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org/wiki/Standard_Model

Standard Model
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the Standard Model in Cryptography, see Standard Model (cryptography).

For the Standard Model in Cosmology, see the article on the Big Bang.

The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory which describes three of the four known fundamental
interactions between the elementary particles that make up all matter. It is a quantum field theory developed
between 1970 and 1973 which is consistent with both quantum mechanics and special relativity. To date,
almost all experimental tests of the three forces described by the Standard Model have agreed with its
predictions. However, the Standard Model falls short of being a complete theory of fundamental
interactions, primarily because of its lack of inclusion of gravity, the fourth known fundamental interaction,
but also because of the large number of numerical parameters (such as masses and coupling constants) that
must be put "by hand" into the theory (rather than being derived from first principles).

Contents
1 The Standard Model
1.1 Particles of
matter
1.2
Force-mediating
particles
1.3 The Higgs
Boson
1.4 List of
Standard Model
fermions
2 Tests and
predictions
3 Challenges to the
Standard Model
4 The anthropic
principle
5 See also The Standard Model of Fundamental Particles and Interactions
6 Notes
7 References
7.1 Introductory
textbooks
7.2 Advanced
textbooks
7.3 Journal
articles
8 External links

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The Standard Model

In physics, the dynamics of both matter and energy in Nature is presently best understood in terms of the
kinematics and interactions of fundamental particles. To date, science has managed to reduce the laws which
seem to govern the behavior and interaction of all types of matter and energy we are aware of, to a small
core of fundamental laws and theories. A major goal of physics is to find the 'common ground' that would
unite all of these into one integrated model of everything, in which all the other laws we know of would be
special cases, and from which the behavior of all matter and energy can be derived (at least in principle).
"Details can be worked out if the situation is simple enough for us to make an approximation, which is
almost never, but often we can understand more or less what is happening." (Feynman's lectures on Physics,
Vol 1. 2-7)

Within this, the Standard Model is a grouping of two major theories – quantum electroweak and quantum
chromodynamics – which provides an internally consistent theory describing interactions between all
experimentally observed particles. Technically, quantum field theory provides the mathematical framework
for the Standard Model. The Standard Model describes each type of particle in terms of a mathematical
field. For a technical description of the fields and their interactions, see Standard model (basic details).

For ease of description, the Standard Model can be divided into three parts – covering particles of matter,
force mediating particles, and the Higgs boson.

Particles of matter

The matter particles described by the Standard Model all have an intrinsic property known as 'spin' whose
value is determined to be ½. In Standard Model terms, this means that all matter particles are fermions. For
this reason, they follow the Pauli exclusion principle in accordance with the spin-statistics theorem, and it is
this which causes their 'material' quality. Apart from their antiparticle partners, a total of twelve different
types of matter particles are known and accounted for by the Standard Model. Six of these are classified as
quarks (up, down, strange, charm, top and bottom), and the other six as leptons (electron, muon, tau, and
their corresponding neutrinos).

Matter particles (as do mediating particles) also Organization of Fermions

carry various charges which make them Generation 1 Generation 2 Generation 3
susceptible to the fundamental forces, which are in
Up Charm Top
turn mediated as described in the next subsection. Quarks
Down Strange Bottom
Each quark can carry any one of three color
Electron Muon Tau
charges – red, green or blue, enabling them
Leptons Neutrino Neutrino Neutrino
to participate in strong interactions.
The up-type quarks (up, charm, and top Electron Muon Tau
quarks) carry an electric charge of +⅔, and
the down-type quarks (down, strange, and
bottom) carry an electric charge of –⅓,
enabling both types to participate in
electromagnetic interactions.
Leptons do not carry any color charge – they are color neutral, preventing them from participating in
strong interactions.
The electron-type leptons (the electron, the muon, and the tau lepton) carry an electric charge of –1,
enabling them to participate in electromagnetic interactions.
The neutrino-type leptons (the electron neutrino, the muon neutrino and the tau neutrino) carry no
electric charge, preventing them from participating in electromagnetic interactions
Both quarks and leptons carry a handful of flavor charges, including the weak isospin, enabling all
particles to interact via the weak nuclear interaction.

