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Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014

1-1-1982

Development of a curriculum planning model for Zambian

secondary schools.
Sibeso, Mukoboto
University of Massachusetts Amherst

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 DEVELOPMENT OF A CURRICULUM PLANNING

MODEL FOR ZAMBIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

A Dissertation Presented

By

SIBESO MUKOBOTO

Submitted to the Graduate School of the

University of Massachusetts in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 1982
Education
@ Sibeso Mukoboto 1982

All Rights Reserved

 DEVELOPMENT OF A CURRICULUM PLANNING MODEL

FOR ZAMBIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

A Dissertation Presented

By

SIBESO MUKOBOTO

Approved as to style and content by:

George t. Urch, Chairperson

Eugenia W. Herbert, Member

 DEDICATION

In loving memory of my father, Fwanyanga Mukoboto

who dreamed dreams that are now being realized.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the assistance and guidance

received from the members of my dissertation committee, Drs. George

E* Urch, Robert L. Sinclair, and Eugenia W. Herbert, whose patience

and knowledge made the completion of this dissertation possible.

My deep appreciation and gratitude go to my mother and

Uncle Lisulo who taught me a lot and to Kimberly Trimble and Joyce

Romberger for their valuable comments. Special thanks go to my

sister Kashembe for helping me with the sorting out of the

questionnaires for this study, to all members of my extended family

who provided the social and moral support in all my academic

endeavors.

I would like to thank the Zambian Ministry of Education

officials, students, teachers, administrators and my co-workers at

the Curriculum Development Center for their assistance and

cooperation.

My appreciation also goes to Ngalama Kalaluka whose love

provided the motivation to continue writing the dissertation,

and to Ellen Mulato for providing the cheerful social atmosphere

when the going was tough.

v
 ABSTRACT

Development of a Curriculum Planning Model for

Zambian Secondary Schools

(May 1982)

Sibeso Mukoboto, B.A. University of Zambia;

,

M-A. Marquette University; Ed.D.

,
University of
,

Massachusetts, Amherst

Directed by: Dr. George E. Urch

One of the objectives of education for curriculum development

in Zambia is the full participation of all the people concerned with

and affected in some way by the educational system. However, Zambian

planners and educators have not fully explored ways in which various

groups of people could participate in designing curriculum.

The purposes of this study were specifically to: 1) Identify

the objectives of education that would guide curriculum development

in Zambian secondary schools. 2) Identify the current roles of the

teachers, students, community people and educational leaders in the

curriculum process. 3) Determine these groups interests and

willingness to participate in designing curriculum. 4) Determine

who these groups thought should participate in various curriculum

design activities. 5) Outline dimensions of a curriculum design

that agree with the prescribed, observed and desired roles in the

curriculum process.

vi
 The study revealed that: 1) The government's suggested

roles were not in agreement with the currently

performed roles by
the various groups in designing curriculum.
2) All the groups

surveyed wanted to participate in varying degrees

on different

curriculum design activities. 3) Most groups of people thought

that the teachers and educational leaders should assume

the major

responsibil ity in curriculum decision making whereas the community

people and the students could provide the data for decision making

The researcher recommended that there should be change in

the structures of curriculum administration, composition of the

various curriculum committees, and that a continuous staff develop

ment and community development programs in curriculum development

and the educational reforms be established.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..... v

ABSTRACT ... .
........ V i

LIST OF TABLES * • • •
•All
ILLUSTRATIONS • A I I I

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION -j

Statement of the problem 1

Purpose of the study 2
Definition of terms 3
The significance of the study 5
Delimitations of the study 6
National Educational Agencies and their
functions 7
The research design 17
Organization of the dissertation 22

II. OVERVIEW OF CURRICULUM DESIGN THEORY AND PRACTICE

IN SELECTED COUNTRIES AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
FOR ZAMBIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 24

Purpose of the review 24

Curriculum design activities 26
The role of the local community 27
The role of the educational leaders 29
The role of the teachers 30
The role of the students 32
Involvement in the curriculum process 34
The curriculum process in selected countries • • 36
The U.S.A. 36
The U.S.S.R 40
Objectives of development education
in Africa 43
Kenya 46
Tanzania 48
The objectives of education in Zambia 1969
to 1983 50
Curriculum development for Zambian secondary
schools 53
The curriculum development center 54
Administration and curriculum in Zambia- • • • 57
Problems of curriculum development in Zambia • 58

ix
III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES 60

Research Design 60
Development of the instruments ! . . ! 61
Questionnaire objectives 63
Design and items of the questionnaire 63
Field testing in Lusaka 65
The community questionnaire 65
The educational leaders questionnaire 67
The teachers questionnaire 68
The students questionnaire 69
The Sample 69
Sampling procedure 69
Schools in the sample 75
Groups in the study 77
Administration of the questionnaire 80
Self administered questionnaires ........ 80
Group administered questionnaires 80
Rationale for administration procedure 81
Plan for analyzing and reporting the data 82

IV. PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

OF FINDINGS 85

Groups interest to participate 88

Communi ty 88
Educational leaders 90
Teachers 92
Students 94
Perceptions of the groups: Who should do
the activity
Comparison of highest interest and perception of
who would do the activity best

V. SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS-

Summary of the study 136

Implications of the findings 141
Dimensions of the proposed curriculum
decision making design 147
Recommendations for institutions to alter
present practices 153
Recommendations for further research • •
157
Closing 160

x
BIBLIOGRAPHY
162

APPENDICES 174

xi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table

1. Curriculum Development Process in Zambia 8

2. A typical list of members of the curriculum

council .
14

3. Number of people in the sample by sex

201

4. Serve on the curriculum council: group by sex. . . . 202

5. Serve on the curriculum committee: group by sex. . . 203

6. Design community projects: group by sex 204

7. Write and choose curriculum materials: group by sex. 205

8. Control school finances and curriculum changes:

group by sex . . 206

9. Discuss curriculum issues with politicians:

group by sex 207

10. Initiate communication and inform other groups

of curriculum happenings: group by sex 208

11. Needs assessment and curriculum evaluation:

group by sex ..................... 209

xi i
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Fi gure

1 • Proportions of the groups in the study ..... 73

2 . Proportions of the participants by school

community
jg

3. Community peoples interest to participate

according to activity 86

4. Educational leaders interest to participate

according to activity 89

5. Teachers interest to participate according

to activity

6. Students interest to participate according to

activity . . . . 93

7. Interests of the groups to serve on the

curriculum council 96

8 . Interests of the groups to serve on the curriculum

committee . 97

9. Interests of the groups to design community projects ... 98

10. Interests of the groups to write and choose

curriculum materials 101

11. Interests of the groups to control school

finances and curriculum changes 102

12. Interests of the groups to discuss curriculum

issues with politicians . 104

13. Interests of the groups to initiate communication

and to inform others of curriculum happenings 106

14. Interests of the groups to carry out needs

assessment and to evaluate school curriculum 108

15. Summary of groups interests to participate HO

xi i i
 16. Who should serve on the curriculum
council 112

17. Who should serve on the curriculum

committee 113

18. Who should design community projects

115

19. Who should write and choose curriculum 118

materials • . . .

20. Who should control school finances 119

21. Who should discuss curriculum issues with

politicians

22. Who should initiate communication and inform

other groups of curriculum happenings 124

23. Who should carry out needs assessment and

evaluate school curriculum ...... 126

24. Summary of who should participate- • 128

25. Comparison of groups interests and perceptions

of who should do the activity 129

26. The highly perceived and most interested groups

on curriculum design activities . 131

LIST OF MAPS

Map

1. Zambia: The schools in the sample 74

xiv
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem

The question of how to reform a coloni al ly-i ntroduced

v/

curriculum for effective post-independence education has

received

considerable attention from educational leaders and policy makers

in Zambia. Concern for flexibility, legitimacy, and relevance of

the educational system has prompted the introduction of several

reformatory measures in the administration, organization, content,

and implementation of the school curriculum. Legal instruments

such as the Education Act of 1966 ,

^ policy statements and reports

undertaken by the Ministry of Education, and conference produced

recommendations for curricula change have been part of a concerted

effort to bring about reform.

