISCRETE MATHEMATICS Range is the set of all second elements from the ordered pairs (a, b) in the relation aRb. Domain of f= {a|a€ A, (a, ffa)) Ef} 5 Range of f= (f(a) ja € A, fa) EB, (a, f(a) € ‘ Domain Range For the relation aRb, domain is considered as the input to relation R while the co-domain is the possible outputs and range is the actual output. Similarly for a function, f: A —+ B, elements of set A are the inputs and B is the set of possible outputs. But the second elements of all ordered pair of f(4, B) will be the actual outputs, Itshould be noted that range is a subset of co-domain. If only the rule of function is given then the domain of the function is the set of those real numbers, where function is defined, For a continuous function, the interval from minimum to maximum value of a function gives the range. Which is not the graph of a function? To identify any graph, weather it is a function or not, we must understand its definition once again butin terms of graphical meaning. First condition of function says that —“Alll the elements of A should be mapped with the elements of BY, That means graphically, for every input in its domain, function must give or provide the corresponding output. Second condition of the function says that — “Elements of set A should be. uniquely mapped with ths elements of set B”. These means that, for any input x, we must have one and only one output, ‘The best way to check this condition for the function y = f{x), is draw a line parallel to y ~ axis. IF iteuts the graph at two or more distinct points, this means, for one value of x, we are getting more than one outputs. And hence it will not be wfunction, . Example ys? Here all the straight lines Parallel to y —axis-cut y = x’ only at one point: y, DCM-5 ig_bihari_POPULAR PUBLICATIONS. Example s 4yrel Here line parallel to y axis is intersecting the circle at two points hence it is not a function. y a (1,0) Even Function: Let f(x) be a real valued function of a real variable. Then f is even if the following equation holds for all x and -x in the domain of f £8) = fx) Geometrically, the graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. Odd Function: Again, let f(x) be a real valued function of a real variable. Then f is odd if the following equation holds for all x and -x in the domain of f: FC) =—F() of f(x) + FEx)=0 Increasing function: A function f is said to be increasing if whenever a >b, then f(a) = f(b). Further a function is said to be strictly increasi if ‘When a> b, then f(a) > f(b). The graph of an increasing function looks somewhat like this: ya fa) + Axi) — What are the Classificatio; Functions are classified as follows: * Polynomial Funetion: Ifa function f S@)=a,x" +4, 4x" 4 mn of functions? is defined by DCM-6DISCRETE MATHEMATICS where n is a non negative integer and % &.y «5 & Ao are real number and a, #0, then fis called a Polynomial Function of degree n. A polynomial function is always continuous, ‘Nteebraic Function: A function fis called an algebraic function ifit can be constructed using Algebraic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and taking roots, started with polynomials. Example le f@)=Vx +1 g@)= Note: All the polynomials are algebraic but converse is not true. Functions which are not algebraic, are known as Transcidental Function. Fractional Rational Function: A rational function is a function of the form, y= f() -. where’ g(x) & h(x) are polynomials & h(x) #0. The domain of f(x) is set of real x such that h(x) # 0. Example 2xt-x7 41 f= SG xtvx D={x|_x#42} oeecl eI Exponential Function: A function f(x) = a*= eXa > 0,.a # 1, x € R)is called an Exponential Function. f(x) = a is called an exponential function because the variable x is the exponent. It should not be confused with power function. g(x) = x" in which variable x is the base. For f(x)= e*domain in R and range is R’. 7 Logarithmic Function: A function of the form y-log, x, x > a> 0,2 # 1, isis called Logarithmic Function. an yo logx act DCM-7POPULAR PUBLICATIONS * Absolute Value Function (or Modulus Function): A function y= f(x) =| the Absolute Value Function or Modulus Function. Itis defined as: x ifx20 ie if x<0 For f(x) = jx|, domain is R and Range is RU {0}. See below for its figure, is called ye-lifx0 ° Y=f@)=}0 for x=0 =1 forx<0 Itis also written as cen) ab or, x#0:f(0)=0 Greatest Integer Or Step up Function: The function y = integer function where [x] denotes the greatest integer less thai {(%) = [x] is called the greatest iN or equal to x. Note that for: 4 4 DCM-8DISCRETE MATHEMATICS raph of y= bs} -1¢x<0; [x] = 0 B ‘is said to be a constant funetion if every ee OF A has the same fimage in B. Thus f: A —» B; f(x) =¢.V x € A,c € Bisa constant fein Note thatthe range of a constant function is a singleton and a constant function may one or many — one, onto or into, Example S@)=[(3}}; it functions. 8(2)= sin? x + .c05* x; h(x) = sgn(x? —3x +4) ete, all are constan DCM-9PUI LICATIO' Choice juestions 4. Every non-empty subset of N contains a [WBUT 2014(0DD)] a) maximal element b) minimal element c) least element d) greatest element Answer: (c) 2. The number of binary relations on a set having 3 elements is [WBUT 2013(EVEN), 2016(EVEN)] aye b) 3° ¢) 3! d) none of these Answer: (d) 3. The number of subsets of a set with » elements is [WBUT 2015(EVEN)] a)n b) 2n c) 2"-1 d) 2" Answer: (d) 4. In the set S={I, 2,3,4,6,9} defines a relation R by ,R, if and only if b isa multiple of a. Then which one of the following statements is correct? : [WBUT 2016(0DD)) a) 3. and 4 are comparable b) 9 succeeds 3 ©) 3 succeeds 9 d) 4and 6 are comparable ‘Answer: (c) 5. If P = {2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9}, Q= (1, 2, 6, 9}, then P— Qis [MODEL QUESTION] a) {4, 7, 8} b) {4, 6, 8, 9} c) {1} d) {2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9) Answer: (a) 6. If A= (1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b}, Ax Bis given by IODEL QUES a) {(4, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} ™ aoe b) {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (4), (b, 2), (b, 3)} ©) {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, B), (3, a), (3, b), ()} 4d) (1,2, 3,a, b} Answer: (a) 7. lf A={1,2,3,4,8}, B={2,4,6,7}, then 4A B is [MODEL QUESTION] a) {2, 4) b) (1, 2,3,4,6,7,8) - Anse € } > 4) (4, 3, 6, 7,8) 8.If A={1, 2, 3}, B={2, 3, 6},then AUBis [MODEL QUESTION] 8) {1 2, 3} b) (2, 3} ©) (1, 2, 3, 6 4) none of these Answer: (c) DCM-10DISCRETE MATHEMATI 9, t A={1,2,3} and B= {2.3.6}, then AUB Is [MODEL QUESTION] a) {1,2,3} ) {2,3} ©) {1,2,3,6} 4) none of these Answer: (c) 40, If A={1,2,3,4} and B={2,4,6}, then 4A B is [MODEL QUESTION] a) {1,2} b) {1,2, 3, 6} ©) {1,3,6} 4) {6} Answer: (c) ‘ 44.16 A={2,4,6} and B={1,3,5;7}, then AUB is IMODEL QUESTION} a) {0} b) {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6,7} ©) {1,2,4,5,6,7} . ) {0,2} Answer: (b) 42. If P={2,4,6,7,8,9}, Q={1,2,6,9} then PMO is [MODEL QUESTION} a) {1,2,6} b) {2,6,9} ©) {1,6,9} 4) {4,69} Answer: (b) 13. Which of the following is a null set? 4 IMODEL QUESTION] a) A={0} b) A= (9) c) A={x:x is an integer &1z bea mapping dofined by /' (2) TMODEL ang : b) onto ‘ a) one'to one in both ¢) neither one-one nor onto Answer: (d) irs of real numbers as follows: d pai 48, p isa relation on the sot Rx R of orderes p isare [MODEL QUESTion Forall (a,b), (ad) @ RXR (ab)(ed) ane Then: p is a) symmetric only ¢) equivalence relation b) symmetric but not reflective d) none of these Answer: (c) 19. Let A=R-{3} and B=R-{I}- [MODEL QUESTION, tf F142 B:f() = then : x a) f is into b) fissurjective c) fisbijective —_d) none of these Answer: (c) Short Choice Type Questions 4. Find the number of integers between 1 and 720 both inclusive that are not divisible by any of the integers 2, 3'and 5. [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: No. of integers between 1 to 720 divisible by 2 is 360 =n(A) (say) No. of integers between | to 720 divisible by 3 is a. 240=n(B) (say) and no. of integers between 1 to 720 divisible by 5 is BO =145=n(C) (509) Now, n(4nB)=722=120 = 20 10 n(Bac)= 720 _ 4g n(Anc) =2 DCM-12DISCRETE 30 So the required no. of integers is 360+240+145-(120+72+48424)=481 2, Find the number of natural numbers not greater than 1000 which are not divisible by 3, § or 7. [MODEL QUESTION} Tala donate the set of natural nos. divisible by 3, ite the set of natural nos, divisible by 5, gages the set of natural nos. divisible by 7, Then n(A) =333, n(B) = 200, n(C) =142 n( ANB) =66, n(BNC)=25, n(CN.4)=47 and n(ANBNC)=9 Hence : n{a4UBUC)=n(4)+n(8)+n(C)-n(4N.B) -n(BNC)=n(CN4)+m(ananc) =333+200+142-66>25-47+9 =546, Therefore the no of natural numbers not divisible by 3, 5 or 7 is 1000-546 = 454, 3. Write down the quantifiers in predicate calculus and symbolize the following statements: i) Every rational number is real number. ii) There exists a number which is prime. [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: The quantifiers are For all: V (universal quantifier) There exists: SS (existential quantifier) Let Q denote the set of rational numbers, R denote the set of real numbers and P denote the set of prime numbers. Then @) = VreQ, xeR Gi) Sx, xeP 4. In.a survey concerning the smoking habits of consumers it was found that 85% Smoke cigarette-A, 50% smoke cigarette-B, 42% smoke cigarette-C, 28% smoke Cigarette-A & B, 20% smoke cigarette-A & C, 12% smoke cigarette-B & C and 10% Smoke all the three cigarette. What percentage do not smoke? [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: MA)=55 5 n(ANB)=-28 ;-n(ANBNC)=10; (B)=50 ; mANC)=20 ; mC)=42 — s n(BNC)=12 ; "AU BUC) =n(4) +n(B) + n(C)—n(An B)=n( ANC) —n(BNC)+n(AN BNC) DCM-13POPULAR PUBLICATIONS: =147-60+10=97 Therefore, 100-97 =3% students do not smoke. 