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1. What is Computer?

A Computer can also be defined as an electronic device that processes data based upon the
instructions provided and generates the desired output. Data is a raw fact or information or
unprocessed information.

Data Computer Information

(Input) (Output)

In Computers, two kinds of inputs are required: basic or raw data and set of instructions to process
the data called a program or Software.

Data

Operations or Result
Inputs Calculations (Information)
Program

Computer Output

3. Characteristics of Computers

The main characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and useful are:
 Speed: A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in few seconds the amount of work
that a human being can do in an entire year if he works day and night & did nothing else. This
can be gauged from the fact that the speed of computers is measured in terms of milli, micro,
nano, or pico seconds. It is probable that the computers we are presently working on would be
processing information at a speed of a million or a billion instructions per second.

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 Accuracy and Reliability: A computer is extremely fast and perfect in reliability and
accuracy. Since computers have tremendous accuracy, they function with out error.
However, it must be remembered that the computer is capable of doing only what it is
instructed to do. If faulty instructions are provided for processing data, obviously, faulty
answers will be given. This is called GIGO (garbage in garbage out).
 Consistency (Diligence): Unlike human being, computers being machines are highly
consistent, are free from monotony, tiredness, lack of concentration, etc and can work for
hours with out creating error grumbling.
 Storage Capacity: computers can store huge amount of data. Once recorded a piece of
information is never forgotten (unless some problems takes place) and information can be
retrieved almost instantaneously. A single CD ROM can contain the entire Encyclopedia
Britannica and more!
 Flexibility (Programmability): Computer is a versatile machine. A computer is perhaps the
first general-purpose machine devised by man. All other machines like TV, typewriter, radio,
etc do one thing they are designed for, nothing more nothing less. Unlike this, a
computer can be used to play music, type letters, send faxes, diagnose illness, design buildings
and bridges, etc, provided that it is given the right set of instructions to do the job.

5. Limitations of Computers

Although computers can be applied in different areas, there are activities that computers can’t
perform. Some of them are:

a. Computers can’t decide how to be programmed. It is always humans that are responsible for
programming the computers.
b. Computers do not provide their own inputs unless people provide it with the inputs.
c. Interpretation of data and implementation of decisions is always left for humans. That is a
computer does not interpret the information it produces based on the information obtained
unless it is programmed.

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6. Generation of Computers

Advances in computer technology have occurred in four major areas: cost, size, speed, and
reliability. The different phases of the technological advancement of the computers are known as
the Generation of computers. Modern electronic computers were developed beginning from
1940s. Depending on the kind of technology they use these computers are classified into five
generations.

1. First Generation Computers (1940-1959): The major innovations in this period are the use
of vacuum tubes and stored programs. The shortcomings of the first generation are:

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 Too big in size.  Machine breakdown rate was very high.
 Expensive.  Fault finding was difficult
 Slow on function.
 Low level of accuracy and reliability.
 High power consumption.

2. Second Generation Computers (1959-1965): The major innovations in this period

are the use of transistors in place of vacuum tubes and magnetic core storage.
Transistors perform similar functions as vacuum tubes but are much smaller in size,
faster, more reliable and much greater in processing capacity. Built in error detecting
devices were installed. This generation is also marked by the introduction of high level
computer programming languages like FORTRAN.
3. Third Generation Computers (1965-1972): In this generation; the integrated solid-
state circuitry (IC), improved secondary storage devices and new input-output devices
were developed. Integrated circuits are electronic components that consist of several
hundreds or even thousands of circuits on a single silicon chip. It decreased the cost of
the machine substantially and increased the machine very much.
4. Fourth Generation computers (since 1970): This generation is marked by the use of
large-scale integrated circuits (LSICs) and very large-scale integrated circuits
(VLSICs). This generation is also the Microcomputer generation. In 1971, the Intel

Corporation was able to produce a single chip, which performed all the operations of the
computer’s processor. Since it was so small it was called MICROPROCESSOR.

It is a tiny solid-state device, not bigger than a pea, which in itself is a small computer
capable of performing arithmetic and logic operations. Because of the introduction of
microprocessor, the forth generation includes:

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a. Large computers that are much faster, much less expensive and of much
greater data processing capacity than the equivalents sized third generation
computers.
b. A multitude of relatively in expensive minicomputers (actually first introduced
in the third generation).
c. Even further miniaturized computers, called Microcomputers.

5. Fifth Generation Computers: are characterized mainly by the programs they use.
They use artificial intelligence systems that attempt to achieve human like qualities of
intelligence, including the ability to reason.

7. Types of Computers

In general, computers can be categorized into four types based on their processing speed,
power, cost and size. Namely:

1) Super Computer: is the fastest, most powerful, most expensive & largest computer. It
generates tremendous amount of heat. Because of this, super computers demand
special cooling requirements and the room itself should be air-conditioned. To operate
Super computers, highly trained data processing professionals are required. These
computers can take inputs from over 10,000 individual computers and users at the
same time.
Supercomputer is used in research organizations, military defense systems, national
weather forecasting agencies, large corporations, aircraft manufacturers, etc.