Yet, despite these efforts, little has been done in curriculum

development. Government reports indicate that objectives for

development education are not being met, that the measures so far

undertaken to reform the curriculum have not resulted in any

significant change in the educational system, and that the educational

system is otill manifesting dysfunctions which were there before

'"Zambia, Ministry of Education, The Education Act, 1966

(Lusaka: Government Printer, 1966).
1
 2

Independence. There is no specific statement as

to what role
different groups of people should play
in curriculum decision-

making, and as a result there is confusion on what

people should
do to improve curricula in educational
institutions.^

Purpose of the Study

This study attempts to construct a decision making model for

developing secondary school curriculum in

Zambia that is in agree-

ment with the objectives of education as outlined

in the educational

reform documents and the Third National Development 3

Plan. The
major aim of the study is to identify ways in which
teachers,

students, educational leaders and local communities can participate

/
in curri cul um-planni ng and to delineate more
precisely the desired

decision-making roles and their inter-relationships.

The study has the following Specific Research Objectives :

1. To identify the objectives of education for development

outlined by the Zambian Government that will guide

curriculum development in the next decade.

2
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Aims and Objectives for
Education in Zambia A report submitted to the Curriculum Council
.

by the Sub-Committee on Educational Objectives (Lusaka: Government

Printer, 1974); Zambia, Ministry of Education Education for
,

Development: Draft Statement on Educational Reform (Lusaka:

Government Printer, 1976).
3
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Education for Development :

Draft Statement on Educational Reform Zambia, Ministry of Education,

;

Educational Reform: Proposals and Recommendations (Lusaka: Govern-

ment Printer, 1977); Zambia, The Third National Development Plan
1979-1983 (Lusaka: Government Printer, 1979).
 3

2. To identify the prescribed and currently

performed

role of teachers, students, educational leaders and

local community in designing curriculum.

3. To determine what role these four groups wanted to

play in curriculum designing.

4. To determine what the four groups think should be

the role of the teachers, students , educational leaders

and community people in curriculum designing.

5. To outline dimensions of a curri culum decision making

model to develop secondary school curriculum.

Definition of Terms Used in this Study

Curri culum includes at any level of decision making the

preplanned facets of the environment that are created with the

intention of affecting learning and all the planned and perceived

experience of the learner in the home or the school under the school

guidance. The created environment in the Zambian context refers to

the set of ideas on man, society (Zambian Humanism) and political

economy. The created environment should also focus on the type of

learning that would help generate criteria for the selection of

learning activities.

A curriculum planning model is a conceptual design with

prominent elements, arrangements, patterns and organizational scheme

for planning and providing learning experiences. In this study

 4

a curriculum design and a curriculum planning model will, to some

extent, be used interchangeably.

Curriculum Development is the dynamic process, procedures,

and steps utilized to produce a curriculum design. A design

refers to the features of the curriculum produced. Curri culum

desi gni nq is the process of producing a curriculum design, but this

is mainly restricted to the activities in the curriculum develop-

ment process that occur before the learning situation takes place.

Development Education is that kind of education that helps

in developing societal relationships that can help break down the

barrier between the different social, political, and economic

groups in Zambia. It is an education that promotes change, helps

in transforming society and transforms itself in the process.

Educational development includes both the qualitative and

quantitative aspects of change within the educational system. The

qualitative aspects refer to change in teaching methods, technology

and the curriculum content that is, new reading materials, text-

books, and better trained teachers. The quantitative aspect of

change could be in the dimension and composition of the educational

stock and flow of stock, as for an example, the development of an

educational policy that fosters increased enrollment in the primary

schools or number of years spent in school.

Zambian Humanism is a political philosophy or African

socialism based on the significance of a human being irrespective of

 5

what she/he owns or of her/his status in

society. The human being's

significance means that she/he is not to be used

as an object of

either passive or active exploitation by another

human being. The
final goal of humanism in Zambia is to create a social,
political,
and economic order which is non-exploi tati ve and
based on human

being's truths.

The Significance of the Study

Since 1969, Zambia's educational policy statements have

reflected the objectives of development education. Despite govern-

ment publications which emphasize the need for education to assist

in development, educators in Zambia have not explored ways in which

to implement these objectives. Zambian educators seem to understand

that curriculum should be appropriate to the needs of the people,

but they have not collected appropriate information from within

Zambia to bring about this reform. There has not been a systematic

way to interpret how the objectives can be put into practice.

It is with this concern in mind that I proposed to develop a

curriculum planning model based on both a theoretical rationale and

empirical data from Zambia. This type of curriculum planning helps

in making the best possible decision since it is an expression of

decision making that links theory with practice. It can also be

used to enhance communication between educators and the people. In

this way a curriculum planning model helps in revealing the best

strategies to meet the objectives as well as the probable problems

 6

to be encountered which can then

be corrected before implementation

of the new plans and ideas.

A curriculum planning model can also suggest a systematic

way of curriculum development and
activities that may be carried out
by each stage. It can therefore facilitate communication
and
coordination among the curriculum design
elements . It could also

reduce stress associated with unstructured

undertakings. It is

therefore important that a curriculum planning model be constructed

that the educational leaders, teachers, local

communities and

students might reflect upon and could incorporate the

ideas in their

curriculum design for the current educational reform exercise.

The study will also go a long way in meeting the objectives of

Jhe Third National Development Plan 1979-1983 launched in January

4
1980.

Delimitations of the Study

The study focuses on involvement in and accepted roles of

curriculum decision making. It does not deal with form and content

curriculum or curriculum organization, but rather with the effort

to make the curriculum system functional through personnel involve-

ment. It must also be noted that research objectives three and

four of the study make an assumption that the respondents to the

questionnaire had some basic knowledge of the curriculum process.

4
Zambia. The Third National Development Plan 1979-83 ; Times
of Zambia (Lusaka, Zambia), October 9, 1979, p. 1.
 7

The list of curriculum design activities was

short and concise
because the researcher was dealing with groups
of people whose

major interests were not writing. Responding to questionnaires is

a relatively new phenomenon in Zambia.

National Educational Agencies and their Functions

The purpose of this review is to provide an operational

frame-

work by giving the background information on curriculum

development

procedures and structures of planning, implementation and evaluation

of curriculum. It also provides some rationale for the study.

There are regulations governing curriculum designing in

Zambia. These regulations cover both the primary and secondary

school curriculum programs. In the primary schools the syllabus

is determined by the Minister of Education, and in the secondary

schools, it is determined by the headmis tress/master with the

approval of the Minister. In practice, the curriculum is designed

by the Curriculum Council assisted by the Curriculum Development

Center and the Inspectorate.

There are different structures and procedures for developing

curriculum. The general policy and educational aims are determined

by the National Council of Education. The Curriculum Council

determines the objectives and specific subjects to be offered in

5
Zambia, Ministry of Education, The Education Act, 1966 .

C
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Curriculum Development in
Zambia: The Search for Relevance 1964-1974 A Special Report
.

( Lusaka: CDC/I nspectorate July 1974).

,
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 9

both the primary and secondary schools.