5. ff -A={a,b,c,d,e}, B={c,a,e,g} and C={b,e,f,g}, then show that (4U8)Ne=(anc)u(anc). [MODEL QUESTION} Answer: 4 AUB={a,b,c,d,e}U{c,a,e,g} ={a,b,¢,d,e,g} (AUB)NC = {a,b,c,d,e,g}N (be, f,2} = (b,e,2) ANC = {a,b,c,d,e}{b,e, f,g} = {b,e} BNC ={e,a,e,8}1 {b,e, fg} ={e,g} (ANC)UCBNC) = {b,c} Ufe,g} = (5,e,2} *(AUB)NC =(ANC)UGNC) 8. Out of 440 students, 112 students read German, 120 students read French and 468 read Spanish. Of these 32 read French and Spanish, 40 read German and Spanish, 20 read German and French, while 12 read all the three subjects. How many students a) do not read any of the three languages [MODEL QUESTION] b) read just one language?, Answer: To solve this problem, we use Venn diagram. German «—[ > Spanish French n(G)=112 n(F)=120 nfs) =168 n(F MS) =32 n(GNs)=40 n(GNF)=20 n(GNFNs)=12 Now, (GUFUS)=n(G)+n(F)+n(S) -n(FNG)=n(FNS)-n(GNS)+n(FNGNS) =112 +120 +168-(32+40+20)+12=320. <. (440-320) =120 students does not read any of the three languages. Now, (G)-(GNS)-n(GNF)+n(GNFNS) DCM-14=" DISCRETE MATHEMATI 2112-40-20+12= 64 eyen(ENs)=n(ENG)+(GNFNS) 2120-32-20+12=80 fs)-n(511) (SF) +M(GNENS) 2168-40-32 +12 =108 ce 64 students read only German, 80 students read only French and 108 students read Hence 64 only Spanish. ve that (Ax B) (Cx D)= (ANC)x(BOD). [MODEL QUESTION] 7. Prov ep) be an arbitrary element of the set (Ax B)M(CxD) ‘Then (nye (AxB) (Cx) (eye (AxB) and (xy) €(CxD) Sixe A and yeB) and {xe Cand y < D} Bred and xe C} and {yeB and y ¢ D} > xe(ANC) and y € (BND) > (x, ye(ANC)x(BND) (4xB)M(CxD) (ANC) (BND) eq) ‘Azsin, q, 6) be any arbitrary element of the set (ANC)x(BND). then (ab) €(ANC)x(BND) = a (ANC) and be (BND) = {aeA and a € C} and {beB and b « D} > {ae Aand b € BY and {a eC and be D} = (ab) €(AxB) and (a,b)¢ (Cx D) =9(ab) € (AxB)N(CxD) 2(ANC)x(BND) ¢ (Ax B)N(CxD) 2) From (1) and (2) we get, (4xB)N (CxD)=(ANC)x (BND) - 8. For any three sets 4,B,C show that 4-(B-C) = ates (B-C)=(4-B)U(AnC) LHS = [MODEL QUESTION] -(B-c) =40(B-c)t =An(onc} . “An UC). [By De-Morgan’s rule] DCM-15 a=(4nB°)U(anc) =(4-B)U(Anc) erson taking tea is 210, taking milk is 100 a and milk is 80 , milk and coffee is 9. In a survey of 320 persons, number of p ree together is 20. Find the and coffee is 70. Number of persons who take te: 30 ,tea and coffee is 50 .The number of persons all th number of people who take neither tea not coffee nor milk. [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: ae Let M, T and C be the sets denote respectively number of persons taking milk, tea and coffee. Therefore, n(M) = 100, m(T) = 210, mC) = 70. n(MaT)=50, n(M OC) =30, n(TAC)=50, n(MATAC)=20. We know, n(M UTUC)=n(M)+n(7)+n(C)-n(MOT)-n(TOC) n(CaM)+n(MaTnc) =100+210+70-50-50-30+20 =270 Thus, number of persons who take neither Milk not Tea nor Coffee is 320-270 = 50. 10. Let A=(1234) and R={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(12),(1,3),(32)}- Is R is equivalence relation? Explain. [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: : Here R={(1,1), (2,2), (3,3)s(4,4),(1,2), (1,3), (3,2)}. Clearly 2 is reflexive, transitive but not Symmetric as (1,2)N_ Then f(A)CN, so by the proposition f(A) is either finite or countably infinite Since A~ f(A) (given that is injective), it follows that A is countable, As the following results shows, to establish that a set 4 is countable it is enough to find a function from N onto A, or a one-to-one function from A into N;; this is easier than exhibiting a bijectionN — A. 12. Let A be a nonempty set. The following are equivalent: (1) Ais countable (that is, there is a bijection h: A> Iy, orh:A—>N). (2) There exists f:N > 4 surjective. (3) There exists g: A> N injective. [MODEL QUESTION] DCM-16DISCRETE MATHEMATICS Answer! (i) @} It is countably infinite, we may take / =/. If is finite with cardinality ny der the surjective function: am In f(r) =n for nN, fn) =N forma W then, fhe fy! A is surjective. 2) = (3): Let f be as in (2), and define g:4—>N as follows, Givenae A, the preimage f~'({a}) is a non-empty subset of NV (since f is surjective). By the Well- Ordering Principle, this set has a smallest element; we let g(a) be this smallest element, . g is injective, since for two elements a,#a, in A the preimages F-({a,})and f'(fa,}are disjoint, and hence their smallest elements are distinct. ()= (Ij: Let g be as in (3). (4) is a non-empty subset of IN , hence (by Proposition 1) (4) is countable. Since A~g(A) (given that 4 is injective), it follows that Ais countable. «43, Q-N: the set of rational numbers is countably infinite. [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: Define f:ZxN>Q by f(p.q)= p/q. Since each rational number is of the form p/q for some peZ and some geN (not necessarily unique ones), it follows that fis surjective, Since ZxN~N (using examples 1, 2 and 3), it follows from part (2) of Proportion 2 and Remark | that Q is countable (hence countably infinite) 14, Let 4,4,,4,,... be non-empty countably infinite sets (not necessarily disjoint), then their union is countably infinite: [MODEL QUESTION] U4-N a Answer: We're given that, for each i € N, there exists a bijection f;:N—> 4, Define FNNUA, f6./)= FU). To see that £ surjective, let xe LJ, 4, be arbitrary. Then xe 4, for some ieN, so *5 4) forsome je; thus x= f(i/). : oe describing the proof of the fact that Ris uncountable, we need to review some cxampia, 220 decimal expansions of real numbers. This expansion isnot unique. For This 299999921. is equalinn © — equality is not approximate, it is EXACT, a fact that some students find surprising; both sides 7 in bee a eeelfterent deci ions (i f the same rational number. One way to see this in lecimal representations (in base 10) o: DCM-17 aePOPULAR PUBLICATIONS ¢ 10 0,99999...=9) 107 =k i Ie the sum of a convergent grometic using the well-known formula for aes T° a, 11d happen for series, 37.0777 =F if |qi MK (OH) #0}, een nonterminating decimal expansions and sequences any rational number with er a unique decimal expansion, we need tj 2 that follows, We'll choose the “non- Under these correspondence betw’ we have, forexample: 0314515199999... <> (3,1,4,5,1,5,1,9,9,9,9,9--) 45. The set {x¢R|0(0,l] exists. Listing the /(*)by their nonterminating decimal expansions, we build a bi-infinite array: © FM= 0.414,24154149) FQ) = 0.514233 %r4%s © FB)= 0.451 450455454435-- L(A) = 0.4, Aas L(S) = 010s, 459455454435-- Given the array we can explicitly exhibit a real number x €(0,1] that it can’t possibly include. Namely, let x be the number with nonterminating decimal expansion: x=0.d,d,d,d,d,... * where the d,, are defined using the diagonal entries of the array, modified as follows: d, = Oy +1if a, €(0,1,...8}; d, =8ifa,,=9. Note that d, #0 for all n, so this nonterminating decimal expansion os of the allowed kind, and defines a real number in (0, 1]. DCM-18ae ISCRI EMATI We claim that all neN f(n)#x, contradicting the fact that £ is onto, To see this, seve that the n-th digits in the decimal expansion of xisd,, and in the expansion of F() 18 dy these are different (from the construction above). This concludes the proof, Numerical example. We have no control over the “listing” f that is assumed to exist at the start of the argument, but suppose (for example) the first five entries were (highlighting the diagonal entries of the array): F(t) = 0.12034506... f(2)= 0.13579017... 7(3)= 0.24608046... ‘f(4) = 0.31415926... F(5)= 0.21784143... ‘obser Then the first five digits of xwould be:x=0.24725... and itis clear that xcan’t be any of the first five elements on the list (and indeed can’t be any element on the list). Long Choice e Questions 4. Answers for the following questions: a)lf A={1,2,3} and B={x, y}, list all members of Ax B . [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: 4={1,2,3} & B={x,y} AxB= {(42),(3).@2),22),G.2).3.)} b)If 4={2,4,6} and B ={1,3,5,7}, find AAB. [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: A= (2,4,6} & B={1,3,5,7} ANB=g as x €Z. Show that fis not one to [MODEL QUESTION] )IFZis the set of all int oe integers and f (x) Answer: Let, axyeZ Now (4) = F(x) = [|= OF x sty 9 Ther is tefore f is not one to one. DCM-19 eets, 15 read Physics, 20 read Chemistry and 20 reag . Sead Phystes ‘and Chemistry, 6 read Chemistry and wathematics P matics. 