2) Mainframe Computers: Contains multiple processor and capable of supporting a

large number of users at once (multi-user) by sharing processor time (time-sharing).
A Mainframe computer is generally found in a special computer room where
environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, dust and air conditions closely
monitored. It is an expensive machine with the capability of servicing the needs of

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major business enterprises, government departments, scientific research
establishments, or the like. They are also used as the center of computer networking.

3) Mini Computer: It is smaller than mainframe in size and less powerful. They are
popularly used in scientific laboratories, research centers, universities and colleges,
engineering firms,
industrial process monitoring and control, etc. Minicomputers play a major role in
computer-aided design (CAD) and computer aided manufacture (CAM). They are also
being used as assistants to Mini frame computers in processing information.

4) Microcomputers: often called Personal Computers (PCs) as many individual

purchase them for personal use. They are the smallest and most frequently category of
computer particularly for end users. They are relatively small or compact in size and
are found form
table-top (desktop) size to portable types in a palm. Microcomputers are affordable
by most individuses in offices, classrooms, homes and trips. Microcomputers come in
a variety of sizes and shapes. Basically they can be grouped into three: Laptop,
palmtop and desktop computers.

a. Desktop computer: is the most widely used type of personal computers

(Micro computers). Unlike Laptop and Palmtop computers, Desktop computers
have detachable parts. Since its size is larger than the other types of personal
computers, it is not easily portable.

b. Laptop Computers: are smaller versions of Microcomputers about the size of

a briefcase designed for portability. People can easily carry these PCs with
them in their car, on airplane, or when walking from one location to another.
Unlike Desktop PCs that have mostly detachable components, Laptops include
all their components (except their printer) in a single unit. Despite their size,

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Laptop computers have as high capacity and processing speed as the Desktop
personal computers.
c. Palmtop Computer: is the smallest Microcomputer that is about the same size
as a pocket calculator. Palmtops are typically used for a limited number of
functions such as maintaining personal calendar, name and address files, or
electronic worksheets.

7. Applications of Computers

 Processing data  Guidance and Control

 Communication  Graphics and text Generating
 Education  Medical diagnosis
 Record Keeping  Simulation and Animation

8. The Computer Hardware

The computer system is basically categorized into two components: the hardware and
software components.

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The Hardware is the physical part of the Computer that you can see and touch. It is the
general term for the physical machines or devices that carry out the activities of capturing,
processing, storing and communicating data and information. The computer hardware is
divided into four categories:

1. Input Devices
2. Central Processing Unit
3. Output Devices
4. Secondary storage Devices

CPU

Control Unit

Primary Memory
Input Devices Output Devices
ALU

 Keyboard  Monitor
 Mouse  Printer
 Scanner  Speaker
 Microphones  Disk drives
 Disk drives
Secondary Storage
Devices

Fig. 1 Basic Units of a computer System

8.1 Input Devices

Input devices are devices through which data are entered into the computer. It is used to
convert human readable form to machine-readable form. The different devices, which are

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commonly used to input data or information into a computer system are: Keyboard, mouse,
Image Scanner, Disk drives, etc.

 Keyboard: The keyboard is an input device used to enter information into your PC.
There are essentially dozen keyboard designs. The keys on the keyboard can be
divided into 5 sections.
o Alphanumeric (Character Keys): These keys work just like a conventional
type writer which consists of letters (A-Z), numbers (0-9), Enter key, Spacebar,
Backspace, Shift, Caps lock, etc.
o Function Keys: These keys perform different tasks based on the type of
application you are working on. Function keys are labeled as F1, F2… F12.
Numeric Keys: Let you enter numerical data more easily when you are
working on numbers. To use this section of the keyboard, make sure that the
Num Lock key is ON.
Navigation (Cursor movement Keys): These keys are used to navigate
through your document. The keys are: Arrow keys, Home, End, Page up, Page
down, etc.
o Computer (Special) keys: They perform different tasks when used alone or in
conjunction with other keys. Some of these keys are: Alt, Ctrl, Print Screen,
Scroll Lock, Pause, Delete, and Insert.
 Mouse: The mouse is a pointing device that is used to move the insertion pointer
around the screen. It is especially helpful when you are operating a computer that uses
a graphical user interface, like MS-Windows. The buttons on the mouse are used to
select on screen options.

 Scanner: Can be used to input images (including drawings, charts, and graphs) and
words into a computer. Once the image is transferred to the computer, through the
scanner, it can be modified, or combined with other information. The major uses of
scanners are Desktop Publishing and sending fax messages.

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 Disk drives: Are data reading or writing devices.
 Microphones: It captures the voices or sounds and translates them into digital signals
for the computer.

8.2 Central Processing Unit

At the center of the computer system is the processor, which is commonly referred to as the
Central Processing Unit (CPU). It executes program instructions and performs the computer’s
processing activities. The CPU is the computer’s brain that is the microprocessor. The central
processing unit has three major components:

 The Arithmetic or Logic Unit (ALU): Contains the electronic circuitry that performs
the arithmetic (+, -, *, /) and logical (>, <, <=, >=, =) operations. Logical operations
compare one element of information with other. This comparison is used to determine
whether one unit of data or information is less than, greater than, or equal to the other
unit. For example, arranging numbers in ascending or descending order, alphabetizing
names, require logical comparison of the alphabets in the names.