The curriculum committees

which represent different school subjects

determine the syllabus
for each subject. These three bodies are dominated by
educators
at the Ministry of Education
headquarters, Inspectorate and the
Curriculum Development Center (CDC). Members of staff at the

Curriculum Development Center determine and design

the course unit

content and write the teachers' and students' 7

handbooks.' The
preliminary evaluation of new materials in the school
is also carried

out by the Curriculum Development Center.

The Examinations Council formulates the examinations

policy
that it hands over to the examinations section and
psychological

services for the formulation of specific objectives of different

kinds of tests and examinations.^ The teacher is handed these

objecti ves and she/he is requi red to teach for the examinations,

since the examinations are used for selection and certification

purposes at grade seven, form three and form five levels. The

curriculum development process is characterized by compartmental iza-

tion of the different structures and functions. The curriculum

council, its commi ttees, the CDC and the Inspectorate design the

curriculum programs, the teachers implement them, and the examina-

tion section evaluates.

7
1 see also Peter L. Higgs, How to Evaluate Individual
bid. ;

Lessons. (Lusaka: Ministry of Educati on/CDC, 1978). Higgs was

until April 1980 an evaluator with the CDC and his handbook is used
as a manual for procedure at the CDC.

g
Zambia, The Education Act, 1966 . Examinations, Regulations,
Sections, 12 and 32.
 10

In 1969, an education conference was convened

in the country

to discuss the curriculum problems in Zambia. 9

At this conference,
the statements on education for development
and relevant curriculum

were outlined.

In 1974 and 1975, there was a re-examination of the

educational system, and it was noted that there had been no major

changes in curriculum and its practices despite the

changes in

educational policies. 10 In 1975, an effort was made at curriculum

reforms in which teams from the Ministry of Education

headquarters

visited different countries and reported back their findings to

the

Ministry of Education. In 1976, this material was put together by

the Ministry of Education. 11 The draft copy with objectives for

development education was printed and accepted by the government as

the official document for educational 12

reform in 1978. These same

development educational objectives are to be one of the major tasks

of The Third National Development Plan .

9
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Report on the First National
Education Confrence (Lusaka: Government Printer, 1969).

10
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Aims and Objectives for
Education in Zambia .

^Zambia, Ministry of Education, Education for Development :

Draft Statement on Education Reform .

1
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Educational Reform :

Proposals and Recommendations (Lusaka:

. Government Printer, 1977).
 11

The Problem of Clarifying Objectives and

Contradi ctio n s Among the Objectives

There have been problems in clarifying

objectives because
goals and aims of primary and secondary
education are stated

without any specificity in mind, that is, what

Zambia requires to

be able to solve certain problems. Another noticeable feature in

the annual reports is that some of the specific objectives and

activities carried out are in contradiction to the goals

and aims

of primary and secondary education. For an example, the student

enrollment in both the primary and secondary schools more than

doubled between 1964 and 1969, and most of the graduates could not

find formal employment in the modern sector. 13 In the same period

there was a high rate of rural -urban migration. Despite these two

problems, the highly academic and selective system of education

continued and was even expanded which meant a rapid increase in the

numbers of the unemployed school leavers. In this period national

development was perceived as having 33% of the primary school

leavers enter junior secondary school; 66% of this group proceed

to senior secondary and 5 to 10% of this group continue through

uni versi ty.

In 1968, the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Education

voiced some concern about wastage at the primary school level, but

despite this concern, no concrete suggestions about the course of

1
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Annual Reports ,
1964-69
(Lusaka: Government Pri nter)
 12

action to be taken was made to curb this

problem. In response to
the problem of rural-urban migration,
more primary schools were

constructed or old ones were expanded in

the urban areas. 14 At
the same time it was noted that the
practical subjects were to be
emphasized, but only four out of a total of one hundred and eleven

secondary schools offered practical subjects

at the junior secondary
15
school level.

Where the objectives were specified, the activities

to meet

the objectives were not prioritized according

to Zambia's needs.

The first attempt at curriculum development

was the establishment of

the English Medium Center in 1966. The center was to experiment

in the use of English as the medium of instruction

in the primary

schools and also prepare materials for the primary course. This in

a way demonstrates the problem of prioritizing needs as well as

misconceptions about national development. National development was

associated with the learning of the English language which most of

the Zambians do not use outside the school. An emphasis on

Zambian languages would have been more appropriate since the

majority of the children never go beyond the seventh grade and

communicate in Zambian languages for most of their lives. This

policy also implies that the school is to take over the home by

imposing its own values, culture and language, whereas d^elopment

14
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Annual Report , 1968.

15
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Annual Report , 1969.
 13

education's aim is to intergrate the

work of the school into the life
of the community.

In 1970, a Curriculum Development Center was

established
whose main task has been to design
and write materials for schools.

The teachers in the schools pick

up this material and deliver it to
the children who reproduce it for
the examinations at the end of

their program. With these procedures, curriculum has

failed to
meet the objectives of development education.

Compo sition of the National Council of Education

,
jThoCurriculum Council and its Commi ttses

The Education Act of 1966 gave the Minister of

Education
powers to appoint members of the National Council of
Education
that advises him on matters pertaining to educational
policy. These
members have to be appointed from officers at the University, the

Ministry of Education, regional and local councils, representati ves

of the teachers’ union, boards of governors and those who are

1 fi
running aided schools.

From the given outline of the composition of the National

Council of Education,^ one can see that there is a concentration

of members from one section of the society. The members are either

employees of the Ministry of Education, senior teachers or educational

admini strators. The Act as it stands does not mo!.e any provision

for the involvement of other members of society in educational

^Zambia, Ministry of Education, The Education Act , Subsidiary

Legislation, 1966.
*
See Table 2 attached--A typical list of members of the
curriculum council.
 14

Table 2

A Typical List of Members of. the Curriculum Council

resit ion /Department

Profession/f ield of
Base Rural (R)
expertise
and
Urban (U)
Under Secretary
Educational Administrator
Ministry of Education Lusaka U

Assistant Secretary
Ktnistry of Education
Educational Administrator
Lusaka U
Director
Curriculum Development Centre
Educator
Lusaka U
Detwty Director
Curriculum Development Centre
Educator
Lusaka U
Senior Curriculum Specialist
Cwrlculum Development Centre Educator
Lusaka U
Chief Inspector of Schools
Inspectorate Educator
Lusaka U
Three Senior Inspectors of Schools
Inspectorate Educators Lusaka U
Inspector of Schools,
Inspectorate Educator Lusaka U
Chief Examinations Officer Educator Lusaka U
Heed, Psychological Services
and Testing Educator Lusaka U
Head, Department of Education
University of Zambia Educationist Lusaka U
Director, Institute of Education
or Centre for Continuing
Education
University of Zambia Educationist Lusaka U
Principal, National In-Service
National In-Service College Educator Chal imbana U
Head, One Lusaka Primary School Educator Lusaka U
Head, One Lusaka Secondary School Educator Lusaka U
Principal, (a primary) Teacher
Training College Educator
R/U
Principal, (a secondary) Teachers*
Kabwe or
College Educator Copperbelt U

Superintendent of 'curriculum.
Directorate of Technical Education
and Vocational Training Educator Lusaka U

Health Educator, Ministry of

Health Health Educator Lusaka U

Controller, Educational Broadcasting

and Television Services Educator Lusaka U

Senior Training Officer

Ministry of Rural Development Educator Lusaka U

Deputy or General Secretary, Lusaka or

Zambia National Union of Teacners Educator Copperbelt U

Source: Drawn from infroamtion given in: Curriculum Development in Zambia: The Search for Relevance.
 15

planning. Consultation with and participation

by such ministries
as agriculture and health is very
important for a developing country
like Zambia, that wants to use
education as one of its agents of

development. This lack of coordination and

participation from the
other members of society, poses some
problems for the implementation
of development education objectives.
The educators are not all

specialists in agriculture, marketing or

health problems. There
is a need for an integrated approach to
solving development problems,
and the absence of other members of
the society on the National

Council of Education is contrary to this

basic principle of

development education. The other forgotten group in the composition

of the National Council of Education is the

parents. Despite the
fact that there is a section in the Education Act that requires

the parents' participation in policy formulation, there is no seat

given to them on the National Council of Education. This in a way

reflects the fact that the educators think they can run the

educational system without the other members of the society. There

is also an implied statement that education can be planned as a

separate system from the political economy of the country, which is

contrary to Zambia's educational objectives.