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Pairs from each group (one up-type quark, one down-type quark, a down-type lepton and its corresponding
neutrino) form what is known as a 'generation'. The corresponding particles between each generation are
identical to each other, with the exception of their mass and a property known as their flavor.

Force-mediating particles

Forces in physics are the ways that

particles interact and influence each
other. At a macro level, for example, the
electromagnetic force allows particles to
interact with, and via magnetic fields,
and the force of gravitation allows two
particles with mass to attract one another
in accordance with Newton's Law of
Gravitation. The standard model
explains such forces as resulting from
matter particles exchanging other
particles, known as force-mediating
particles. When a force-mediating
particle is exchanged, at a macro level
the effect is equivalent to a force
influencing both of them, and the
particle is therefore said to have Summary of interactions between particles described by the Standard
Model.
mediated (i.e., been the agent of) that
force. Force-mediating particles are
believed to be the reason why the forces and interactions between particles observed in the laboratory and in
the universe exist.

The known force-mediating particles described by the Standard Model also all have spin (as did matter
particles), but in their case, the value of the spin is 1, meaning that all force-mediating particles are bosons.
As a result, they do not follow the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The different types of force mediating particles
are described below.

Photons mediate the electromagnetic force between electrically charged particles. The photon is
massless and is well-described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics.

The W+, W–, and Z0 gauge bosons mediate the weak nuclear interactions between particles of
different flavors (all quarks and leptons). They are massive, with the Z0 being more massive than the
. The weak interactions involving the act on exclusively left-handed particles and not the
left-handed antiparticles. Furthermore, the carry an electric charge of +1 and –1 and couple to
the electromagnetic interactions. The electrically neutral Z0 boson interacts with both left-handed
particles and antiparticles. These three gauge bosons along with the photons are grouped together
which collectively mediate the electroweak interactions.

The eight gluons mediate the strong nuclear interactions between color charged particles (the quarks).
Gluons are massless. The eightfold multiplicity of gluons is labeled by a combinations of color and an
anticolor charge (i.e., Red-anti-Green).[1] Because the gluon has an effective color charge, they can
interact among themselves. The gluons and their interactions are described by the theory of quantum
chromodynamics.

The interactions between all the particles described by the Standard Model are summarized in the illustration
immediately above and to the right.

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Force Mediating Particles

Electromagnetic Force Weak Nuclear Force Strong Nuclear Force

Photon γ W+, W-, and Z W + , W − , Gluons g

Gauge Bosons Z

The Higgs Boson

The Higgs particle is a hypothetical massive scalar elementary particle predicted by the Standard Model, and
the only fundamental particle predicted by that model which has not fully been observed as yet. This is
partly because it requires an exceptionally large amount of energy to create and observe under laboratory
circumstances. It has no intrinsic spin, and thus (like the force-mediating particles) is also classified as a
boson.

The Higgs Boson plays a unique role in the Standard Model, and a key role in explaining the origins of the
mass of other elementary particles, in particular the difference between the massless photon and the very
heavy W and Z bosons. Elementary particle masses, and the differences between electromagnetism (caused
by the photon) and the weak force (caused by the W and Z bosons), are critical to many aspects of the
structure of microscopic (and hence macroscopic) matter; thus, if it is proven to exist, the Higgs boson has
an enormous effect on the world around us.

As of 2007, no experiment has directly detected the existence of the Higgs boson, but there is some indirect
evidence for it. It is hoped that upon the completion of the Large Hadron Collider, experiments conducted at
CERN would bring experimental evidence confirming the existence for the particle.

List of Standard Model fermions

This table is based in part on data gathered by the Particle Data Group (Quarks
(http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/tables/qxxx.pdf) PDF (54.8 KiB)).