 The Control Unit: Controls every activity of the computer. The control unit ensures
that according to the stored instructions, the right operation is done on the right data at
the right time. What our brain does for us will be done by the control unit for the
computer.

 The Main memory: Memories are used to store programs and data. It is a means of
storage that is found with in the computer itself and that is why it is called internal
memory or primary memory.

 There are two types of primary memory:

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o RAM: is a random access memory (can be accessed randomly with out regard
to any other memory location. The access time is the same for each memory
location.
The largest area of the memory with in a computer is composed of RAM. It is a
volatile memory that is, it holds data as long as there is current flow. Because of
this it stores data temporarily. It allows both read and write access.

o ROM: Stands for read only memory. Once programmed, it can only be read
from it. Data cannot be written on it. ROM contains programs and instructions
that enable the computer to start to the entire operating system and other
programs can
be permanently stored in it by computer manufacturers. Since the contents
cannot be changed and they are not lost when electric current is turned off,
ROM is non-volatile. It has random characteristic similar to RAM.

8.3 Output Devices

The output devices enable the user to see the results of the computer’s calculation or data
manipulations. They convert the results of a process, which is only in machine understandable
form to a form understandable by human being. Included in the output devices are:
a. Visual Display Unit (Monitor): Sometimes also called screen, displays the output of
the processing activity for the user on a television-like screen. Video displays differ in
size, resolution, and in the number of colors displayed.
 Size: Monitors come in many different sizes. The size ranges from the small screen
built on Palmtops and Laptops to extra large monitors used for special purposes. The
standard monitor for personal computers however is 13 to 17 inches (32to 42 cm),
measured diagonally.

 Resolution: On the computer screen, all characters and images are produced as the
result of combining dot patterns, which are also called Pixels. The number of these

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dots or pixels per-one inch space on the screen determines the quality or sharpness
(resolution) of the character of the image. That means, the higher the number of pixels
on one-inch space, the better the quality of the image will be. Common standard
resolutions are:
640 columns X 480 rows of dots (307,200 pixels) on full screen.
800 columns X 600 rows (480,000 pixels).
1,024 columns X 768 rows (786,432 pixels).

 Colors: There are two most widely used types of video displays.
o Monochrome: means one color, generally white on black background or vice
versa.
o Color Monitors: Many monitors display color-combining shades of red,
green, and blue (RGB). These RGB displays or monitors can create 256 colors
and other several variations on them by blending shades of red, green, and
blue. Hence they are called RGB displays.

Video Adaptor Cards (Interface)

It is a device to which the monitor is connected at the system unit. One can choose between a
monochrome or color graphic adaptor but the most popular is color.
i. Monochrome Display Adaptor (MDA): Displays only text just like that of DOS screen.
It s impossible to see colors, pictures, etc. and it is the oldest one.

ii. Color Graphic Adaptor (CGA): The CGA was the first color graphic adaptor available
for the PC. Using the CGA, users could display text and graphics. In text mode, the CGA
supports 16 foreground and 8 background colors. In graphic mode, the CGA provides two
resolutions 320 X 200 with available colors, or 640 X 200 with two colors.

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iii. Enhanced Graphic Adaptor (EGA): The EGA improves text and graphic display
quality. In text mode, the EGA can display 25 rows of 80 columns. In graphic mode, EGA
supports the two CGA resolutions and provides a 640 X 350 sixteen-color mode.
iv. Video Graphic Adaptor (VGA): In text mode, VGA lets you display up to 50 rows of 80
characters. In graphic mode, the VGA displays 320 X 200, 640 X 200, 320 X 200, as well
as 640 X 350 sixteen-color.
v. Super Video Graphic Adaptor (SVGA): This adaptor has a resolution of 800 X 600.
High-resolution monitors start with 1024 X 760 resolutions. As the number increases, the
performance increases.
vi. Super VGA (SVGA).
vii. Ultra video Graphics Adaptor (UVGA).
Now a days, we can find only VGA, SUGA, and UVGA.

b. Printer: Printers are most widely used output devices. It produces hard copy materials that
are paper output. Different types of printers are in use today. In general, there are two major
categories of printers. Namely:
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact printers.

o Impact Printers: in impact printing, the paper and the character being printed come in
contact with one another. That is, striking an inked ribbon with pins forms characters.
Examples of Impact Printers are: Dot Matrix, Line and Character printers.

Dot matrix Printers: are designed to print characters as a pattern of dots. The print head
consists of several pins with electromagnets attached at one end. By activating the
electromagnets, the pins can be made to hit the inked ribbon. If you carefully examine the
characters printed by these printers, you identify that each character is a collection of small
dots.

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Line Printers: These are high-speed impact printers that are mostly used by large computers.
Line printers print a full line (up to 144 characters) at a time. They are able to print up to
several thousand lines per minute.

Character Printers: These printers print one character at a time. Un like Dot Matrix and
Line Printers whose speed is measured in terms of the number of line printed per minute, the
speed of character printers is measured in terms of the number of characters printed in one
second.