7 read none of the subjects. How many [MODEL QUESTION} Mathemat and 5 read Physics and Mather students read all the subjects? Answer: Since 7 students read none of the subjects, the total number of students who read at least one subject is 50-7 = 43 Now using Venn diagram, we get MPUCUM) =n(P)+n(C) + (2) —n(PNC)—n(PMM)—M(C AM) + PCN) of, 43=15+20+20-3-5-6+m(PNCNM), or, n(PAC MM) =2, which is the required no. of students who read all the subjects. = * @}, B= {c, a, e, g} and C= {b, €, f, 9}. BAe Oe ne cats U(Bac) [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: A={a, b, c,d, e} B={e, a, e, g} c={b, & f, 8} AUB={a, b,c, d, & 8} (AUB)NC ={, & 8} Now ANC ={b, e} BNC =fe, g} (ANC)UBNC)={5, e 8} Therefore, (AUB) NC =(ANC) U (BNC) 4.In a survey of 320 persons, number of persons taking tea is 210, taking milk is 400 and coffee is 70. Number of persons who take tea and milk is 50, milk and coffee is 30, tea and coffee is 50. The number of persons all three together is 20. Find the number of people who take neither tea nor coffee nor milk. [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: persons taking milk, coffee, tea is 20 persons taking tea, milk is 50 persons taking only tea, milk is (50-20)=30 persons taking milk, coffee is 30 persons taking only milk, coffee is (30-20)=10 persons taking tea, coffee is 50 persons taking only tea, coffee is (50-20)=30 persons taking milk is 100 persons taking only milk is (100-10-20-30)=40 persons taking coffee is 70 + persons taking only coffee is (70-30-20-10)=10 DCM-20 be i ; 4a DISCRETE MATHEMATICS SS taking tea is 210 eae taking only tea is (210-30-20-30)=130 Total person taking tea, coffee, milk is (130+40+10+30+30+10+20)=270 Person not taking tea, coffee, milk is (320-270)=50 5. wAa{abordie}s B={erae,8} and C={b,¢, f, 2}, then show that (auayne=(ANe)U(BNC). [MODEL QUESTION] Answer? . ‘Az {a,boidse} B={c,a,e,8} c={be,f.8} AUB={a,b,e.4,e,8} (AUB)NC = {6.2.8} Anc={b, Bnc={e,g} (ANC)UBNC)={e.8} 2» (AUB)NC =(ANC)UBNC) 6. a) Prove that | 4UB|=|4|+|8|-|40B] where A and B are two non-empty [MODEL QUESTION] sets. Answer: Let, A and B are two subsets of a universal set S. Here ANB‘, ANB and BN A® are disjoint. Now, (4) =n(ANB*) +n(AMB) n(B)=n(ANB)+n(BN A)” op Again, AUB=(ANB) U(ANB) UNA) a B sm AUB)=n(ANB*)+n(ANB)+n(BN 4) =n(A)—n(A(B)+n(ANB) + n(B)- (ANB) =n(A)+n(B)-n(ANB) b) If 4={a,b,c,d} B={b,c, p,g}. then find out AxB,BxA and AAB. [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: AxB={(a,b); a A and beB} = {(a,B),(a,0), (a, p), (aq), bb), sc) PKbr d(C) (Cre) (, Plea)s(dyb) (dso) (ds P)(d. DCM-21POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Bx A={(b,a),(b,b),(bye)s(b,4)s(€.4)4(€,b),(Cs6)s(64» (pa), (p.b),(pse) PA s(a)s(q,b)(Ge (GE? AAB =(AUB)-(ANB) ={a,b,c,d, pig} {b,c} = {a,d, p.g} f JODEL QUE: c) Define power set. Find the power set of {a, b, che IM STION] es tamed of all the sub-sets of a set as its elements is called power set of S and a symbolically denoted by P(S). Let, S={a,b,c} P(S)= {fa}, {0}. {0} asd}, (a,0}, {0,0} {arb}, 9} 7. Let 4, B be sets, andlet f:A—B, g:B—>A, then 4=B. [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: (Note: we let X denote the complement of X) Let S=(JUgY GH) cB, where (/g)" is the identity by convention, We then define % : Bere AB, x18 exes) f(x) otherwise and propose that / is a bijection, tis clear that g"| serves as a bijection from g(S) to S. It is also clear that since f is a injection, that itis a bijection onto whatever its image is. Thus it suffices to show that the image of g(5) under f is exactly the complement to the image of gl, that is F 5 In other words, I claim: f(g(S))=5 and showing this completes the proof. . Suppose, that the left hand side is not contained in the right hand side, then Bre f(g(S))S. Since xeS,x=(fg)"(z), z€ F(A), meN. But is m>0, then xe f(g(S)), which is a contradiction to x (g(S)). Thus x=z F(A), but we see that J”'(x) is ‘defined and xe f(A) are precisely the elements where f7 is not defined. Thus this also a contradiction and therefore no such x exists, Note that this also says that h i: injective, that the map defined as f does not overlap with the map defined as g~!. = : = —— 2. Let xe5 and notice that S=( J" (fey F(A) = (7,4)! (F(A). Then since (fg)' = idB , we may say that xe f(A). Thus we may write x= f(a), ae.A’an we waft to show that a€ g(S), but this must be true, otherwise ae g(S) implies x= f(a)eS» contradictory to our original choice of x, DCM-22DISCRETE MATHEMATICS Note that this also says That h is surjective, that the map defined as f is onto the of B, that is not mapped to by an le subset 4g, Prove that (0,1), (0,1], [0,1] and R are equivalent sets. [MODEL QuEsTioN] Answer! , : ‘The easiest equivalence is (0,1) ~ R., one possible bijection is given by (0,1) 9B gu for 0 (0,1) is given by Pal forx=4,neN, a=)" ade x ifxe+forallneN, n with inverse — for y=. neNin22, ae)=4" 3 y if y#= forall neN,n22. hoe Then A:[0,1]->[0,1) defined by qa) ={ 80)" for x40, 0 if x=0, is again a bijection, so [0,1]~[0,1). But F':[0,1) > (0,1); F(x)=1-x is a bijection, too (with F“! =F, so (0,1) ~ (0,1). By transitivity the claimed equivalences follow. o-one. Then show that function h from A onto [MODEL QUESTION} 8. Assume f:A-—B is one-to-one & g:B—Ais also one-tt Aand B have the same cardinality and there is a one-to-one Answer: Consider the function £(0,1)-»[0,1] defined by f(x) = x, fwould be one-to-one, The function g:[0,1]+4(0,1), defined by g(x)=(1/2)x+1/8 is also one-to-one. DCM-23 aePOPULAR PUBLICATIONS Then, there is a bijective function h from (0,1) onto [0,1]. Let h(x)=(1/2)x+1/8. Observe that |[0,1]=I[1/8,5/8]]. Since [1/8,5/8]<(0,1) it follows that [0,1] -I[1/8,5/8]|s(,1), Thus, {(0,1)|<{(0,1]] and {[0,1}S(0,1)}, so (0,1)/-1[0.1]| 40. Let 4 be any set and 24 be the power set of 4. Then card A 2“. Define a function f:AxA—> 2“ by S(%y)=1 if xea(y) and f(x,y) =0 if ¥ea(y). Let g:A->{0,1}' be any function. This defined a subset of A, namely, B={xeA:g(x)=I}. Since @:A—>24 is onto, there is 2€ A such that a(2)=B. Now £(%2)=9(x) for every xe A. Let us verify it. If xe€B=a(z),then f(x,z)=1 and in this case, g(x)=1, by the definition of B. On the other hand, if x¢B (with xe A), then x¢a(z), ie, f(%2)=0 and in this case, g(x)=0, again by the definition of B. Thus, for every xe A, g(x)= f(x,z). Hence - every function g:A—>{0,l} is representable by f. BY CLT, every function ¢:{0,1} > {0,1} has a fixed point. However, the negation function -:{0,1} — {0.1} defined by =(0) =1, =(1) =0 has no fixed point. Therefore, card A # card 2*. 11. Let 4,B be sets and f:4AxA-B by any function such that all functions g:A—>B are representable by f. Then every function ¢:B-—B has a fixed point. [MODEL QUESTION] Answer: Suppose that f:AxA—>B is such a function that all functions g:A—+>B are representable by f. Let $:B-»B be any function. Define a function y:4—> 4x4, called Cantor’s diagonalization, by y(z)=(x,x). Let h= $e fey; look at the diagram below. f Aa v A ty DCM-24DISCRETE MATHEMATICS Since the function h: A -» B is representable by f, we have an ae A such that for all xe 4, h(x) = f(%,4). In particular, h(a) = f(a,a). But ha é 4a). d= Af = ,a)). Writing f(@,@)= 6, we have #(b)=b. Thus ¢ has a fixed oo, ale -ig_bihari_— DCM-25POPULAR PUBLICATIONS PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION Chapter at a Glance One key basis for mathematical thinking is deductive reasoning. An informal, and example of deductive reasoning, borrowed from the study of logic, is an argument expressed in three statements: (a) Socrates is a man, (b) All men are mortal, therefore, (©) Socrates is mortal. If statements (a) and (b) are true, then the truth of (c) is estat To make this simple mathematical example, we could write: (i) Eight is divisible by two. Gi) Any number divisible by two is an even number, therefore, Gii) Eight is an even number. Thus, deduction in a nutshell is given a statement to be proven, often called a conjecture or a theorem in mathematics, valid deductive steps are derived and a proof may or may not be established, i.e., deduction is the application of a general case to a particular case. In contrast tg deduction, inductive reasoning depends on working with each case, and developing a conjecture by observing incidences till we have observed each and every case. It is frequently used in mathematics and is a key aspect of scientific feasoning, where collecting and analysing data is the norm. Thus, in simple language, we can say the word induction means the generalisation from particular cases or facts. In algebra or in other discipline of mathematics, there are certain results or statements that are formulated in terms of n, where n is a positive integer. To prove such statements the well-suited principle that is