The composition of the Curriculum Council and the Curriculum

Committees reflect the same disp^ty that exists wi thin the National

Council of Education. The Curriculum Council and Curriculum

Committees are further limited by the fact that all their members
 16

are educators from the urban areas. 18

It is difficult to incorporate

every member who wants to be on the

Curriculum Council or on the

Curriculum Committees, but it is important

that a well balanced
representation be made of the different sectors
of the society.

Curriculum designing for development education

requires the

participation of the other members of the society.

There is also need for the creation of other

non-school
discipline committees to complement the school
subjects committees.
The emphasis as it is now on the school subjects
implies that

education is viewed only as schooling, whereas development

education
requires an integrated approach to curriculum. The school curriculum

is supposed to reflect the activities of the local community. On

the contrary there are ten curriculum committees, eight of

which

represent the subjects offered in the primary and secondary schools.

These include: English; French and foreign languages; homecraft;

mathematics; practical subjects and creative activities; science,

15
social studies; and Zambian languages.

The other two committees are evaluation and publications.

This makes it almost impossible for the orindary citizen in Zambia

to participate in the committees. Even if she/he was given a chance,

she/he would not comprehend the issues at hand. The result is that

18
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Curriculum Development in
Zambia: The Search for Relevance, 1964-1974 (Lusaka: CPC and
Inspectorate, 1974). See also Table 2 of this chapter.
 17

only educators have seats on

these committees. The chairpersons of
the committees are the inspectors
of the respective subjects and

the secretaries are the respective

subject specialists at the
Curriculum Development Center. Since the Inspectorate and the

Curriculum Development Center are

located in the capital city, it
means that the committees represent
only the urban areas and there
is no representation from the rural
areas.

It can be seen that all the government documents since 1969

suggest change and contain new objectives

for the Zambian educational

system. But so far there has been no definite proposal

on how and

who should participate in curriculum designing

to meet the new

challenges and objectives of development education.

The structures

of planning, implementation and evaluation of

curriculum remain

unchanged .

The Research Design

Literature Review

1. An overview of what scholars in curriculum development suggest as

the

role of the teachers, students, educational leaders and local

community in curriculum designing.

There was an examination of both primary and secondary sources

which included books, encylopedias, periodicals, and papers presented

at professional meetings. The works of prominent scholars in the

field of curriculum development theory were examined. This

 18

included the wor s of such people as Tyler,

Beauchamp, Oliver,
Goodlad, Fantini, Sinclair,
Lightfoot, Cremin and Lietchty.

2. What the curriculum design roles

of the four groups are in the

U.S.A., U.S.S.R. Kenya and Tanzania.

,

Case studies and empirical data of

selected schools in these
countries were examined and analyzed in
order to draw out patterns
of involvement in the curriculum
decision making process.

3. What the Zambian Government suggests as

the role of the four

groups in curriculum designing.

Literature pertaining to curriculum development

in Zambia

was examined. Both primary and secondary sources were examined.

This included books, atlases, periodicals, Zambian

government reports,
plans, reports on conferences, curriculum development
center hand-

books and guidelines for curriculum development.

The Zambian

government s educational plans and reports since 1969 were examined,

these included the Second and the Third National Development Plans,

The 1966 Education Act and subsidiary legislation and revisions,

major curriculum reform documents of 1969, 1974, 1975, 1976 and

1977; and a sample of curriculum guidelines of the curriculum

development center.

4. What one actual curriculum designing roles of the Four Zambian

groups are:

This included an examination of the Ministry of Education

Annual reports since 1969 which stated what actually happened in

 19

the implementation of the

curriculum system. This was augmented
by
observations of what went on at the
Ministry of Education head-
quarters, the Educational Services
Center, the Schools and the local

communities.

Instrumentation and data collection .

The questionnaire-opinionnaire was developed

and included

both closed and open-ended questions.

There were four sets of

questionnaires for the four different groups included

in the study,

that is the teachers, students, educational

leaders, and the local

community. The questions asked fell under three main categories:

lo Do the various groups desire to have some input in

designing curriculum for secondary schools (degree

of i nput)?

2. Who best might be involved in future curriculum

designing activities for Zambian secondary schools?

3. What other kinds of future curriculum designing

activities for secondary schools might be carried out

at the local, as well as the national level?

The three categories of questions were on one inventory. The

difference in the four sets of questionnaires for the different

groups was in some of the specific questions that fell under each

major question.

The questionnaires were administered to teachers, students,

local community members, and educational leaders. Some local community

 20

members were interviewed in one

of Zambia's two languages. This
is because most of the Zambian adults do
not speak the English

language. Key educational leaders were also interviewed to

substantiate the questionnaires.

Sampling Frame

Stratified Sampling of secondary schools in

Zambia was done
according to region and then random sampled
from within the region.

Zambia has nine school regions which match

with the nine administra-

tive provinces. One secondary school was selected from each

region.
In each secondary school, all the form fives (12th graders) were

included in the study. There was systematic sampling of the members

of the school's local community according to housing. In day

secondary schools, the members of the local community were mainly

parents of the students attending the secondary school, whereas

in the outlying provinces they were not necessarily parents of the

students in the school since most of the outlying secondary schools

are boarding schools.

The study had 563 students and 91 form five teachers from

ten secondary schools. There were also 87 community people from ten

school communities and 20 educational leaders from the various

education departments of the Ministry of Education.

 21

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 22

The a nalysis and reporting of data

The data was analyzed and

presented in both quantitative
and qualitative form. The summaries of the results
of the research
questions were used in designing
the curriculum decision making

model for developing secondary

school curriculum which was backed

by qualitative statements.

Organization of the Dissertation

The dissertation has five chapters.

The first chapter has
been outlined and the remaining four
chapters are as follows:

Chapter 2 reviews the related literature in curriculum

design
theory and practice in selected countries,
and curriculum development

in Zambia,

Chapter 3 discusses The Research design and procedures :

a) Development of the Instrument; its objectives,

design and items.

b) Selection of the sample and sampling procedures.

c) Administration of the questionnaire and data collection.

d) Plan for analyzing and reporting data.

The fourth chapter is the Presentation, Analysis and Inter -

pretation of the findings which include:

a) The reporting of responses to key variables.

b) Matching the responses of the community, educational

leaders, teachers and students on major variables.

c) Discussion of the key issues and variables that can be

utilized in a curriculum design.

 23

fifth and last chapter

presents a summary of the study,
implications of the findings,
and recommendations
to Zambian
educational policy makers and
for further research.
 CHAPTER II
OVERVIEW OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
THEORY AND PRACTICE
IN SELECTED COUNTRIES AND
CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT FOR ZAMBIAN SECONDARY
SCHOOLS

Purpose of the Review

The overall objective of this

chapter is to investigate and
review selected literature and related
research. The materials
reviewed cover curriculum designing theory
and practice in selected

countries, and the curriculum process in

Zambia.

Scholars' suggested curriculum design activities and roles

of
the local community, educational leaders, teachers and students were

identified in order to clarify and build a base for the whole study.