Left handed fermions in the Standard Model

Generation 1
Fermion Electric Weak Color
Symbol Hypercharge Mass **
(left-handed) charge isospin charge *
Electron 511 keV
Positron 511 keV
Electron-neutrino < 2 eV
Up quark ~ 3 MeV ***
Up antiquark ~ 3 MeV ***
Down quark ~ 6 MeV ***
Down antiquark ~ 6 MeV ***

Generation 2
Fermion Electric Weak Color
Symbol Hypercharge Mass **
(left-handed) charge isospin charge *

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Muon 106 MeV

Antimuon 106 MeV
Muon-neutrino < 2 eV
Charm quark ~ 1.3 GeV
Charm antiquark ~ 1.3 GeV
Strange quark ~ 100 MeV
Strange antiquark ~ 100 MeV

Generation 3
Fermion Electric Weak Color
Symbol Hypercharge Mass **
(left-handed) charge isospin charge *
Tau lepton 1.78 GeV
Anti-tau lepton 1.78 GeV
Tau-neutrino < 2 eV
Top quark 171 GeV
Top antiquark 171 GeV
Bottom quark ~ 4.2 GeV
Bottom antiquark ~ 4.2 GeV
Notes:

* These are not ordinary abelian charges, which can be added together, but are labels of group
representations of Lie groups.
** Mass is really a coupling between a left-handed fermion and a right-handed fermion. For
example, the mass of an electron is really a coupling between a left-handed electron and a
right-handed electron, which is the antiparticle of a left-handed positron. Also neutrinos show
large mixings in their mass coupling, so it's not accurate to talk about neutrino masses in the flavor
basis or to suggest a left-handed electron neutrino.
*** The masses of baryons and hadrons and various cross-sections are the experimentally
measured quantities. Since quarks can't be isolated because of QCD confinement, the quantity here
is supposed to be the mass of the quark at the renormalization scale of the QCD scale.

Tests and predictions

The Standard Model predicted the
existence of W and Z bosons, the gluon,
the top quark and the charm quark
before these particles had been observed.
Their predicted properties were Log plot of masses in the Standard Model.
experimentally confirmed with good
precision.

The Large Electron-Positron Collider at CERN tested various predictions about the decay of Z bosons, and

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found them confirmed.

To get an idea of the success of the Standard Model a comparison between the measured and the predicted
values of some quantities are shown in the following table:

Quantity Measured (GeV) SM prediction (GeV)

Mass of W boson 80.398±0.025 80.3900±0.0180
Mass of Z boson 91.1876±0.0021 91.1874±0.0021

Challenges to the Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics has been empirically Unsolved problems in physics:
determined through experiments over the past fifty years. Parameters in the Standard Model:
Currently the Standard Model predicts that there is one more What gives rise to the Standard
particle to be discovered, the Higgs boson. One of the reasons for
Model of particle physics? Why do its
building the Large Hadron Collider is that the increase in energy
particle masses and coupling constants
is expected to make the Higgs observable. However, as of 2007
possess the values we have measured? Does
there are only indirect experimental indications for the existence
the Higgs boson predicted by the model
of the Higgs boson and it can not be claimed to be found.
really exist? Why are there three generations
The Standard Model is as yet unable to explain gravity in terms of particles in the Standard Model?
of particles.

There has been a great deal of both theoretical and experimental research exploring whether the Standard
Model could be extended into a complete theory of everything. This area of research is often described by
the term 'Beyond the Standard Model'. There are several facets of this question. For example, one line of
inquiry attempts to explore why there are seemingly so many unrelated parameters of the theory – 29 in all.
Research also focusses on the Hierarchy problem (why the weak scale and Planck scale are so disparate),
and attempts to reconcile the emerging Standard Model of Cosmology with the Standard Model of particle
physics. Many questions relate to the initial conditions that led to the presently observed Universe.
Examples include: Why is there a matter/antimatter asymmetry? Why is the Universe isotropic and
homogeneous at large distances?