used-based on the specific technique, is known as the principle of mathematical induction, Motivation In mathematics, we use a form of complete induction called mathematied induction. To understand the basic principles of mathematical induction, suppose a set of thin rectangular tiles are placed vertically one by one. When the first tile is pushed in the indicated direction, all the tiles will fall. To be absolutely sure that all the tiles will fal, itis sufficient know that . (a) The first tile falls, and (b) In the event that any tle falls its successor necessarily falls. This is the underlying principle of mathematical induction, We know, the set of natural numbersN is 2 special ordered subset of the real numbers. In fact, N is the smallest subset of R with the following property: A set S is said to be an inductive set.if 1€ S and x + 1 € S whenever x ES. Since Nis the smallest subset of R which is an inductive set, it follows that any subset of R that is an inductive set must contain N. Suppose we wish to find the formula for the sum of positive integers 1, 2,3 which will give the value of 1 +2 +3 when n= 3, the value 1+2+3 +4, when n=4 and soo and suppose that in some manner we are led to believe that the formula i rn, that is, a formula i £ DCM-26DISCRETE MATHEMA’ 1 4243+.c+n = n(n+1)/?2 is the correct one, How can, this formula actually be proved? We can, of course, verify the statement for as many positive integral values of n as we like, but this process will not prove the formula for all values of 1, What is needed is some kind of chain reaction which will have the effect that once the formula is proved for a particular positive integer the formula will automatically follow for the next positive integer and the next indefinitely, Such a reaction may be considered as produced by the method of mathematical induction, ‘The Principle of Mathematical Induction Suppose there is a given statement P(n) involving the natural number n such that () The statement is true for n= 1; Le., P(1) is true, and (ii) Ifthe statement is true for n = k (where k is some positive integer), then the statement is also true forn=k+ I, ie, truth of P(k) implies the truth of P (k +1). Then, P(n) is true for all natural numbers n. Property (i) is simply a statement of fact. There may be situations when a statement is true for all n> 4. In this case, step I will start from n= 4 and we shall verify the result for n= 4, i.e., P(4). Property (ii) is a conditional property. It does not assert that the given statement is true for n =k, but only that if it is true for n= k, then it is also true for n =k H. So, to prove that the property holds, only prove that conditional proposition: If the statement is true for n = k, then it is-also true for n = k + 1. This is sometimes referred to as the inductive step. The assumption that the given statement is true for n= k in this inductive step is called the inductive hypothesis. For example, frequently in mathematics, a formula will be discovered that appears to fit a pattem like 121 422143 9=P=H14345 16=4=1+3+5+7, etc It is worth be noted that the sum of the first two odd natural numbers is the square of second natural number, sum of the first three odd natural numbers is.the square of third natural number and so on. Thus, from this pattern it appears that 1 +3+5+7+...+(2n—1)=n", ie, the sum of the first n odd natural numbers is the square of n. Let us write P(n): 1+3+5+7+..+(2n-l)=m. We wish to prove that P(n) is true for all n, The first step in a proof that uses mathematical induction is to prove that P (1) is true. This step is called the basic step. Obviously 1 = 1°, ie., P(I) is true. The next stép is called the inductive step. Here, we suppose that P (k) is true for some positive integer k and we feed to prove that P (k + 1) is true. Since P (K) is true, we have 1434+5+74...+(2k-1) =k... (I) Consider, : 14345474... +(2k=1) + 2k +1} Q=K + ARt Y= kt 1b} [Using (0) Therefore, P (k + 1) is true and the inductive proof is now completed. Hence P(n) is true forall natural numbers n. DCM-27POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Multiple Choice Type Questio! 1. If 6" is divided by 17, the remainder will be [WBUT 2013(EVEN) a) 15 b) 40 c)4 d) none of these Answer: (c) 2.If k is a positive integer, ged(ka, kb) = [WBUT 2014(0Dp)) a) k-ged(ka,b) — b) k-ged(a,b) c) k-ged(a, kb) d) none of these Answer: (b) 3.Ifged(a,b)=d, then. IWBUT 2014(0DD) a) relatively prime b) prime c) composite d) both (a) and (b) » Answer: (a) : 4. For every integer x, ged(x, x+2)= : IWBUT 2015(0DD) a)o b)2 o)4 d) none of these Answer: (4) 5. The number 9420544 is divisible by [IWBUT 2015(ODD), 2019(EVEN)] a) 36 b) 28 ©) 24 d) none of these Answer: (b) 6. If 7x=3(mod5), then x can take the value IWBUT 2015(0DD)] a)17 b) 19 ©) 24 ) 22 Answer: (b) 7. If ap=bq and a is prime to b then [WBUT 2015(ODD)] a) alp and 5|g —b) alb and plq ¢) alg and blq_— d) none of these Answer: (d) 8. The number of positive divisors of 252 is IWBUT 2015(0DD)] a)9 bys c) 18 4) 10 Answer: (c) 9. If 6° is divided by 17, the remainder will be [WBUT 2016(EVEN)] a) 15 b) 10 °)1 d) none of these Answer: (4) DCM-28DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 40. If we divide -10 with 6 then the remainder will be IWBUT 2016(0DD)] a)-4 b)4 ¢)2 d)-2 Answer: (¢) 44, The total number of positive divisors of 9216 is [WBUT 2016(0DD)) a) 33 b) 20 ¢) 12 d)14 Answer: (2) 42. If 68=4(modn), then n can be [WBUT 2016(0DD)) a) 12 b)17 c).13 d)16 Answer: (d) 43. The remainder when the sum 4! + 5! + 6! + .......+ 501 is divided by 4is IWBUT 2017(EVEN)] d)o a)t b)2 c)3 Answer: (4) 44, The number 8955795758 is divisible by [WBUT 2017(0DD)] a) 7 only b) 13 only ¢)7or130r37 ——_d) none of these ‘Answer: (c) 45. If nis an odd integer, ged(3n, 3n + 2)is [WBUT 2018(EVEN)] a)t b)2 )3 d) cannot be determined uniquely Answer: (a) 16. Division algorithm states that for any positive integer d, there exist unique integer q and r such that n=d.q+r and [WBUT 2018(0DD)] a) Osr 0. If you cant. prove the’ base case, for which values of n can you prove that P(n) is true using mathematical induction? [MODEL QUESTION] a) none b) alln>0 c) just n = 4 d) alln>k Answer: (b) n? = n(n#4)(2n#1)/6 for n > 0. What is the [MODEL QUESTION] 23. Let P(n) be the statement that 12+2”. statement P(1)? a) 17+27+,..¢n? = n(n#1)(2n+1)/6 b) n=1 DCM-30DISCRI 1 o) P= 1(149)(244)16 4) It doesn't exist “Answer: (c) 4. If mis a positive integer and a= (mod m)and c= d (mod m). Show that ‘ 7 : ean e spe m) [WBUT 2013(EVEN)} Answer: a) a=(mod m) implies a—b = mk for somek €Z.andc =d(mod m)implies ¢-d = mt for some te Z Hence adding we get (a+¢)—(b+d)=m(k +t) where k+teZ. Hence a+c=b+d(modm) i) Again if ~b = mk, then ac—be=mke.and if ¢—d = mt, then be—bd = mtb, Adding we get ac—bd =m(ke + tb)when ke +tbeZ Hence ac= bd (modm) 2. Find the remainder when the sum 1° +2° +3* +.......+100° is divided by 5. [WBUT 2013(EVEN), 2019(EVEN)] Answer: The given expression is 1 +25 +..,+100° =(I -1) +(2° -2)+...+(100° 100) +(1+2+...+100) = 5k, + Shey toes + Shon et [By Fenots Theo.] = 54k, + ky tees t higo +1010}. Hence 1° +25 +......+100° leaves remainder 0 when divided by 5. 3. Fi 14214 3l+.... +100! is divided by 5. ind the remainder when the sum I!+ awa 2013(0D0) Answer: Here the expression is 1 '+2 +3 !+ +100!. Clearly from 5! onwards each term is divisible ty 5 So we consider only 1!+2!4+3}+41. By Wilson’s theory 4!=-1(mod'5), 5 being a prime no. ie. 4141 is divisible by 5. DCM-31OP 101 So we are to consider only 2!+3! i.e. 8 which clearly leaves 3 as remainder when divided bys. So the remainder asked for is 3. . 4. Find integers uandv satisfying ged (272, 119) = 272u+119v. ‘ [WBUT 2014(0DD), 2017(0DD)] Answer: We have 272=2x119434 119 =3%34417 34=2x17 ged(272, 119)=17 Now 17=119-3x34=19-3{272-2x119} =7(119)-3(272).. Thus ged(272, 119)=272u+119v where u=-3, v=7. 5. Prove that the product of any m consecutive integers is divisible by m. [WBUT 2014(0DD)] Answer: Let all natural numbers be grouped as {1,2,...,m-1,m}, {m-+1,m42 2m}, {2m+1,2m-+2,...,3m},{3m+1,...,3mp IE the sequence of m consecutive integers begin with 1, evidently the product contains m as a factor and hence is divisible by m. Every other string of m consecutive integers starting with 2 or 3 etc. upto m contains m as a factor and hence is divisible by m. If the sequence of m consecutive integers starting with 2m+1 or 2m-+2 upto 2m contains 2m as a factor and hence is divisible by m ‘The argument is similar for every other strings of m consecutive integers. Hence the result. 