 Non-Impact Printers: are printers that do not bring the paper and the print material into
physical contact. The characters of the print material are produced on the paper through a
heat, chemical, or spraying process. Laser and Ink-Jet Printers are the most frequently
used kinds of Non-Impact printers.

Laser Printers: print by depositing a black powder called toner on the paper. When a laser
printer receives information in to a laser beam (a narrow beam of light) that in turn forms a
photo conductor with the information. This process forms the character or the image to be
printed. A toner, a black granular dust similar to the one used in photocopiers, is used in the
process. The photo conductor attracts toner particles which, when transferred to the paper,
produce the image. Finally the image is fused to the paper by heat and pressure. The Laser
printer prints an entire page at a time, and therefore, the speed of Laser printer is measured in
terms of the number of pages that it can print per minute. They are very fast in printing and
the quality of the print is also very good.

Ink Jet printers: These printers spray tiny streams of ink from holes in the print mechanism
on to the paper. The spray makes up a dot pattern that represents the character or image to be
printed.

c. Disk drives: since they are also used to record a result of a process on magnetic disks, they
are also considered as output device.

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d. Modem: links two or more computers by translating digital signals into analog signals so
that data can be transmitted via telecommunications. Modem for instance lets two computers
exchange information over phone lines. Modem comes into two types: internal and external
modem. Internal modem is a hardware fitted into an expansion slot in the system unit.
External modem sits outside your system and connects to serial port.

8.4 Secondary Storage Devices

They are also called Secondary memories or Mass Storage devices. Secondary storage devices
are used for mass storage of programs and data files.
Because of the primary storage doesn’t store user’s data permanently, their high price and
limited capacity, the need to have other type of storage to hold large amount of data for a
longer period of time in a less expensive and yet accessible manner is evident. Hence
secondary storage devices were created with this need in mind. Secondary storage devices
have the capability to store large amount of data in a machine-readable form for a longer
period of time. When needed, a data reading a writing device called drive is used to read the
data stored and transfers to the primary memory for further process. There are two types of
secondary storage:

a. Magnetic Storage
b. Optical storage.
a. Magnetic Storage: is further divided into two:
I. Magnetic Tape: is the earliest form of secondary storage. Data can be stored on and
retrieved from tape sequentially. Magnetic tape is not so widely used for file
processing, but still plays an important part in the file back up for security purposes.
II. Magnetic disk: are flexible plastic or metal (rigid aluminum) disks of easily
magnetizable materials. There are two types of magnetic disks on which we can
store and retrieve randomly.

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1. Hard disk: is a high capacity magnetic disk, which is fixed in the main unit of the
computer. Hard disks cannot be removed from their disk-drive cabinets, which contain the
electronics to read and write data on to the magnetic disk surfaces. It is advantageous than
the floppy disk is that; it enables very fast accessibility of data and can store much more
amount of data (40 MB to giga bytes) in capacity.
2. Floppy disk: is also called diskette. It is removable and has less capacity compared to
the hard disk. The content of a floppy disk can be erased and re-used a number of times.
Two characteristics describe floppy disks: Size and Capacity. Size refers to the physical
dimension of the disk and Capacity refers to the amount of information the disk can hold.
Floppy disks come in two main sizes and capacity.

Size Capacity
3½ 720KB double density
3½ 1.44MB High density
5¼ 360KB DD
5¼ 1.2MB HD

In magnetic disks (both floppy and hard disks), data is stored in concentric circles called
tracks. Each track is further divided into sectors. A sector is the amount of information
that can be read or written in a single operation.

A sector

A track

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b. Optical Storage: it uses the principle of light (laser beam), rather than magnetism to store
information. Optical disks have huge capacity. They are three types:
 CD-ROM (Compact disk read only memory).
 WORM (Write once read many) that is record able CD (R-CD).
 Erasable CDs that is re write able CD (CD-RW).

8.5 Building Blocks of Personal Computer

1. Mother board: is also known as system board (main board) that is the heart of the
computer. It is a large circuit board that holds:
a. The Microprocessor (CPU): is the brain of the computer that makes the computer
smart.

b. RAM (Random Access Memory): is the working table of the computer system.
RAM comes in different modules:
1. SIMM (Single in line memory module).
2. DIMM (Dual in line memory module).

c. ROM-BIOS (Read only memory-Basic input output system).

 BIOS is the program which is in the ROM.
 Is the key that starts the computer.
 Is the hardwire, which cannot be dismantled from the motherboard.
 POST (power on self test) is on the BIOS, which check every peripheral
like keyboard, mouse, monitor, etc as soon as the power is on.

d. Expansion Slots: are also called expansion buses which allow the user to add
additional capabilities like network interface card, TV card, Sound card, internal
modem, etc. It is also
called expansion cards or daughter board. There are different standard architectures
of expansion slots:

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 ISA- Industry standard Architecture. Transmits 8 bits.
 EISA- Extended ISA. Transmits 32 bits.
 MCA- Micro channel Architecture. Transmits 32bits.
 PCI- Peripheral connect interface. Transmits 64 bits.
 VESA- Video expansion standard Architecture. Transmits 64 bits.
Now a days, EISA and PCI are the most common.