The anthropic principle

Some claim that the vast majority of possible values for the parameters of the Standard Model are
incompatible with the existence of life (see fine-tuned universe for more details).[2] According to arguments
based on the anthropic principle, the Standard Model in our universe has the parameters it has because the
universe has to be based upon parameters able to support life, in order for life to emerge able to ask the
question. Since we know life has emerged, the choice of universal parameters is not unrestricted, but is ipso
facto limited to being selected from choices of parameters where life could emerge. In theory (goes the
anthropic principle) there could be a hundred billion universes where life as we know it could not emerge,
because of having parameters where life as we know it was not possible. (See also Conditional probability.)

Some physicists argue that if we knew the String theory landscape of possible theories and prior distribution
of these theories and also know the probability that any given theory will give rise to life, we would be able
to make a statistical prediction of the parameters of the Standard Model.[2] Other physicists point out that it
is difficult to see how you can predict the probability of life from any given theory. How can we know what
kinds of life are possible?

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See also
The theoretical formulation of the standard model
Weak interactions, Fermi theory of beta decay and electroweak theory
Strong interactions, flavour, quark model and quantum chromodynamics
For open questions, see quark matter, CP violation and neutrino masses
Beyond the Standard Model
noncommutative standard model

Notes
1. ^ Technically, there are nine such color-anticolor combinations. However there is one color
symmetric combination that can be constructed out of a linear superposition of the nine combinations,
reducing the count to eight.
2. ^ a b V. Agrawal, S.M. Barr, J.F. Donoghue, D. Seckel (1998). "The anthropic principle and the mass
scale of the Standard Model". Physical Review D 57 (9): 5480 - 5492.

References
Introductory textbooks

Griffiths, David J. (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. Wiley, John & Sons, Inc. ISBN
0-471-60386-4.

D.A. Bromley (2000). Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions. Springer. ISBN 3-540-67672-4.

Gordon L. Kane (1987). Modern Elementary Particle Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN 0-201-11749-5.

Advanced textbooks

Cheng, Ta Pei; Li, Ling Fong. Gauge theory of elementary particle physics. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-851961-3.
— introduction to all aspects of gauge theories and the Standard Model.

Donoghue, J. F.; Golowich, E.; Holstein, B. R.. Dynamics of the Standard Model. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-47625-6.
— highlights dynamical and phenomenological aspects of the Standard Model.

O'Raifeartaigh, L.. Group structure of gauge theories. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-34785-8.
— highlights group-theoretical aspects of the Standard Model.

Journal articles

S.F. Novaes, Standard Model: An Introduction, hep-ph/0001283

(http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0001283)
D.P. Roy, Basic Constituents of Matter and their Interactions — A Progress Report, hep-ph/9912523
(http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9912523)
Y. Hayato et al., Search for Proton Decay through p → νK+ in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector.
Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 1529 (1999).
Ernest S. Abers and Benjamin W. Lee, Gauge theories. Physics Reports (Elsevier) C9, 1-141 (1973).

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External links
New Scientist story: Standard Model may be found incomplete
(http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns9999404)
The Universe Is A Strange Place, a lecture by Frank Wilczek (http://arXiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0401347)
Observation of the Top Quark at Fermilab (http://www-cdf.fnal.gov/top_status/top.html)
MISN-0-305 The Standard Model of Fundamental Particles and Their Interactions
(http://35.9.69.219/home/modules/pdf_modules/m305.pdf) PDF (258 KiB) by Mesgun Sebhatu for
Project PHYSNET (http://www.physnet.org) .
PDF version of the Standard Model Lagrangian (after electroweak symmetry breaking, with no
explicit Higgs boson) (http://cosmicvariance.com/2006/11/23/thanksgiving)
PDF, PostScript, and LaTeX version of the Standard Model Lagrangian with explicit Higgs terms
(http://nuclear.ucdavis.edu/~tgutierr/files/stmL1.html)
The particle adventure. (http://particleadventure.org/)

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