6. Find the number of integer’s n, 1<<1000that are not divisible by 5, 6 and 8. A [WBUT 2015(0DD)] Answer: L.C.M. of 5,6 and 8 is 120 Evidently 120, 240, 360, 480, 600,720, 840, 960 are the numbers between-1 and 1000 divisible by 5, 6 and 8. Hence the no. of integers between 1 and 1000 both inclusive which are not divisible by any of the integers 5, 6 and 8 are (1000 - 8) or 992. DCM-32DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 7. Find the gcd(595, 252) and express it in the form 252m + 695n. Answer: [WBUT 2916(ODD)] By division algorithm 595=2x252+91 252=2x91+70 91=1x70+21 10=3x214+7 21=3x7+0 Since the last non-zero remainder is 7, ged (595, 252)=7. Now, 7=70-3x21 =70-3x(91-1x70) =4x70-3%91 = 4x (252- 2491). 3x91 =4x252- 11x91 =4x252—-11x (5952x252) = 26x 252-11x595 8. Find the remainder when the sum 1!+ 2!+3!+......+100! is divided by 18. [WBUT 2016(0DD)] Answer: We know 6!=720=0 (mod18) When n26, n!=18k; k is anon-zero integer. nl=0 (mod18); n26 (14+ 24-34 444 St+......+100!) (mod18) =(1+2+64+24+120) (mod18) =153 (mod18) =17 9. Find integers m and n such that 512m + 320n = 64. Answer: ‘We know 512=1%320+192 320 =1x192+128 192=1x128+ 64 128=2x64+0 (4) Thus 64 is the ged of 512 and 320. Hence there exist integers, m and n such that m 512 +n 320 = 64 ‘Now, from equation (3) we have 64= 192-128 =192-(320-192) [from equation (2)] [WBUT 2016(0DD)] DCM-33POPULAR PUBLICATIONS =2x192-320 = 2x (512-320) ~ 320 [from equation (1)] = 2x512-2x320-320 = 2x512-3%320 m=2,n 10. a) If god(a,b)=1, prove that ged(a?,b*)=1. [WBUT 2017(EVEN) Answer: Let ged(a’,b*)=d then a? =dk,, b* =dk,, ky, ky EN | cas dk, b= Jak, As ged(a,b)=1, we get god( Jd ky, Vd Jh,)=1 So Vd =1 or d=1 b) Find two integers w and v satisfying 63u+55v=1. [WBUT 2017(EVEN)] ~ Answer: Since gcd (63,55) =1, the equation 63z+55v=1 has integral solutions. Now, 63=1.55+8 11. State division algorithm. Show that every square integer is of the from 5k,5k+1 for some integer K . [WBUT 2017(EVEN)] Answer: | 1" Part: Division of one integer by another plays an important role in the study of integers. If 6#0 and a are integers, then we can divide a by b. If q is the quotient and r is the remainder, then we say @ is completely divisible by b if r= 0.indeed we can state the following: | Theorem: i . If a,b €Z,b #0, then there exist gr €Z such that a=bg+r, 0b. | | By the well ordering principle, Sis bounded below and hence has a first element say n,” Thus there exist »¢N such that na2b. Long Choice Type Questions 4. 2) By mathematical induction, prove that 6"? +7°""' is divisible by 43, for each natural number 7. Answer: Let P(n)=6"? +7" Clearly P(0) is true as P(0)=36+7= 43 Also P(1) is true as P(1) = 559 which is divisible by 43. Sovassume P(m) is divisible by 43 ie. 6"? + 7°"! = 43k, keZ Now P(m+1)=6"+ 7" = 6.6"? 449,77" © 36 {67 +77} 4 43.7" = 6x 43k + 43,720" =43(6k +7") = 43k" where k’ eZ. Thus P(m +1) is divisible by 43. Hence by induction principle, 6"? +7" is divisible by 43. b) If gcd (a,b) =1, show that ged(a+b, a? ~ab+b*)=1 or3. Answer: Given ged(a,b)=1. Now let d= ged(a+b, a —ab+b?) Then d|_a+b. So d|(a+b)* ~ DCM-36 IWBUT 2013(0D0] [weuT 2014(0001!DISCRETE MATHEMATICS Again, d|a*-ab+5?. So a| {(a+8)"- (a -ab+5#)} ie, d|3ab. Since 3 is a prime, i.e., d'=3 or d| ab. But as ged(a,b)=1,d=1. Thus d is 1 or3. 2. a) Define GCD of two integers a and 5. Use Eucledian algorithm to find integers wand v such that ged(72, 120)=72u +120v. b) (i) State and prove Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, (ii) If ab and alc then prove that al(bx+cy) for arbitrary integers x and y (iii) If albc and ged(a,5)=1 then prove that alc. [WBUT 2015(EVEN)] ‘Answer: a) When a and b are (non-zero) integer, then an integer (70) is said to be the greatest common divisor of a and b.if d|aand d|b. Weknow, 120 = 1x72+48 as = 148424 22440 T2-1* 48 72-1 (120-172) 3x 72-1% 120 Now, b) i) Fundamental Theorem of arithmetic: Every integer n > 1 can be written uniquely as a product of prime numbers. Proof: We shall prove the theorem by the principle of induction. Let n = 2. Since 2 is prime, n(=2) is'a product of primes (.. a product may consist of a single factor) Letn>2. If nis prime, it is a product of primes i.e., a sing factor product. Ifn is not a prime, i.e., composite, let us assume than the theorem holds good for positive integers less than n and n = ab. since a, b a|nbe s.a|mac=> ale (Proved) 3. a) Find the number of integers between 1 and 1000 both inclusive that are not divisible by any of the integers 2, 3 and 7. 7 b) Find all possible value of x, for 345x =18(mod912). [WBUT 2015(0pp) Answer: a) We first see which are the numbers divisible by 2, 3, and 7, i.e., by 42. Evidently, 42, 84, 126, 168, 210, 252, 294, 336, 378, 420, 462, 504, 546, 588, 630, 67, 714, 756, 798, 840, 882, 924, 966 are the numbers between 1 -and 1000 divisible by2,3 and 7. Hence the no. of integers between 1 and 1000 both inclusive which are not divisible by | any of the integers 2, 3 and 7 are 1000 — 23 or 97. b) Since gcd(345, 912) = 3, the given congruence equation has 3 solutions. We denote 345x=18(mod912) —---() | 115x=6(mod104) —---(ii) We first solve (ii) and for this note that ged(115, 104)=1 ” Now, 104) 1s ( 104 eS SS oN DCM-38DISCRETE MATHEMATICS Hence 1=11-5x2 = 11 = (104-911) 10x11-104 0 (115 ~1%104)-104 = 10*115-11104 This implies 115%10 = 1 (mod 104) jie. %) =10 is a solution of (ii) Hence x, =10 is also a solution of (i) The three solutions of (i) can now be given as x=10+712i(mod912),i=0,1,2 or, x=10+304i(mod912),/=0,1,2 4. Let m,n be integers not both zero. Prove that ged(im, kn) = k.ged(m,m) for any positive integer k. IWBUT 2016(0DD)] Answer: Let d=ged(m, n) Then ma+nb=d when a and b are integers. (km) +b(kn) = kd ie, ged (dom, kn) =kd = kgcd(m, n) If k is any integer, then result becomes ged(km, kn)=kged(m, n) 5. a) State and prove the recursion theorem of gcd. IWBUT 2018(EVEN)] b) i) Prove that gcd(a,b) = gcd(a, a-b) ii) Show that two consecutive integers are prime to each other. ¢) Calculate ged(567,315) and have hence express gcd(567,315) as S67x+315y where x and y are integers. Answer: 2) GCD Algorithm 2: Euclid's Algorithm The basis of the algorithm isthe following fact: n ifm divides'm with no remainder F 7 : mend, ged) exi{m remainder of 2) otherwise n DCM-39POPULAR PUBLICATIONS. ° We can rewrite m as follows: m ; nm m= of] +remainder of = n 7 Now any divisor d common to m and n must divide the first term with no remain ce since it is the product of n and an integer. Therefore, d must also divide the Second t “ since d divides m and m is the sum of the two terms, term Since any divisor common to m and n must divide the remainder of m/i, yg ae that, in particular, the ged does, since it is a common divisor. It Just happens to bs the greatest such divisor. : So by taking the GCD (n, remainder of m/n), of m and n. Now we can write: int ged(int m, int n) { if (m %n) == 0) Tetum n; else return ged(n, m% n); we can "close in quickly" on the GcD } ged(468, 24) ged(24, 12) =>12 ged(135, 19) ged(19, 2) ged(2, 1) =>1 Euclid's GCD algorithm is very fast; but division (taking remainders) is a more time- consuming operation than simple addition and subtraction. b) (i) Let p=ged(a,b). Then p\a, p|b. So pia-b. If hla, h|a~6, then hla-(a-b) ie,-h|b But p=ged(a,b). So h| p Hence p=ged(a,a -b) (ii) Let n and n+1 be two consecutive integers. If possible let 7 and n+1 be not aed to each other: Then there exists keZ, k #1, such that k=ged(n, +1). This implies k\n and k|n+1. So k\(n+1)-n or k|1. But the only integer which divides | is 1. So #=1. This contradiction therefore proves the result, DCM-40¢) We have 315| 567 252| 315 63/252 252 63 0 ie, S67=315K14282 ke, IS so, ged(567, 315) = 63 Now, 63=315~252x1=315 -(567~315) =315(2) +(~1)567 Thus, 1, y=2. 521463 6. a) State the principle of woll-ordering, b) State and prove the division algorithm by the woll-ordorin : 19 principle. ¢) In a round -robin tournament where evory playor plays se other player exactly once and each match has a winner and a loser, a cyclo is said to exist if 2 beats ,, ?, and P, and so on upto P,, beats P, and P, and P. The cycle is of length m(m23). Prove that if a cycle exists among m players then there must be a cycle of 3 of these players. [WBUT 2018(EVEN)] Answer: a) Every non-empty subset of N has a first element. b) if a and b are integers, b >0, then there exist unique integers q and r such that a=bgtr, O0) This contradicts the fact that r is the first element of S. Hence r0, we have g,-4, =0 or g=q This proves the uniqueness. ©) Eet us define order by win/loss. If A wins B and B wins C then it is ordered as ~>APB>C>... Consider 23 teams, n(n—1)/2 games are played and 2“(n(7-1)/2) unique results might be possible. Out of those 2\in(n-1)/2) possible results, how many unique outcomes are there such that we can order every player (only once) such that it forms a cycle. i.e, P>Py>P, >> P, > Pus There cannot be cycle if there is Total Winner or Total Looser. I found (by using Principle of Inclusion Exclusion) out there exists 2M(n(n-1)/2) - (2n) 2"((n-1)(n-2)/2)#n(n-1) 2*((2-2)n-3)/2) Possible results of the tournament where there is no Total Winner or no Total looser. If three players played game, player (1), (2), and (3) the outcomes are [G, 