2. Power Supply: It delivers electrical power to the computer system. The computer
components work with +5V, and + 12V. The power supply steps down the voltage to the
required value and changes AC to DC.
3. Ribbon buses (Cables): are used to connect the different components, and transfer data.
4. Disk drives: The most common types of disk drives are
 Hard disk drive (HDD)
 Floppy disk drive (FDD)
 Compact disk drive (CDD)
 Digital versatile disk (DVD)
 ZIP drive

5. Ports: A port is the interface through which the microprocessor in the system unit can
communicate with an option such as a monitor or a printer. In other words, a port is a
connection point at which signals between the peripherals and the central computing system
enter or leave the computer. There are two common types of ports: Serial and Parallel port.

Serial Ports: Allow data to send and receive serially (a bit at a time) over a single wire. It is
slower in speed and is good for distance communication. Serial ports are also called
communication ports (Com-Ports).

Parallel ports: Data come in parallel over eight parallel wires. Due to this it is faster in speed.
It is good for short communication. Parallel ports are also called line print-ports (LPT-Ports).
Serial ports are called male because they have protruding pins and parallel ports are called
female because they have holes into which the protruding pins of male cable may be inserted.

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6. CMOS Battery (Complementary Metal oxide Semiconductor): It holds (retains) the

configuration or information of the computer.

9. The Computer Software

The hardware alone cannot perform any particular calculation or data manipulation with out
being instructed exactly what to do and how to do it. That is, software is a series of
instructions that tell the hardware what to do. Software (Program) makes the interface
between the user and the electronic components of the computer. It facilitates communication
between a human being and a machine (the computer). It is therefore, the combination of both
hardware and software that makes a complete computer system. Computer software is divided
into two broad categories:

A. Systems Software
B. Application Software

User Application Systems Hardware

Software Software

9.1 Systems Software

Systems software consists of all the programs, languages and documentations supplied by the
manufacturer. These programs allow the user to communicate with the computer and write or
develop his own programs. This software makes the machine easier to use, and makes an
efficient use of the resources of the hardware possible. Systems software provides the
interface between the hardware and the users, but does nothing to directly serve the user’s
needs. Interface is the means by which a person interacts with a computer. Systems software
includes: operating system, system support software, and systems development software.

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 Operating System: is a master control program, permanently stored on the primary

memory that interprets user commands requesting various kinds of services such as
display, print, or copy a data file, list all files in a directory, or execute a particular
program. The primary purpose of this software is to manage the hardware for the most
efficient use of computer resources and to provide an interface between a user and an
application program and the hardware. Examples of an operating system are: MS-
DOS, MS-Windows, and UNIX.

 System Support software: provides system utilities and other operating services.
System utility software is a broader line case between application software and system
software. These softwares are either used as specific tools while development of a
program or package, or to perform a limited specific task, such as scanning the hard
disk for viruses. Operatimng services consist of programs that provide performance
statistics for the operational staff and security monitors to protect the data and the
system.

 System Development Software: includes the computer or programming language

translators that are used to convert written programs to machine language for
execution.

Programming Language
Programming language is the means of communication between a human being and a
computer. The levels of programming language are discussed in terms of generation of
languages, just like the generation of computers. Accordingly, there are four levels of
computer programming languages:
a.Machine Language: is the first generation of programming language that was available
in the earliest days of computer .It is the only programming language that the
computer can understand .Use of machine language is tedious, difficult and time
consuming methods of programming. Machine language is the lowest level language
that requires the programmer to have detailed knowledge of how the computer works.

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The computer has its own machine language which is made of streams of 0s and 1s.The
reason that the instruction in machine language must be in streams 0s and 1s is that the
internal circuits of the computer is made of switches, transistors and other electronic
devices that can be in one of two state: ON or OFF. The ON state is represented by 1and
the OFF state is represented by 0.

b. Assembly Language: Is the second-generation language. Use mnemonics in place of

1s and 0s to represent the operation codes. Mnemonics is an alphabetical abbreviation
used as a memory aid.
Example: we use MOV, SUB, Del, to say move, subtract and Delete respectively .The
assembly language uses assembler (is a language translator from human readable to
machine readable).

c.High-level Languages: Is the third generation language. The instructions of high-level

languages are called statements. Statements closely resemble human languages.
Because of the close of resemblance to human language, high-level languages are
much easier to learn and use than assembly language. Just like assembly languages,
programs written using high level languages need to be translated to machine
languages. Compilers and Interpreters are high-level programming language
translators. A compiler translates a whole program, called the source code at once
into machine language before the program is executed.
Once converted, the program is stored in machine-readable form called the object
code. The object code can be immediately executed any time there after. An
Interpreter translates a program into machine language one line at a time, executing
each line of the program after it is translated. With most interpreters, the machine-
readable form is not stored in primary storage or on secondary storage media.
Therefore, the program must be interpreted each time before it is executed.
Some of the major high-level languages are FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, Pascal, C++,
Visual C++, Visual Basic (VB), etc.