Four countries, the United States of America

(USA), the Union of the

Socialist Soviet Republ ics (USSR) , Tanzania and Kenya were chosen

to demonstrate the variations and similarities

in the curriculum

design roles of the various groups. This review also helped demon-

strate any similarities, differences and problems in the

curriculum

process in the four countries on the one hand and in Zambia on

the

other. The four countries were chosen to represent the Western

world (USA), the Socialist countries (USSR) and two African

countries that have followed two different models of socio-economic

development, Kenya and Tanzania.

24
 25
The objectives of education for
development in Zambia were
analyzed to help conceptualize
the prescribed and performed
roles
of the local community,
educational leaders, teachers and
students
in Zambia. The roles had to be related
to the objectives in order

to highlight the major issues

and some problems of curriculum

development in Zambia.

This chapter has three main sections.

The first part deals
with the theoretical underpinnings
of designing curriculum. This
covers what curriculum theorists say
ought to be the curriculum design

activities and the kind of involvement that

should be expected of the
local community, the educational leaders, the teachers and the

students. The second section discusses what the

curriculum researchers
have discovered happens in the USA, USSR,
Kenya and Tanzania. The
last section gives an outline of the objectives of education
and
the curriculum process in Zambia.

These objectives were pursued through a library search of

both primary and secondary sources of the scholars'

suggested

curriculum design activities and roles of various groups of

people.

The observed roles of the various groups in the USA, USSR,

Kenya and

Tanzanian formal secondary schools study was carried out by reading

and analyzing case studies. The literature on Zambia was mainly from

primary sources, which included Government reports, committee minutes,

field observations and informal discussions with Ministry of Education

officials.
 26

Curriculum Design Act.i vitiac

One of the most pressing

issues of curriculum designing
concerns who will be involved
and to what degree in
curriculum
planning, implementation and
evaluation. This issue is significant
because curriculum theory
construction should make clear
the
accepted roles and sources of
curriculum decision making.

Several curriculum theorists

explore this issue. Beauchamp
views curriculum as a process composed of decision making
and
action that is supposed to produce,
implement and evaluate a
1
curriculum. He therefore raises five issues
which he calls arenas.
These include, the arena in which
the various curriculum processes

take place, the involvement of people in

the process, the tasks

and procedures for curriculum

planning, curriculum implementation

and curriculum evaluation.

Tyler, Goodlad and Richter go further by

identifying three
levels of curriculum decision making to
include societal, institutional

and instructional 2
levels. From the above outline it would seem that

theory building in curriculum development

depends on the arena and

^George Beauchamp, Curriculum Theory. 3rd ed. WillmpttP

Illinois: The Kagg Press, 1975.

2
Ral P h W. Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum
. and In -
struction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949); John
I.
Goodlad and Maurice N. Richter, Jr. The Development of a
Co. ^ept ual
system for Dea ling with Problems of Curriculum and instruction
(Research Program, Washington, D.C., USOE Project No.
454, 1966).
 27

the degree of involvement

within the arena. Procedures and techniques
of curriculum planning are related
to the tasks involved.

The basic tasks outlined can be

grouped into five categories.
These would include seeking and
receiving curriculum information,

filtering and organizing it, creating

ideas for curriculum change,

selecting a curriculum design and writing the curriculum.

After
outlining the tasks, the next step is
to identify the potential

participants.

Oliver identifies five groups as potential 3

participants.
These are laymen, educational admi nistrators
, teachers, learners,
and consultants. The laymen include both parents and
non-parent
local community members who are affected
in some way or another

by the happenings in the school. The educational leaders include

those educators in leadership position who have

authority over the

schools. The teachers are those who deliver instruction.

The

learners are the students and the consultants are

specialists in

such areas as curriculum, reading and testing.

The Role of the Local Community

A number of curriculum scholars are of the view that the

local community must have a major role in determining the education

of their children and the younger generation in general. One

suggested way of achieving this is by having well it,

c
jrmed community

3
Albert I. Oliver, Curriculum Improvement: A guide to problems
principles and process (2nd ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1977).
 4

28

members participate in the

curriculum decision making process.
These scholars also have noted
that teachers and parents rarely
work
together cooperati vel y.

Sinclair and Ghory are concerned

with this issue and have
suggested a model of teaming parents
and teachers in the following

functions: "Determining educational objectives;

diagnosing and
analyzing children's needs; planning
and implementing curriculum;

and evaluating the learning

environments." 6

Wilcox states that parents have natural

teaching skills and
that they should therefore be involved
in certain school activities. 6

He suggests such activities as hiring

and supervising classroom

teachers, making decisions regarding curriculum

policies in schools,
participating in educational contract discussions,
giving additional
community resources and support to school curriculums
and establishing

4
Carol Kimmel, "Putting the Public Back into Schools" The
Nation al Elementary Principal 55 (1976): 33-35, Robert
L. Sinclair
and Ward J. Ghory, "Parents and Teachers Together: Directions for
Developing Equality in Learning Through Environments in
Families and
Schools A paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
American
Eductional Research Association in Boston, Massachusetts,
April
1980; Preston Wilcox, "Parental Decision making: An Educational
Necessity," Theory Into Practice 11 (June 1972): 178-182; Albert
l- Oliver, Curriculum Improvement: A Guide to Problems, Principles
and Process ; Mario D. Fantini, "Community Participation:
Alternative
Patterns and Their Consequence on Educational Achievements", A paper
for the American Educational Research Association in Boston,
Spring 1980.
5
Robert L. Sinclair and Ward J. Ghory, "Parents and Teachers
Together: Directions for Developing Equality in Learning Through
Environments in Families and Schools."
0
Preston Wilcox, "Parental Decision Making: An Educational
Necessi ty.
 29
communication iinkages between
the school and the community.

•On the same line of thought,

Oliver suggests that community
members should attend meetings
together with students and
teachers
in order to exchange 7
curriculum ideas. He also states that the
community members should be
able to give talks to
parents, teachers
and students on the special
knowledge that they possess.
Furthermore
that, the community should
be able to organize and
conduct workshops
to which students, teachers
and educational leaders could
be invited.
Oliver argues that such kinds of
community involvement that supple-
ment school curriculum are very
important for the general growth of
the students, teachers and the
community.

African scholars and educational

reformers agree that the
local community should be actively involved
in the curriculum decision

making process if there is to be any significant change in

their
educational systems and if these educational
systems are to
contribute toward self-sufficiency and national 8
development.

The Role of the Educational Leaders

Beauchamp considers the educational leaders the

organizers,
leaders and directors of the various curriculum
designing activities.

7
Albert I. Oliver, Curriculum Improvement: A Guide to Problems
‘
1
Principles and Process .

g
Edwin M. Koloko, "Approaches to Educational Planning" African
_

Social Research 29 (June 1980): 689-/u7; Julius K. Nyerere,

Education fo r Self Reliance Dar-es-Salaam: Governmenr Printer,
,
1967;
Kenneth Kaunda, Opening Address: Report on First National Education
Conference (Lusaka: Government Printer, 1969).
9
George Beauchamp, Curriculum Theory .
 30

This same view is stressed by Burch

and Danley who also suggest
that
instructional improvement aspects are
the educational leaders'

responsibilities. 10 They view educational leaders as facilitators

in designing curriculum. Educational leaders are expected to set up

workshops and staff development programs

for curriculum development

purposes and make sure that the teachers

and all the other members

involved in the curriculum process are

aware of all the happenings.

They are to establish efficient communication

lines, and to

coordinate the curriculum development activities.

The educational leaders then should initiate interest among

the teachers, students and the local community and should provide

leadership in the curriculum designing process.