2), (, 3), (2, 3)] — (1) is total winner so there can't be cycle. (4,2), (1, 3), 3, 2)] (4,2), G, 1), 2, 3)] (A, 2), 1), G,2)] [2, 1), 1, 3), 2, 3)] (2, 1), 0, 3), G, 2)] (2, 1),G, 1), 2, 3)] (2, 1), GD, G, 2] Here, (1, 2) means match was played by (1) and (2) and (1) won the game. The following forms a cycle (also it is the only outcome where there are no total winner and total looser). : DCM-42DI BASIC COUNTING TECHNIQUES — eee © Chapter at a Glance —_—_—errreeeeeeee— Here we ae some a strategies that culminate in extensive use and application of ions and combinations, The questions raised all require th: ir pean en contin quite that we count something, yet each ‘The Addition Principle If onder one vegetable from the menu at Big Basket, how many vegetable choices does Basket offer? Here we select one item from a collection of items. Because there are no common items among the two sets Basket has called Greens and Potatoes, we can pool the items into one large set, We use addition, here 45, to determine the total number of items to choose from. This illustrates an important counting principle. The Addition Principle Ifa choice from Group I can be made in n ways and a choice from Group II can be made in m ways, then the number of choices possible from Group I or Group II isn+m. Necessary Condition: No elements in Group I are the same as elements in Group Il. This can be generalized to a single selection from more than two groups, again with the condition that all groups, or sets, are disjoint, that is, have nothing in common. - ‘Examples to illustrate The Addition Principle: 7 Here are three sets of letters, call them sets I, II, and Ill: © Seth {amy} © Set I: {b,di,,u) Set IIL {c,e,n,t} How many ways are there to choose one letter from among the sets I, Il, or III? Note that the three sets are disjoint, or mutually exclusive: there are no common elements among the three sets. Here are two sets of positive integers: © A={2,3,5,7,11,13} © B={2,4,6,8,10,12}. How many ways are there to choose one integer from among the sets sets are not disjoint. What modification can we make to the Additior this case? Try to write that modification. s A or B? Note that the two n Principle to accommodate DCM-43POPULAR PUBLICATIONS The Multiplication Principle Atel” atthe Bistro consist of one soup item, one meat item, one green vegetable, énd ong dessert tem from the a-lakarte menu. If Basket’ friend Piere always orders such a meas many different meals can be created? : We can enumerate the meals that are possible, preferably in some organized way to assure that we have considered all possibilities. Here i a sketch of one such enumeration, where (V0), {KR}, {SPB} and (LACE represent the items tobe chosen fom the soup, mest, geen vege and dessert menus, respectively. VKSL VKPL VKBL VKIL ...and so on to... ORIL VKSA VKPA VKBA VKIA ORIA VKSC VKPC VKBC VKIC ORIC VKSF VKPF VKBF VKIF - ORIF Take note ofthe enumeration process used in the table. How could you describe it in words? How else could we complete the count without identifying all possible options? A map or tee to illustrate the enumeration process provides a bridge to such a method. We have two ways to select a soup item, two ways to select a meat item, four green vegetables to choose from, and four desserts to choose from. The matching of one soup with each meat, then each of those pairs with each of four possible green vegetables, and each of those triples with each of four possible desserts leads tothe use of multiplication as a quick way to count al the possible meals we could assemble at Basket's. This suggests we use another counting principle to describe this technique. The Multiplication Principle If a task involves two steps and the first step can be completed in n ways and the second step in m ways, then there are n*m ways to complete the task. * Necessary Condition: The ways each step can be completed are independent of each ‘This can be generalized to completing a task in more than two steps, as long as the condition holds, Example to illustrate The Multiplication Principle: . Recall our three sets I, I, and TI: {a,m,r}, (b,d,i,u}, and {c,e,n,t}. Determine the number of three-letter sets that can be created such that one letter is from set I, one letter in from set II, and one letter is from set III. Note that our choice in each set is independent of our choice in the other Sets. If necessary, we could enumerate the possible three-letter, or three-element, sets. Permutations In how many ways can the letters within just one set, from among I, Il, and II, be ordered? In set I, we have these Possibilities: amr arm omar omrao ram rma DCM-44ISCRETE MATHEMATI We use the Multiplication Principle to describe our selection, We have three letters to choose from in filling the first position, two letters remain to fill the second position, and just one leter left for the last position: 3216 different orders are possible, Likewise, for set If there are 120 different ways to order the five letters and there are 24 different ways to order the letters in set II This above discussion exemplifies the concept of another basic counting strategy. Permutation : A linear arrangement of elements for which the order of the elements must be taken into account. We also point out the availability of factorial notation to compactly represent the specific multiplication we just carried out: 3x21 = 31, $x4%3x2«1 = 51, and so on. So n(n-1)(n-2)...(2)(1) ent. Factorial Notation ‘A compact representation for the multiplication of consecutive integers. We use n! toreresent the product m(n-1)(n-2)...(2)(1), where n is some positive integer. Example to illustrate use of Permutations: : ‘Almost every morning or evening on the news I hear about the State of Illinois DCFS, the Department of Children and Family Services. I get confused, because our mathematics department has a committee called the Department Faculty Status Committee, or DFSC. Can you see why I'm confused? How many different 4-letter ordered arrangements, or permutations, exist for the set of. letters {D, F, S, C}? Thinking of four positions to fill, position, 3 for the next, 2 letters for the next position, and 1 choice for the last position. Using the multiplication principle, there are 4x3x2x1=24 different 4-letter ordered arrangements for the set of letters {D, F, S, C}. We can extend this application to consider ordered arrangements of only some of the elements in a set. For example, returning to the beverages menu of Big Baskets: If Basket will post only four possible soda chocies, how many different ordered arrangements of the four sodas are there? Thinking of four positions t6 fill; ____, we have 6 sodas to choose from for the fist position, 5 for the next, 4 sodas for the next, and 3 sodas for the last position. Using the multiplication principle, there are 6x5x4x3=360 different ways to select and order four of the six sodas on the menu. f In general, we use the notation P(n,r) to represent set of n objects, In the first problem above, we det ‘calculated P(6,4)=360. The general value of P(n,t) is n( 2),,.(ner+1). Note that n can be any nonnegative integer. n There is a step of arithmetic we can apply to the general pattern for P(n,t) to help streamline permutation calculations. In the second line below, we have multiplied by we have 4 letters to choose from for the first the number of ways to arrange r objects from a termined that P(4,4)=24, and in the second we in-1)(n-2)..({n-(F-1)] oF PCa, 1) = n(a-1)(n- Are there any restrictions on the value of DCM-45a POPULAR PUBLICATIONS (narin=rVnQV0 ich is just the value 1 because the numerator nd den (rorXn=r=)..)0) or ae equal Inthe fourth fine below we see how the expression can be simplified using fase notation. Pnyr)=n(n~lYn=2)..n—r +1) (a=r(n-r-1 (n=r)n=r=1 =n(n-1)(n-2)..n-r +1) Thus, we have P(6,2)=61/4! and P(40,8)=401/32!. What about (4,4)? The result above suggests P(4,4)=4Y/0!. We already know that P(4,4)=4x3x2x1=4!, So we have 4!=41/0!, For this to be true, it must be the case thet O'=1. as strange as that may appear, we need we wish to carry out. in order to maintain consistency within the calculations Combinations ‘What is the distinction between asking these two questions? (In how many ways can a 5-card poker hand be dealt? ii) How many different 5-card poker hands exist? ‘The first question considers the order or arrangement of the cards as they are dealt. In the second question, the end result when dealt 2H,4D,JC,3S,10D in that order is the same 2s being desit 4D,3S,JC,10D,2H in that order. Tn each case, the same S-card poker hand exists. The questions help illustrate the difference between a permutation and a combination. Combination A collection of elements whose order does not matter. We found P(52,5) as the solution to the first problem. That is, we arranged 5 objects selected from among 52 cards. For the second question, there are many arrangements that yield the same S-card hand. We need to account for this. Let's consider a simpler problem. How many ordered arrangements exist for the letters of the set {A,B,C,D,E}? Using permutations, we have P(5,5) = 5! = 120 ways to arrange the five letters. How many ordered arrangements are there of 3 items from the S-element set? We have P(5,3) = $43 = 51/21 = 60 arrangements. For example, for the three letters {A,B,C} We have these arrangements: ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA. This represents 6 of the 60 arrangements, yet each involves the same selection-of three letters. Likewise for the three letters {A,C,E}: We have ACE, AEC, CAE, CEA, EAC, ECA. ’ It seems that for each 3-Letter subset of {A,B,C,D,E} there are 6 arrangements of the same tree letters. 