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d. Fourth Generation Languages: allow users to create programs with much less effort
than is required by high-level languages. They are more English-like than high-level
languages and they emphasize what outputs results are desired more than how
programming statements are to be written. Because of this, many users with very little
computer training can use the fourth generation languages. Examples are database
query languages, report generators, and application generators.

9. 2 Applications Software

It consists of programs or instructions to perform specific task or job or information

processing activities. There are a number of application softwares. Some of such application
softwares are:
 Word Processing: Allow creating documents like letters, reports, handouts, office
memos, magazines, newspapers, etc. Examples of Word processing softwares are:
MS-Word, Word Star, and Word Perfect.
 Spreadsheets: is a table of rows and columns to perform calculations and other related
activities on a numerical data. Examples are MS-Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, and Quattro Pro.
 Database Management system (DBMS): are used to systematically handle, organize,
or store data and latter get the stored data in a much flexible way.
Examples: MS-Access Fox Pro.
 Desktop Publishing Programs: are used to create (publish) professional newsletters
and reports using the PC that sits on your desktop.
Examples: Page Maker, Ventura.
 Computer Aided Design (CAD): is used by engineers and designers to draw an
object. Example: Auto CAD
 Computer Games: Example Chess, Solitaire, Dave, etc.

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10. Computer Data Representation and Numbering System

Computers only identify each letter or number, symbol etc in the form of digital signals,
which represent either a HIGH voltage state “ON”, or a LOW voltage state “OFF”. The ON
and OFF states are commonly labeled with states 1 and 0 respectively. This two state system
is called binary number system. Therefore; each letter, number, or symbol that we enter
from the keyboard in our information processing activity, should be uniquely represented by
the combinations of 0s and 1s before it can be used by the computer.

10.1 Binary Number system

A single binary digit that is either 1 or 0 is called bit. Single bits are usually not enough to
store all the numbers, symbols and characters. For this reason, a group of 8 bits called a byte
is used. Each byte generally represents one character. The byte is also the basic unit for
measuring the size of the memory of a computer in terms of KB, MB, GB, etc.
Since in computers, the two states (ON and OFF) are represented by the numbers 1 and 0
respectively, this two state digit representation is called binary number system. The binary
number system is a base 2 system.

10.2 Octal and Hexadecimal Number Systems

Octal number system is a base 8 system using the digits 0-7. It is used to provide a short hand
way to deal with the long strings of 1s and 0s created in binary.
The hexadecimal is a base16 system. It contains the digits 0 through 9 and the capital letters A
through F. The hexadecimal system is often used in programming as a short cut to the binary
number system like that of the octal number system.

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Binary to decimal conversion

Any combination of 0s and 1s is a binary number system. To convert a binary number to a

decimal numbers system, we follow expanding method.

Example: (11011)2 = 1x24+1x23+0x22+1x21+1x20

= 16+8+0+2+1
= (27)10
Another simple method for converting a binary number to its decimal equivalent is known as
double-babble method. This method is described below.
1. Double the left most bit.
2. Add to it the bit on its right.
3. Double again the result.
4. Add to it the next bit.
5. Proceed in this manner until all the bits in number are considered.
The final sum obtained by a repeated doubling and adding is the desired decimal equivalent.

Decimal to Binary conversion

A positive integer can be easily converted to equivalent binary form by the repeated division
by 2. Start by dividing the given decimal integer by 2. Let r1 be the remainder and q1 the
quotient. Divided q1 by 2 and let r2 be the remainder and q2 be the quotient. Continue the
process of division by 2 until 0 is obtained as a quotient. Reading the remainders from the
bottom to the first top can form the equivalent binary number.
Example: Find the binary equivalent of 25.
25 = 2 q1 = 12, r1 = 1
6 =2 q2 = 6, r2 = 0
3=2 q3 = 3, r3 = 0
1=2 q4 = 1, r4 = 1
r5 = 1

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Therefore, the equivalent binary digit is: 110012

The conversion of decimal fractions to binary number system is performed by: multiplying
the fraction by the base and saving at each multiplication the integral digit resulting from the
multiplication. This process is continued until the fraction becomes zero. The integral digits
form the new binary fraction reading from top to bottom.

Example: Convert 0.75 to binary.

Fraction Integer
0.75 x 2 = 1. 50 1
0.50 x 2 = 1. 00 1
Therefore the equivalent binary is (0.11)2

10.3. Conversion among Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal.

To covert a binary number to octal, begin at the binary point and block off groups of three
binary digits. Replace each group of three binary digits with its equivalent octal digit. The
digits will range from 0 to7.
To convert from octal to binary, replace each octal digit with the equivalent three binary
digits. Use the same process for fractions starting at the point .Add more 0s to complete the
last set of three.
The conversion to and from hexadecimal is identical, except that process of four binary digits
are used and the hexadecimal values rang from 0 to F.
Example: Convert the binary 11110111011 to octal and hexadecimal.
Binary 011 110 111. 011
3 6 7 3 = (367.3)8
Binary 1111 0111. 0110
F 7 6 = ( F7.6)16

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Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

Converting from binary to octal and hexadecimal is done by grouping binary digits into
groups of three for octal and groups of four for hexadecimal.