The Role of the Teachers

A large volume of literature agrees that one major role of

the teacher is curriculum decision making. The teacher is viewed as

the person who deals with quality improvement in education and

therefore has to create the learning environment through curriculum

decision making. Sinclair suggests that the role of the teacher

does not include only teaching but also the transmission of values and

attitudes that should be reflected in the created intellectual,

11
moral and physical environments. This in a way implies that if

^Barbara G. Burch anu W. Elzie Danley, Sr., "The Instructional

Leadeship Role of Central Office Supervisors", Educational Leadership
(May 1980): 636-637.

^Robert L. Sinclair, "The School and You: Critical Awareness

for Improvement," The National Elementary Principal 55 (1976) 55-58. :
 31

teachers are given a major role in curriculum decision making,

better
learning environments would be created
since teachers have more data

about the learners.

The other role of the teacher lies in the

field of research. 12
It is suggested that the teachers determine
and define areas of
studies in the school and analyze ways of dealing
with such problems

effectively. Lange and Hug, both educators, view the teachers'

role from the point of collaboration with the

local community in

designing curriculum. They suggest six ways in which the teachers

and local community members can collaborate. These include:

"Participating in community managed learning centers; supporting

programs administered by the local community; urging the community

to join in curriculum research and planning procedures in the

curriculum development process; rendering school services to the

local community; extending regular school services to students after

school hours; and adding new designs and production services to the
1
local community members."

These same authors state further that the teacher should not

be viewed only as the person who teaches reading, writing and arith-

12
Ibid., Ann Cook and Herb Mack, "The Teacher as Researcher,"
The National Elementary Principal 55 (1976): 47-51 -

13
Phil C. Lange and William E. Hug, "The School, the Community,
and the Media: Nostalgic Imagery and Modern Reality," The National
Elementary Principal 55 (1976) 50-54.
:
 32

rnetic but also as the

person who has a role to
play jn examining and
clarifying va i ues , coordinating, initiating,
complementing and
extending the education to the local community.
The above outline indicates
that the teacher has to
plan,
develop, implement and evaluate
curriculum at different levels
of
decision making, that is the
general level as an educator
and at the
classroom level as a classroom
teacher. Therefore teachers may
participate actively in any of the
following curriculum activities:

1. Serve on the general curriculum

committees that are
responsible for program design.

2. Serve on the subject committee of

their specialty.
3. Exchange resource materials with
local community

members and curriculum specialists.

4. Communicate to the local community the

happenings in
the school.

10.
5. Represent the school and the local community
at

educational conferences.

6. Carry out research in the schools and the

local community.

7. Evaluate curriculum.

8. Create favorable learning environment.

9. Instruct the students and community members.

Direct and develop curriculum planning.

The Role of the Students

Most scholars and educational planners seem to agree on

 33

the fact that students

should be involved in the
curriculum decision
making process. It is argued that if
the students'
qualities as
members of the community have
to be developed then there
is need to
allow them to participate in
designing curriculum. The only
un-
resolved argument is on the
degree of involvement and at
what age
a student should be deeply
involved in curriculum matters.

Oliver suggests that the secondary

school students are mature
enough to serve on advisory
curriculum committees. And that they
should also participate directly
in curriculum planning within
a
school by helping plan their
lessons as well as tutoring other
14
students.

Nduanya and Nyerere in their discussions

on education and the

community view the role of the students

in connection with community
15
development. The secondary school students are viewed
as

educators of the local communities in Africa

where the level of formal
secondary education is low. Students as educators can be responsible
for informing the local communities of
the happenings in the school.

In this way, they will assume leadership roles in community

work and
organize projects within their local areas.

Albert I. Oliver, Curriculum Improvement: A Guide to

Problems, Principles, and Process .
' '

15
M. Onyeama Nduanya, "The Role of Students in Community
Development," Education in Eastern Africa (Oct. 1979) 39-43 Julius
:
;
K. Nyerere, Education for Self-Reliance.
 34

Involvement in the Currirn l U m

process Participation

Most definitions of the term

participation include the notion
of exerting some influence on
decision making that affects
the
individual concerned. 16 The major differences in
the definitions
are embodied in the degree
and dimensions of the proposed
participation
The individual authors differ
on scope, directness and the
regularity
of participation. For an example, Montgomery and
Esman defined
participation as: "Exerting influence on administrative
behavior and
on the output of official action.
Thus greater participation by the
poor and deprived would mean their
great influence on decisions and

programs relating to their welfare." 17

On the other hand Huntington

and Nelson defined it as: "Activity by private citizens designed

to influence governmental decision making.' 1

^ In their core

definition, Huntington and Nelson list a number of characteristics

of participation.

Huntington and Nelson differ from Montegomery and

Esman in
that they emphasize activities as opposed to
attitudes. The activity

is also emphasized as much as the results of

participation since it
is important to influence the decision making
process. Huntington

16
Samuel P. Huntington and Joan M. Nelson, No Easy Choice :

Political Participation in Developing Countries (Cambridge, Mass.:

Harvard University Press, 1976); John D. Montgomery and Multon Esman,
Popular Participation in Development Administration," Journal of
Comparative Administration 3 (November 1971): 258-283.
17
Montgomery and Esman, p. 258.
18
Huntington and Nelson, p. 4.
 35

and Nel son state further

that the activity or
participation can he
influenced through mobilization
or through autonomously
stimulated
Participants.
Therefore, they propose
that in participation,
the
ends are as important
as the process or
act of participation.

inoperative Approach in Cu rriculum Peri si

Goldman calls for a redefinition of the roles of

teachers,
students, educational leaders
and local community members
in which
there will be continuous
interaction and interdependence
among the
19
groups. However he cautions that the
procedure and degree of
interaction must vary from one
setting to another, he also
states
that in his suggested team
work model, team members should
be willing
to subordinate their personal
interests when need arose. One
suggested way of achieving this
is through differentiated
staffing
where different decisions would
be made at different levels by

different personnel.

Oliver argues that shared responsibility

is necessary because
teachers' views of learners are different from
those of other groups
in the community. 20 For example, the teacher may
concentrate on the
academic side of the learner while the
parents or local community

members will have other expectations.

The learner will also have

19
tl
0a
.
™
ey Goldman, "The Principal and the School
Community,"
Theory Into Practice . ’1 (1972):9-16.

20
Albert I. Oliver, Curriculum Improvement: A Guidp tn
Problems, Principles and Processes.
 36

his/her own interest and if all

this pool of interest and
knowledge
is put together then there
is a better chance of having
a

comprehensive curriculum.

Jhe Curriculu m Process in Selected CountriP*;

The U.S.A.

Wilcox observes that where the community

members are involved
in curriculum policy making and
sit on advisory committees, they
sanction and support the implementation
of curriculum policies. 21

He also observed less confusion in

the monitoring of curriculum issues

since both the school and the local community

supported the monitor.
Therefore, education in this process is used
to improve the whole

communi ty.

Kurshan, Moore, Morrill, Tyrrell and Weingast reported

on

case studies in which teachers and students worked

together to
22
provide a curriculum. In their study of Salem, Virginia, Kurshan,

Moore and Morrill observed that the teachers and students interacted

and made curriculum decisions together. For example they selected

and developed materials and instructional methodology and media for

class presentation together. The results from their observations

21
Preston Wilcox, "Parental Decision-Making: An Educational
Necessi ty.

22
Barbara Kurshan, David M. Moore, and Robert W. Mori 11,
"Media Integrated Curriculum: An Alternative School," Audio-Visual
Instruction 20 (March 1975): 59-61; Ronald W. Tyrrell, "The Open
Middle School: A Model for Change", National Association of Secondary
School Principals Bulletin 58 (April 1974): 62-66; David Weingast,
"Shared Leadership, the Damn Thing Works", Educational Leadership,
37 (March 1980): 502-506.
 37

indicate that the students learned

much more by participating in
curriculum decision making.