2 ’ DCM-46DISCRETE MATHEMATICS This isa helpful observation in exploring the following question: How many ways can we select three items from the 5. , Mc inc itecs abcoetdcd? 1¢ S-clement set {A,B,C,D,E} when the order of One way is to.list the unique 3-clement subsets of { ‘A,B,C,D,E}: ABC, ABD, ABE, ACD, ACE, ADE, BCD, BCE, BDE, CDE. There are 10 such 3-clement subsets. Another way to consider the count is to use the fact that: @ there are P(S,3) = 60 ordered arrangements of the S-clement set into 3-clement subsets, and Gi) within the 60 ordered arrangements, there are 10 groups of 6 arrangements that use the same 3- letter subset. That is, 60 + 6 = 10 unique 3-element subsets. Using combinatorics notation, we have 6.3)= 555) In general, we have a way to determine the number of combinations of n items selected r at a time, where the order of selection or the arrangement of the r items is not considered: n! Cu=— tt = Gopi and we note that Cbign) = 20D = PO) because P(r) = rl P(r) (-n)! ‘The Relationship Between Permutations and Combinations Ifr elements are to be collected or arranged from a set of n clements, then the number of combinations of n elements taken rat a-time, C(n,r), related to the number of permutations of n elements taken rat a ‘time, P(n,1), according to the equation P(nr) _ Par) rl P(rr) C(n,r)= Circular Permutations How many ways are there to arrange 5 children at a round table? If we consider the case in a linear fashion, sy PEs we have P(5,5) = 5! arrangements. Now extend this to a circle: DCM-47Notice that in each ofthese cases the same people are sitting next to each other. Although there has been a change--a rotation--about the table, the five children are still in the same positions relative to cach other. How many ways are there to rotate the unique linear relationship ABCDE ? ‘There are five such ways, all pictured in the drawing, Thus we have St unique linear arrangements ofthe children, but we can grou has 5 arrangements that show the children in the same position relative to we have 51/5 = 4! circular permutations of the five children, ‘What if we arrange int a circle an r-element subset from an n-element set? S the 5 children. In the linear case, there are P(5,3) = 60 arrangements, each group has 3 arrangements that show the children in the same posi ip those so each group each other. Therefore, uppose we arrange 3 of but we can group those so ition relative to each other, Therefore, we have P(5,3)/3 = 51/(2!*3) circular Permutations of the five children into 3-children subsets, In general, Circular Permutation A circular permutation is a circular arran ¢lements must be taken into account, In general: \gement of elements for which the order of the For n elements, there are (n-1)! circular permutations. The number of circular permutations of r-elements taken from an n-element set is P(n,tyr. Multiple Choice Type Questions 1. Which of the following is congruent to 28 a)5 b)8 modulo 3? [WBUT 2018(EVEN)] ©) 13 d)15 Answer: (c) 2. Which of the following is congruent to 56 modulo 5? [WBUT 2019(EVEN)] a) 20 b) 24 ¢) 22 d) 23 Answer: (b) DCM-48DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 3. If 12 distinct points are placed on the circumfere nce of a circle and all the chords connecting these points are drawn, at how many points do the chords intersect? Assume that no three chords intersect at the samo point. [WBUT 2012(0DD)] _ a) C02, 2) b) C(12, 4) ¢) 2" a 12v2 Answer: (b) if 4, How many ways are there to travel in xyz space from the origin (0, 0, 0) to the point (4, 3, §) by taking unit steps in positive x,y,z directions only? [WBUT 2012(0DD), 2016(EVEN)] a) 41.31.51 b) 60 ©) 121(514131) a) 32 Answer: (a) 5. In how many ways can 7 women and 3 men be arranged in a row if 3 men must always stand next to each other?, [WBUT 2013(EVEN), 2015(EVEN)] a)7!x3! b)7!+3! ¢)3!x8! . d)7!x8! Answer: (a) 6. The number of non-negative integral solution .of the equation x+ytz=17, %y,220 is [WBUT 2013(EVEN), 2015(EVEN)] a) 170 b) 174 o) 172 d) none of these Answer: (b) < 7. The number of permutations of a set with k elements is’ [WBUT 2013(0DD)] a) KE b) (k-1)! ¢) (K+)! d) none of these Answer: imprecise 8. In how many ways 7 different beads.can be arranged to form a necklace? : [WBUT 2013(0DD)] a) 260 b) 300 c) 360 d) 350 -Answer: (c) 9. The number of ways an even sum is obtained when 2 indistinguishable dice are thrown is [WBUT 2015(EVEN)] a)18 b) 12 ©) 16 14 Answer: (a) 10. Total number of functions from a set of 10 elements of another set of 15 elements is . [WBUT 2016(0DD)) a) 10° b) 15 o) 2° d) 2" Answer: (b) DCM-49POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 44, In how many ways can 5 letters be posted in 3 letter boxes? IWBUT 2018(EVENy a) 25 b) 15 ¢) 243 4) 720 Answer: (c) 12. How many different ways can three of the letters of the word BYTES be Chosen, ifthe first letter must be B2 (WAUT 20t8(0DD} a) P(4, 2) b) P(2, 4) ©) C(4, 2) 4 . Answer: (©) 43. Among 200 people, 160 oithor swim or jog or both. If 85 swim and 60 swim and jog, how many job? [WBUT 2018(0DD)} a) 125 b) 225 c) 85 d) 25 2 Answer: (a) Short Choice Type Questions 1. Use theory of congruence to prove that for n>1, 17|(2""! + 3"). DWBUT 2016(EVEN)] Answer: 2 22-2" = 2.8" 3:5 = 3-5-5 =15+5 =15-(25)" = (17-2) 25" 35%" 42 =17-(25)" ~2-(25)"~2:8" =17-(25)" -2((25)" -8) Now —17-(25)' =0(mod17) and 2{(2s)° ~8") =0mod(17) Hence 17|(2 +3:5™1) 2. Solve the linear congruence 6x = 3(mod9). [WBUT 2017(EVEN)] Answer: As ged(6,9)=3 and 3 divides 3 of the RHS, the congruence has 3 incongruent solutions, Note 6x = 3(mod9) is equivalent to 2x = 1(mod3). As ged(2,3)=1, the congruence 2x =1(mod3) has only one solution, We know that there exist u,veZ such that 2, so 2(-1 14+ 3v=1 which is satisfied by w=-1,v=1 Thus +=-1 is a solution of the given congruence. DCM-50DISCRETE MATHEMATICS ‘The three incongruent solutions are ,—1+3,-1+6(mod9) 1,2,5(mod9) ie, x= 3. Assume that in a group of six people, each pair of individuals are either friends or enemies. Show that there are either three mutual. friends or three mutual enemies. : [WBUT 2013(0DD)] Answer: Zi », Let us take six people as 2, P, R, P, Ps, P, represented by six points. pq) Let us start with 7 and P, and assume that they are friends & label : friends by 0 and enemies by 1. Pe Then P,and P, are also friends and proceeding this way we get all of them friends. Exactly a same arguments will lead to a situation when all are enemies and there cannot be a situation where one is a friend and the other is an enemy for a particular pair, So the problem is wrong. : : PO) B, 4, State principle of inclusion and exclusion and use it to find the total number of integers between 1 and 1000 which are neither perfect squares nor perfect cubes. , [WBUT 2014(0DD)] Answer: We use the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle. There are 1000 integers from 1 to 1000; among these numbers, 31 are perfect squares (indeed, 312 = 961 < 1000, but 322 > 1000), 10, are perfect cubes (this is because 103 = 1000), and 3 are both squares and cubes (these three numbers are 16 = 1, 26 = 64, and 36 = 729). Thus, by the Inclusion- exclusion principle, there are 1000 ~ (31 + 10) + 3 = 962 numbers that are neither perfect squares nor perfect cubes. 5. If there are 200 faculty members that speak French, 50 that speak Russian, 100 that speak Spanish, 20 that speak French and Russian, 60 that speak French and Spanish, 35 that speak Russian and Spanish, while only 10 speak French, Russian and Spanish, how many speak either French or Russian or Spanish? [WBUT 2015(EVEN)] Answer: Let F be the set containing the number of faculty who speak in ° French and R, S that of for Russian and Spanish respectively. <.n(F)=200, n(R)=50, n(S) =100. F n(FAR)=20, n(RAS)=35, n(F OS) =60, n(FASAR)=10 s u DCM-51POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Y in French is “<. No. of faculty who speak only in 7 n(F)=n(FOR)=n(F OS) +n(F ORAS) = 200~20-60-+19=130 Similarly, number of faculty who speak only in Russian is © a(R)=n(RAF)=n(ROS)4n(RAF AS) = 50-20-35 41025 and number of faculty who speak only in Spanish is n(8)=n(SAF)=n(SAR)+(S0RAF) =100-60-35410=15 . State Pigeonhole Principle and solve: 7 (BUT 2015(0Dpy x ee ‘contains 10 blue balls, 20 red balls, 8 groon balis, 15 yellow balls ang 25 white balls. How many balls must we choose to ensure that we have 12 balls of the same colour? Answer: i Pigeonhole Principle: If n pigeonholes are occupied by kn+1 or more & €N,, thén at least one pigeonhole is occupied by k-+1 or more pigeons, Here n=5,k+1=12, So, kK=11. Hence nk+1=56 So 56 balls are to be drawn, Pigeons, where 7. State pigeonhole principle. Suppose that a patient is given a prescription of 45 capsules to take at least one capsule per day for 30 days. Then prove Period of consecutive days during which the patient takes oxa Answer: Part: Refer to Question No. 4(I* Part) of Short Answer Type Questions. 