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11. Encoding systems

Computer systems understand only binary number systems. Because of this, each letter or
number that we enter through the keyboard should be converted to the binary number system
to be understood and processed by the computer. For this purpose there are two standard
encoding systems for representing data.

1. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): It uses seven - bits to
represent a character. It is used in almost all microcomputers and many minicomputers.
2.EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange): is an 8 bit-coding scheme
used on many minicomputers and almost all mainframes. Eight bits allow 28 or 256 possible
code combination.

A character that is represented using either ASCII or EBCDIC will fit with in 8 bits. EBCDIC
is an 8-bit code. ASCII is a 7- bit, but by adding an extra, meaningless bit, it will fit an 8- bit
space.

Most computers could use either coding scheme. The choice really depends on the scheme for
which the software is written. Since both schemes represent the same group of characters,
there is other software available to translate one code to the other so that ASCII computers
can communicate with EBCDIC computers and vices versa.

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MICROSOFT DISK OPERATING SYSTEM

(MS-DOS)

1. Introduction

An operating system is a program or set of programs, which manages and controls the
resources of the computer in accordance with certain objectives, providing a simplified
hardware interface to higher levels of software. An operating system directs all processing
activities with in the computer that is calling in other systems software as needed, scheduling
jobs, allocating storage facilities, Input/output facilities, and many other tasks to ensure the
proper and efficient use of hardware by application programs.

The operating system sits between the hardware and the other software. It is through the
operating system that all communication with computer’s hardware is possible.

The operating system feature by which the user interacts with the operating system is called
the operating environments. The two common operating environments are command-line
and graphical user interface environments.

In command-line operating environment, you interact with the operating system by typing
commands on a line at a system prompt. A system prompt is a character, symbol or
combination of the two that tells you that the system is ready to accept a command.

The graphical user interface (GUI) environment uses dialog boxes, drop-down menus, buttons
icons, scroll bars and pointers instead of requiring the user to type commands. In a GUI
environment, you move a pointer around the screen with a mouse to activate features.

There are different makes of operating systems with varying capabilities that are available on
the market today. But the most common once are: MS-DOS, and MS-WINDOWS.

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DOS is an acronym for disk operating system, which means that the operating system
components reside on disk and are brought into computer memory in needed. DOS is a single
user, single tasking operating system.

Lets make some analyze to understand DOS. If a computer were a car, DOS would be the key
that starts the engine and you would be the driver. Much the same way that your keys allow
you to open the doors to your house, DOS allows you to unlock the potential of your
computer.

MS-DOS has a number of programs to perform different tasks, of which the following are
basic component programs.
1. The Control Program: It facilitates the control and coordination activity of the computer.
The program that performs this activity is known by the file name MSDOS.SYS.
2. The I/O Manager: facilitates the utilization of the different input/output devices. The
program that performs this activity is known by the file name IO.SYS.

3. The command Interpreter: Interprets the commands typed by the user at the system
prompt into computer functions. The program that performs this activity is known by the
file name COMMAND.COM.

2. Internal and External Commands.

Command is a single word with which we tell MS-DOS what to do next. DOS commands can
be grouped into internal and external commands.

When you boot up a computer, a file named COMMAND.COM loads a set of built in
commands into memory called Internal or memory resident commands. Most frequently

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needed commands such as DIR, DATE, TIME, RD, TYPE, LABEL, COPY, CD, DEL, VER,
REN, CLS, VOL, MD, are referred to as internal commands.

External commands are those that reside on a hard disk or floppy disk. The file name of
external commands has a COM, EXE, or BAT extension. Examples include: DISKCOPY,
FORMAT, TREE, CHKDSK, PRINT XCOPY.

2. DOS Files.

Any information that is stored on a disk is done through a facility called File. A file can be
created, modified, renamed and deleted. You use two types of files while working with your
computer.
a. Program Files: are the files that allow you to perform a task. The applications software’s
that you use (word Processor, Spreadsheet, and others) are program files.
b. Data Files: are the files that you create while using a program or application. The letters
that you write, the budgets you keep, and the graphics you draw are stored as data files.

2. File Name

File name is a name that represents a file. Each file must have a unique name containing a
primary identifier called Primary file name, and an optional extension called file name
extension, and a separator (period).

Primary name. Optional extension.

4.1 file Naming Rules

A file name must adhere to the following rules.

 The first character of a file name must be a letter.

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 Primary name can have up to 8 characters.
 The optional extension can have up to 3 characters.
 A file name can’t contain any of the following special characters: *, \, / <, >, [], +, =, :,
, ; @.
 A file name can’t also contain any space either in the primary name or its extension.
The following are valid file names.

o Letter.TXT o Infotech.DOC
o Letter.1 o Note1.txt
o Sample.BAT o Aster.txt

Extension name helps you identify the type of the file. MS-DOS uses the following
extensions.
 .EXE (EXECUTABLE) OR COM (command) for files that contain program.
 .SYS (system) for files that contain information about your hardware.
 .BAT (batch) for files containing list of commands.

If you are naming a data file created using an application, it is not necessary to use the file
extensions. Often an application will add its own file name extension even if you did not give
the file extension. Thus, MS-Word and Notepad will add the file extensions DOC and TXT
respectively.

