 SAMPLING

- In research, sampling is a word that refers to your method or process of

selecting respondents or people to answer questions meant to yield data for a
research study. The chosen ones constitute the sample through which you will
derive facts and evidence to support the claims or conclusions propounded by
your research problem. The bigger group from where you choose the sample is
called population, and sampling frame is the term used to mean the list of the
members of such population from where you will get the sample. (Paris 2013)
 The beginning of sampling could be traced back to the early political
activities of the Americans in 1920 when Literary Digest did a pioneering
survey about the American citizens’ favorite among the 1920 presidential
candidates
 Probability sampling involves all members listed in the sampling frame
representing a certain population focused on by your study
 A sampling error crops up if the selection does not take place in the way
it is planned. Such sampling error is manifested by strong dissimilarity
between the sample and the ones listed in the sampling frame.
Types of Probability Sampling:
1. Simple Random Sampling
-is the best type of probability sampling through which you can
choose sample from a population. Using a pure-chance selection, you
assure every member the same opportunity to be in the sample. Here,
the only basis of including or excluding a member is by chance or
opportunity, not by any occurrence accounted for by cause-effect
relationships.
2. Systematic Sampling
-For this kind of probability sampling, chance and system are the ones
to determine who should compose the sample.
3. Stratified Sampling
-The group comprising the sample is chosen in a way that such group is
liable to subdivision during the data analysis stage.
4. Cluster Sampling
This is a probability sampling that makes you isolate a set of persons instead
of individual members to serve as sample members.
5. Non-Probability Sampling
-Non-probability sampling disregards random selection of subjects. The
subjects are chosen based on their availability or the purpose of the study,
and in some cases, on the sole discretion of the researcher.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling:
1. Quota Sampling
-You resort to quota sampling when you think you know the
characteristics of the target population very well. In this case, you tend to
choose sample members possessing or indicating the characteristics of the
target population.
2. Voluntary Sampling
-Since the subjects you expect to participate in the sample selection are
the ones volunteering to constitute the sample, there is no need for you to
do any selection process.
3. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
-You choose people whom you are sure could correspond to the
objectives of your study, like selecting those with rich experience or interest
in your study.
4. Availability Sampling
-The willingness of a person as your subject to interact with you counts a
lot in this non-probability sampling method.
5. Snowball Sampling
-Similar to snow expanding widely or rolling rapidly, this sampling method
does not give a specific set of samples. This is true for a study involving
unspecified group of people.
Observation
-Observation is a technique of gathering data whereby you personally
watch, interact, or communicate with the subjects of your research. It lets
you record what people exactly do and say in their everyday life on Earth.
Types of observation:
1. Participant Observation
-The observer, who is the researcher, takes part in the activities of the
individual or group being observed. Your actual involvement enables you to
obtain firsthand knowledge about the subjects’ behavior and the way they
interact with one another.
2. Non-participation or Structured Observation
-This type of observation completely detaches you from the target of your
observation. You just watch and listen to them do their own thing, without
you participating in any of their activities.
Methods of Observation:
1. Direct Observation
- This observation method makes you see or listen to everything that
happens in the area of observation. For instance, things happening in a
classroom, court trial, street trafficking, and the like, come directly to your
senses. Remember, however, that to avoid waste of energy, time, and effort
in observing, you have to stick to the questions that your research aims at
answering.
2. Indirect Observation
-This method is also called behavior archaeology because, here, you
observe traces of past events to get information or a measure of behavior,
trait, or quality of your subject.
1. Continuous Monitoring or CM
-Here, you observe to evaluate the way people deal with one another.
2. Spot Sampling
-This was done first by behavioral psychologists in 1920 with a focus on
researching the extent of children’s nervous habits as they would go
through their regular personality development
 Interview
- In research, interview is a data gathering technique that makes
you verbally ask the subjects or respondents questions to give answers to
what your research study is trying to look for.
Types of Interview:
1. Structured Interview
-This is an interview that requires the use of an interview schedule or a
list of questions answerable with one and only item from a set of alternative
responses.
2. Unstructured Interview
-In this type of interview, the respondents answer the questions based
on what they personally think and feel about it.
3. Semi-Structured Interview
-The characteristics of the first two types are found in the third type of
interview called semi-structured interview. Here, you prepare a schedule or
a list of questions that is accompanied by a list of expressions from where
the respondents can pick out the correct answer.
Approaches:
1. Individual Interview
-Only one respondent is interviewed here. The reason behind this one-
on-one interview is the lack of trust the interviewees have among
themselves.
2. Group Interview
-In this interview approach, you ask the question not to one person, but
to a group of people at the same time.
3. Mediated Interview
-No face-to-face interview is true for this interview approach because this
takes place through electronic communication devices such as telephones,
mobile phones, email, among others.
Types of Questionnaire
1. Postal questionnaire
-As the name connotes, this type questionnaire goes to the respondent
through postal service or electronic mail.
2. Self-administered questionnaire
-This kind of questionnaire makes you act as the interviewer and the
interviewee at the same time.
Data analysis
- is a process of understanding data or known facts or assumptions serving
as the basis of any claims or conclusions you have about something.
Data Matrix
-The term “data matrix” is also used to name this table of responses that
consists of table of cases and their associated variables. This data matrix is
of two types: the profile matrix that shows measurements of variables or
factors for a set of cases or respondents and the proximity matrix that
indicates measurements of similarities and differences between items.
Qualitative Data Analysis
-In a qualitative research, you analyze or study data that reflect the
respondents’ thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or views about something.
Meaning of Conclusion
-Conclusion is a type of inferential or interpretative thinking that derives
its validity, truthfulness, or reasonableness from your sensory experience.
Drawing Conclusions
-In your research work, your next move after analyzing the data you have
gathered is drawing conclusions.