2™ Part: {4 a; be the number of capsules takes until the day 1, and so on, a, be the number of capsules takes until day i. Consider a sequence like 4,0, [WBUT 2017(EVEN) with the instructions that there must be a ctly 14 capsules. yg Where 1S.a, <45,Va,. Add 14 10 each ¢lements of the 15 j) Then b_k-b_j =@_lt+a_2t.0 +a_k.(a_lt+a_2+...+a_j) =a_[j+l]+a_[j+2]+a_[j+3]+..+a_k is divisible by 7 : So the sequence contains a subsequence c_iza_[j+i] for i=1 to k-j whose sum is divisible by 7. 9. Find the total number of integers lying between 1 and 1000 that are divisible by [WBUT 2017(0DD)] at least one of 2, 3, 7. Answer: Let A, B,C denote the numbers between 1 and 1000, divisible by 2, 3 and 7 respectively. Then A= .,1000} and n(4)=500 .,999} and n(B)=333 C={7,14, 21, ony 994} and n(C) APB ={6, 12,18, «+s» 996} and a sae BAC ={21, 42, +++» 987} and n(BNC)= CMA={14, 28, oes 994} and e caeie AD BIC ={42, 84, +1 966} and n(ANBNC)= m, then at least one pigeonhole contains two or more pigeons. 5 If there are n pigeonholes occupied by nk +1 pigeons, then there must be at least one Pigeonhole occupied by k-+1 or more pigeons. b) The generalized pigeonhole principle: If NV objects are placed into & boxes, then there is at least one box containing at least? N/k objects, Proof: Suppose none of the boxes contains N/k or more objects, Then every box contains at most N/k—1 objects. So, the total number of objects is at most k(N/k-1). But N/k-1 (q ar), [WBUT 2018(0DD)) Answer: : We make the truth table for 4{ p> (q ar)} z a n ITT po(gar) | a{p>(gar} z 1 1 1 T 0 1 1 0 7 7 i 1 0 L 0 0 L 1 0 0 0 0 T 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 r 0 0 i 0 0 0 1 0 T 0 0 0 0. 0 1 0 The required CNF is (py-av ar) A(pysav ara (apvav-r)a(pvavr) Long Answer Type Questions. 1..a) Prove the Pascal's identity: [WBUT 2013(EVEN), 2019(EVEN)] ¢(n,r)=¢(n-1,r) +c(n—I, r—1) , where the notation carries usual meaning. Answer: C(n-l, 1) + C(n=1, 1) = (n-1)Y/ [r! (A-1-1)!] + (@-1)Y/[-1)! (2-)!] = (m4) * (n-1)Y/ [rt * (o-4)(n-1-4)!] +r * (n-1)V/fr-1)! (2-1)!] = (m4) * (nl)! +r * (1-1)! / [rt (nt) = (n-1)! * [(n—1) + r]/ [rl (n-1)!] = nM/fr! (n-2)!] = C(n,1) b) State Pigeonhole principle. [WBUT 2013(EVEN), 2016(EVEN), 2019(EVEN)] Using that prove that if any five numbers from 1 to 8 are selected, then two of them will add to 9. [WBUT 2013(EVEN), 2016(EVEN), 2019(EVEN)] OR, Show that if 5 integers from 1 to 8 are chosen, then at least 2 of them will add to 9. [WBUT 2019(EVEN)] Answer: : Pigeonhole Principle: If 1 number of pigeonhole be accommodated by m number of pigeon (n (pr)) [WBUT 2019(EVEN)] DCM-56DISCRETE MATHEMATICS Answer: We make the truth table for «(p> (p-»r)) 7 r por p>(p>r) | =(p>(p>n) 1 T 1 I 7 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 sold 0 0 0 1 1 0 Hence the required CNF is (-Py~r)a(~pvr)a(pvr) DCM-57POPULAR PUBLICATIONS INTRODUCTION TO PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS © Chapter at a Glance —S—_>x<< In propositional logic we consider declarative sentences Examples The sun is red” All sparrows are birds” ~My name is Torben” “Itis raining” Note: There are other sorts of sentences Syntax of propositional logic: The propositional symbols p, q, t, .. stands for propositions Propositional symbols are atomic formulas with which compound formulas are built using the connectives +, A, V, => together with parentheses The connectives stand for respectively “not”, ”and”, “or”, “implies”. Examples of formulas: —p, (-pVQ); (P49), (((P=>4)Ap)=q) The formula ~p is built using the connective ~ and the atomic formilla p, The formula(—pVq) is built using the connective V and the formulas -p and q, etc Parentheses are often omitted like in the formula ~pvq Declarative sentences are symbolized using formulas. Examples of symbolizations: If p and q symbolizes the sentences "The sun is ted” and My name is Torben” Then the formula ~p symbolizes the sentence ”The sun is not red” and ~ p V q symbolizes "The sun is not red or my name is Torben” Semantics of propositional logic: : We call T or F truth-values to assign a propositional symbol the truth-value T is to assume that it stands for a true proposition Analogously, to assign a propositional symbol the truth value F is to assume that it stands for a false proposition A propositional symbol is assigned either T or F Truth-tables: To each connective there is a truth-table g-o Oy Day Oy Ow O y O=y T TITTTTTT TF F TP. 7. TF F Ee ter Fo eet F FFFFFFF -T DCM-58DISCRETE MATHEMATICS Thereby any compound formula can be given a truth-table (Greek letters @, , 8, ... stand for arbitrary formulas) Examples of truth tables P =p 1 p -p py-p T F To T F T F T F F tT T P qa —~- = Pv" P q aq paaq =(panq) Te eee ee er Tt FF TP ete ee ot Py Pup Fn oT FoR?) P| Pana Alternative to truth-tabl. AO is true if and only if D is not true ‘Onyis true if and only if (is true and y is true OV is true if and only if C is true or y is true Cissy is true if and only if ( is true implies that y is true Such truth-conditions contain the same information as the truth-tables. A couple of definitions: ‘A formula is a tautology if and only if itis true whatever truth values the involved propositional symbols are assigned Two formulas are logically equivalent if and only if they have the same truth-table (That is, the formulas 0 andy are logically equivalent if and only if the formula (= y)A(y=> 0) is a tautology). Multiple Choice Type Questions 4. AAB is equivalent to which of the following? . [WBUT 2012(ODD), 2016(EVEN)] a) A> -B b) ADB e) BA, d) -(A>-8). Answer: (d) . 2. A disjunctive normal form of P > Qis [WBUT 2013(EVEN), 2016(EVEN), 2016(0DD)] a)~PvQ b) Pv~Q ©) (~PAQ)v(PA~O) d) (PAQ)v(Pa~Q) Answer: (a) DCM-59POPULAR PUBLICATIONS (pva)v(~Pag)= IWBUT 2013(EVEN), 2016(EVEyy 3~ ~ = ad iP b) p °)~q d)q 4 Answer: (d) 4.-(PYDV(PA~D* [IWBUT 2013(ODD), 2015(Eve; “a=? 4) p. )~q 4) none of thege Answer: (c) i : 5, The proposition pA(qa~q) isa IWBUT 2014(0DD), 2017(EVENy a) contradiction b) tautology.) both (a) and (b)_d) none of thesg Answer: (a) 6.4 AB is equivalent to weUT 2014/0009 a)~A>~B b)~A>B ce) ~Bo>A @) ~ (42) Answer: (d) 7. The truth value of the statement ‘x’ + 4 =0 hold for some real values of x’ is [WBUT 2015(0DD), 2) true b) false ¢) both (a)and(b) d) none of these ‘Answer: (d) 4 8. If p: ‘Anil is rich’ and q: ‘Kanchan is poor’ then the symbolic form of the statement ‘Either Anil or Kanchan is rich’ is [IWBUT 2015(ODD), 2017(EVEN}] a) pvg b) pv-g °) =pvq 4) =(p aq) Answer: (2) %.P>(PVO)isa [WBUT 2016(0D0)] | a) tautology b) contradiction ©) contingency d) none of these — Answer: (d) | 10. Contrapositive of *— p>q'is [WBUT 2017(EVEN)] i a) pq b) ~go~ P °) ~ a) g>- Answer: (c) Hoge es 44. The truth of the statement ‘x? = x hold forall real values of x" ie ue oF [WBUT 2017(EVEN ears) ©) both (a) and (by d) none of thes? DCM-60DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 42, =pv (q-9) is equivalent (=) to [WBUT 2017(0DD)} alg *b) ag °) p d) =p ‘Answer: (4) 43. Let L(x, ”) be the statement x likes y and domain for x, y consists of all people in the world. Then we can express Nobody likes everybody as [WBUT 2017(0DD)] a) WxayL(x, ») b) Vx3y=L(x, y) ¢) WxvynL(x, ¥) d) none of these Answer: (c) 44, The statement “The sun rises inthe north” is [WBUT 2018(EVEN)] a) not a proposition b) true proposition ¢) false proposition d) None of these Answer: (d) 45. Contrapositive of ‘p—>~q'is [WBUT 2018(EVEN)] a)~q>P b)q>~p. ce) ~p>g a) ~q>~p Answer: (4) 46. Which of the following statement is correct? [WBUT 2018(EVEN)] a) ~ VxP(x) =3x~ P(x) b) ~V, P(x) =~3,P(x) ©) ~3xP(x) =VxP(x) d) AxP(x) =~ VxP(x), Answer: (a) 47. If p= Itis raining, q = She will go to college, then “It is raining and she will not go to college” will be denoted by [WBUT 2018(0DD)] a) pamg b) paq ¢) =(paq) a) spaq Answer: (a) Hl 48. The statement pq =(p—4)A(q— Pp) describes [WBUT 2018(0DD)] a) Commutative Law. 'b) Implication Laws ¢) Exportation Law d) Equivalence Answer: (d) [WBUT 2019(EVEN)] b) true proposition d) none of these 19. The statement ‘Please close the door’ is a) not a proposition ¢) false proposition Answer: (a) DCM-61