Similar results were observed by

Tyrrell in Beachwood, Ohio,
where teachers and students
initiated, planned, implemented and

evaluated the curriculum activities

together.

Non-i nvolvement in the U.S.A.

Kirst and Walker, both curriculum

theorists, carried out a

study in which they collected most

of the available research studies

on curriculum policy decision making

in the United States of
23
America. One of their research questions focused
on who made the
most influential curriculum decisions for
secondary schools. They
discovered that despite the talk of localized
curriculum decision
making, there were striking similarities in the
secondary schools.
When they probed further, they found that the
sources of curriculum

are mostly from outside the local community and in most cases outside

of the educational profession.

Kirst and Walker found that most secondary school curriculum

decisions were made by:

1. Private accrediting associations and state governments.

2. Tes ti ng agenci es.

3. Association of teachers.

23 ..
Michael W. Kirst and F. Decker Walker, "An Analysis of
Curriculum Policy-making", Review of Educational Research 41 (1971):
479-509.
 38

4. The United States Government.

5. The textbook companies.

6. Foundations such as Ford,

Rockefeller, Carnegie and
Kettering that supply finances.

7. University regulations.

Local community

From the studies analyzed by

Kirst and Walker, it was found
that the actual role of the local community
was very minimal. There
were very few members of the
local community who understood
the
curriculum objectives and designing
activities. And they concluded
that this might have been due to
lack of dissemination of informa-

tion by the leaders in the field

of education who were guarding the

curriculum decision making realm for

themselves.

Educational leaders

The educational leaders were found to spend

very little time
on the curriculum process issues. They were found to be more

concerned with material matters than any other

issues in education.

Teachers

Kirst and Walker stated that most of the research

studies

observed that the role of the teacher was restricted to

instructional

decision making where they participated by presenting

instructional

materials to their classes. The teachers were also able to regulate

their own teaching schedule and instructional methods.

 39

Students

Students were found to have

no influence in any
fomal sense over
what they learned. Decision makers rarely
took students views into
consi derati on.

Has this situation changed

over the past decade?
According
to Wolf's experience
and the studies by Goodlad
and his associates,
very little seems to have 24
changed . Goodlad and his associates
found that district consultants,
parents, advisory councils,
examinations and teachers' unions
were perceived by teachers as
not
being very influential in
curriculum matters. Ninety-five per cent
of parents surveyed did not help
make decisions about the what, how
and why subjects are taught.
Whereas fifty per cent of these parents
indicated that they would like to.
Teachers felt that they had
instructional decision making powers
whereas the students were unable
to make any significant decisions about
their curriculum. Students
are usually asked to choose from
what has already been decided upon
for them.

The United States model of curriculum decision

making seems
to have control from both the top and the bottom of the power

hierarchy. There are controlling factors from outside the

school

locality but at the same time the schools can initiate

curriculum
change.

24
W. C. Wolf, Jr., "Community Involvement:
An Unattainable
Aspiration?" The National Elementary Principal 55
(1976): 30-32;
John I. Goodlad and Associates, "A Study of Schooling: The
Curriculum,"
Phi Delta Kappan (Dec. 1979): 224-248.
 40

The USSR

The curriculum decision

making role of various groups
is
defined in the laws of the
different soviet republics. 25
There is
a political power hierarchy that
runs parallel to the
educational
one. The people with the political
power have the privilege of making
curriculum decisions. The political
power operates at three main
levels. The lowest level is that of
local soviets which are

autonomous areas, districts, towns

and villages which have executive

committees that supervise the curriculum

development process. The
second level is that of regional departments also
with executive
committees that supervise the overall
curriculum process in the
different republics. At the top level are the departments
of public
education whose functions are similar
to the regional departments

except they have more political power

and have the overall responsi-

bility in educational matters. 26

The Local Community

The degree of involvement of the local community

members varies
with the amount of political authority they have.
Those with political

25
Prof. Wolfgang Mitter, Secondary School Graduation
Univer sity
:

JEntrance Qua lifications in Socialist Countries: A comparative Study .

Deutsches Institut fur International Pedagogische Foshung, Frankfurt

’
W. Germany: Pergamon Press, 1979. [Translated from German by K. F.
Smart]

26
G. Panachin, "Educational Administration in the USSR,"
F.
Soviet Education 21 (August-Sept. -Oct. 1979): 1-291 (A journal of
translations).
 41

power who serve on economic

development committees have
a lot to say
about the secondary school
curriculum. On the other hand those
with less power rarely
participate in the curriculum
decision making3
71
process.

The Educational Leaders

This group in the USSR is

comprised of politicians, economic
Planners, and educators. 28 In general, the educational
leaders deter
mine the secondary school
curriculum and the length of the course

of study. Specifically, the inspectorate of the

department of
education supervises the teachers and
organizes the implementation
procedure for the political party's
curriculum policy decisions. The
inspectors of schools also hold seminars
for teachers on teaching

methods and supply the schools with

supplemental curriculum materials

The Teachers

The teachers have two formal roles, the first one as teachers

and the second one they perform as members

of the local community.

Teachers instruct in the subjects of their

specialty and are also

responsible for character training of the students

within and outside
29
the schools. This second role means that the teachers' role

27
Nigel Grant, Soviet Education , 4th edution. (New York-
Penguin Books, 1979).

28
Herbert C. Rudman, Structure and Decision Making in Soviet
Education (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964).

29
Nigel Grant, Soviet Education.
 42

extends beyond the usual classroom

and incorporates interactions
with
the local community.

The Students

Students are free to choose their

subjects under the Soviet
i
30
law. But in practice there is both
an educational and job quota
system that has to be matched
against the students' decisions 31 . The
number of students from secondary
schools who can enter into various
fields of specialization at college
are regulated by the government.

The job openings after completing

secondary schools are also regulated
by the government.

These regulations would imply that one's

choice is not
automatically considered but rather the number
of openings in college

departments and in the working world. This procedure then curtails

the students curriculum decision making privilege.

Greater student participation was observed in the

field of
community development 32 . The students are requi red to help design

production programs in the local communities. "Education without

interruption of production" is part of the formal secondary

school

system of education.

31
Wolfgang Mitter, Secondary School Graduation: University
Entrance Qualifications in Socialist Countries: A Comparative Study .

32
Herbert C. Rudman, Structure and Decision makinq in Soviet
Educati on.
 43

The USSR curriculum decision

making process allows for greater
involvement on the part of all the groups
affected by the education
system. However, the administrative structure
is centralized and has

a number of checks at various levels

of decision making. These
checks do not allow much involvement
for students and the community

members with less political power. According to Mitter, most of the

curriculum decision takes place through

the same machinery as the

economic and political decision-making. 33

This means that there
is more involvement on the part of
the local party members since they
are initiators of political programs.

The Objectives of Development

Education in Africa ^ “

The concept of development education has dominated the

literature
of development professionals, planners, educators and
politicians in

post-independence Africa. 35 The literature examines the existing and

possible linkages and relationships between education and development.

More specifically it explains:

1. The role of formal education in promoting

social, political and economic change.

33
Wolfgang Mitter, Secondary School Graduation: University
Entrance Qualifications in Socialist Countries: A Comparative Study .