4.2 Wildcard Characters

To facilitate certain uniform operations, MS-DOS allows the use of wildcard characters in file
names. Wildcard characters represent a single character or a number of characters in a file
name. A wildcard allows you to specify many different files at once. MS-DOS characters
recognize two wildcard characters: the question mark (?) and the asterisk (*).

? -Represents a single character in the file name.

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* -Represents any set of characters in the file name.

Example: *. TXT represents all files with extension .TXT.

?omputer.TXT: represents all files whose file name starts with any letter followed
by
omputer.TXT.

3. Directories.

Directory is used on storage devices the way cabinets are used in offices. It is a file cabinet
that holds one or more related files and other directories.

Root Directory: is a directory where all other files and directories will be stored. The root
directory of a hard disk is referred to as C:\ and that of a floppy disk is A:\.

The current Directory: is the directory you are currently working in.

4. Drives

Drives are disk compartments. Diskettes used on computers may be removable (floppy disk)
or hard disk. The disk compartment for a floppy disk is known as A: drive and the hard disk
drive is called C: drive.

Note: To change the drive on which you are working, type the drive name followed by a
colon ( : ) and press the enter key.

Example: C:\A:  changes the drive to A: drive.

A:\C:  changes the drive to C: drive.

5. Syntax

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The rule that you should follow to write a meaningful command is referred to as syntax.

8. Booting a Computer.

To boot a computer means to start a computer. You can start a computer with either of the
following methods:

Cold Booting: the initialization of a computer from OFF state, which is done by turning on the
switches, is known as cold booting. But some time we may be forced to initialize the
computer by using a procedure known as warm booting. In this case, the computer is already
ON, but due to some problem, communication between the machine and us fails. To solve this
problem, we use warm booting which is done by pressing combination of keyboard keys Ctrl
+ Alt + Del.

 To start Command Prompt:

o Click Start
o Point to All Programs.
o Point to Accessories.
o Click command Prompt.

When the system is ready to accept your order, it displays what is called a prompt. A prompt
is a symbol displayed on the screen by the operating system, which looks like the following:

C:\>

The prompt shows you that the computer is waiting for an order. After typing DOS command,
we have to press the Enter key to get response from the computer.

9. Usage and Functions of Commands

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In this topic, we learn the functions of the most widely used disk operating system (DOS)
commands.

 Ver: displays MS-DOS version number.

 Syntax: Ver 
 Date: displays the current date.
 Syntax: Date 
 Time: displays the current time.
 Syntax: Time 
 Label: creates and changes the volume label (name) of a disk.
 Syntax: Label 

 Dir: displays list of files and sub directories that are in the directory or drive you specify.
 Syntax: dir 
 MD: used to create a directory.
 Syntax: MD [drive:][path] 
 RD: it is used to remove or delete a directory that is found on a dosk. Before you are able
to remove a directory, you have to delete al the files in it and also the subdirectories if it
contains. The directory must be empty.
 Syntax: [drive:][path] 
 TREE: graphically displays the structure of the directory.
 Syntax: Tree [drive][path] 
 DELTREE: deletes a directory and all the files and subdirectories that are in it.
 Syntax: Deltree [drive:][path] 
 CLS: clears the screen. The cleared screen shows only the command prompt and cursor.
 Syntax: CLS
 EDIT: starts MS-DOS editor (a text editor you can use to create and edit text files). MS-
DOS editor is a full screen editor that allows you to create, edit save and print text files.
Using MS-DOS editor, you can choose commands from menus and specify

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information and preferences in dialog boxes. MS-DOS editor includes extensive on line
help about MS-DOS editor techniques and commands.
 Syntax: Edit
Note: To activate menus in the DOS editor, press the Alt key and the first character of
menu
name or simply click on the desired menu. For example, to activate the File
menu,
press Alt + F or click File menu.
 REN: The rename command is used to rename a file.
 Syntax: Ren [drive:][path]Old name New name 
 DEL: used for deleting files.
 Syntax: Del [drive:][path]file name 
 UNDEL: is used to recover files that have been deleted.
 Syntax: Undel [drive:][path]file name 
 COPY: copies one or more files to the location you specify.
 Syntax: [drive:][path]\source destination 
 MOVE: moves one or more files to the location you specify.
 Move [drive:][path]\source destination 
 DISKCOPY: copy the entire contents of one floppy disk to another floppy disk. Diskcopy
writes over the existing contents of the destination disk as it copies the new information to
it.
 Syntax: Diskcopy drive1: drive2 
 MEM: displays the amount of used and free memory on your computer. You can use the
mem command o display information about allocated memory areas, free memory areas
and programs that are currently located into memory.
 Syntax: Mem 
 SCANDISK: starts Microsoft scandisk (a disk analysis and repair tool that checks a drive
for errors and corrects any problems that it finds).
 Syntax: Scandisk 

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 FORMAT: the Format command creates a new directory and file allocation table (FAT)
for the disk. It can also check for bad areas on the disk, and it can delete all data on the
disk.
Warning: do not format a disk if you need the file in it.
 Syntax: Format drive: 

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