34
The word objective is used in its broader sense to include
goals, aims, and specific objectives of secondary education in Kenya,
Tanzania, and Zambia.
35
Half the articles in the June/October issue of Comparative
Education Review 21 (1977) examine the relationship between education
and development. The educational reform documents in Zambia, Tanzania,
and Kenya show concern for education for development: Martin Carnoy and
Henry M. Levin, The Limits of Educational Reform (New York: David
,

McKay, 1976).
 44

2. The way in which

developmental factors affect education
and the best type of
education for serving the
various
indicators of development.

Development scholars and

educational planners state
that
formal education and
development are related but
that it is difficult
to measure in economic terms
how much education
contributes to
development in Africa. This
concern is voiced due to the
fact that
large shares of the national
expenditure in African countries
are
spent on formal education.
It is therefore important
that the
educational planners and politicians in
Africa explore new linkages
between schooling and development.^

Development education, like many

concepts in education, has
varying definitions. Adams views it as:

h k d ed
ca ion Peculiarly designed
both to
eflect tL
reflprt the nn °I of^ the
poverty J
environment and to promote
community or societal change.
Development education
. . .

has also referred to studies

and policies of relationship
between education and the general
process of development^ 37

From this definition Adams goes on

to suggest four orientations

for development education in developing

countries. First, he states
that development education should be
a mass oriented system; second,

that education should respond to the

social demands of the majority

36
n _ D ? r Ad ? ms "Development Education", Comparative Education
.
'
>

Review 21 June/October 1977 ): 396-410 Per

G. S ti ns land, "The
;

Educational Core of Development", Adult Education

26 (1976): 67-85.
btensland stresses the integrated nature of
education and develc' lent
and the need for both to move upward
to higher levels of quality.
37
Don Adams, "Development Education", 296,
p.
 45

of the people; third,

that careful planning is
necessary, if the
developing countries are to
have balanced growth. The
fourth element
is that of the choice
of curriculum process,
content, selection and
reward each developing country
makes. It is this fourth element
that is the concern of the
next section on curriculum
and national
development.

Curriculum for National Development

There have been two major themes

which have directed curriculum
reform in Kenya, Tanzania and
Zambia in the past two decades:

1. The decolonization and

Africanization of curriculum.
2. The adaptation of the western
expressed curriculum to the
learning environment in Africa.

In the first few years of political

independence, the early
1960s, there was more emphasis on the
Africanization of the
curriculum content. Curriculum was viewed mainly as the written

program of study and the textbooks as subject 88

matter.

However, the second part of the 1960s saw the

broadening of
the view of curriculum on the African continent.
More concern was
shown for an integrated approach to curriculum. 89
President Nyerere

38
.
Joseph K-Zerbo, "Education and African Culture", Presence
Afn cana 10 ( 1970) 52-53 Zambia, Ministry of Education, Annual
:
;

Rep orts, 1967 and 1968; George E. Urch's book also reveals that
the
same conception prevailed in Kenya, The Africanizat ion
Curriculum
en y a (University of Michigan, Comparative Education
J< Dissertation
Series No. 12, 1968).
39
Julius K. Nyerere, Education for Self-reliance Kenneth
;

Kaunda, Opening Address: Report on First National Education

Conference.
~
 46

of Tanzania, when talking

about curriculum in education
for self-
reliance in Tanzania, outlined
three aspects that required
change:
e n '

rn CU
’ Um Uself the organization
of the schools andd the entry S '

age int0 P r ’™ry schools.

Butalthnnnh
But aUh°ug h these
rh
aspects are in some ways separate
they are also inter-locked.
We cannot integrate the
S nd S Ude S int0 the future
fhpn! t^ i ^
theoretical ^ society simply by
teaching, however well designed
U
- -
" an the s ° c iety fully
it
benefit from an education
system which, is thoroughly
integrated into local life
but does not teach people the
basic skills. 40

Kaunda, President of Zambia,

also made a similar call in his
opening address to the First National
Education conference held in
Lusaka in 1969. He called for a definition of
curriculum that
related the work of the school to the life
of the community. He
argued that it was only by analyzing the
dynamic relationships
between the work of the school and the life
of the people that one

could have a proper perspective of curriculum. Kaunda also

emphasized the fact that the local community and

other members of

society should be involved in the curriculum process.

Kenya

From 1963, when Kenya attained its political independence, to

1974, curriculum decision making was not a major issue in the

secondary school curriculum process. The government placed emphasis

on the general increase of secondary school places. In this same

40
Julius K. Neyerere, Education for Sel f-real iance .

41
Kenneth Kaunda, Opening Address: Report on First Education
Conference.
 47

period there was the

brooming of secondary schools
initiated by
the local communi
ty called Harare schools. Most of these schools
had financial problems and the government
had to provide financial
ass, stance. When the government decided
to take over the financing
of these schools, the
local communities lost
their curriculum
decision making privileges.

After 1974, private, initiative

led to the expansion of
secondary schools. However, the government's terms
of reference
excluded involvement of various
private groups in designing curriculum,
Curriculum decision making was
vested in the Ministry's planning
unit
and the Kenya Institute of
Education.

The educational leaders found

mainly in Kenya's Ministry of
Education were responsible for the
development and implementation of
the post 1974 secondary school
curriculum. The Kenya Institute of
Education was responsible for the design
and production of curriculum

materials. The Inspectorate was to evaluate

the management and the

curriculum of the schools and advise

teachers on their professional
work. The examinations section was responsible
for planning and

organizing secondary school examinations.

Teacher Advisory Centers
were set up where in-service programs were
to be conducted. On top
of this the Ministry of Education has a centralized guidance and

counseling service offered to secondary school

students.

42
Kenya. Kenya Development Plan 1974-78 (Government Printers,
Nairobi, 1974).
43 tk • ,

Ibid.
 48

Teachers have a limited role in curriculum

decision making.
Their role is restricted to
instructional decision making at the
classroom level. They are expected
by the government to decide
on
the methodology and the teaching
aids which can be used in the
i 44
classroom.

Students have very little role to

play in the curriculum

process. Their role in the curriculum process

is that of being

effective learners. 45

There are changes taking place in Kenya

in the curriculum

process. These changes are outlined in the current Kenya

Development
Plan, 1979-83. The Ministry of Education is to have a new

administrative structure and the decision making

machinery is to be
decentralized. This is a move to involve more teachers, community

members and students in the curriculum process.

Tanzani

The Tanzanian Government, and President Nyerere in particular,

would like to see the community, educational leaders, teachers and

students involved in curriculum decision making. 47 Nyerere is of the

44
Ibid.

45
Ibid.

46
Kenya. Kenya Devel opitk r ^ Plan 1979-83 (Nairobi: Government
Printer, 1979).

47
Julius K. Nyerere, Education for Self-reliance.
 49

view that secondary education should

not simply prepare the young
for
the university, but should also
prepare them for life in a rural

community. He argues that this is necessary

because most of Tanzania
is rural. He also expects the communities
to assist in the admini-

stration of the secondary schools.

However most of the concern expressed in

the Tanzanian 1 iterature
during Tanzania's first decade of
independence (1963 to 1974) was on

curriculum content of the primary schools. 48

This 'was due to

deliberate government policy of giving

basic education to the

majority of the people and thus delaying the development

of the

secondary schools. As a consequence of the emphasis on basic

education, there have not been major changes in the curriculum

process
for secondary schools as there have been for primary
schools.

Tanzania like Kenya is character!' zed by a centralized

curriculum decision making procedure. The Institute of Education,

which is a para-statal body controlled by the Ministry of Education,

designs, develops and writes curriculum materials for the secondary

schools. There is also an Inspectorate that supervises the

professional undertakings in the schools.

Sanya! , former chief educational planner in Tanzania has

observed that the local community is expected to have increased

4^
involvement in designing curriculum for secondary school s. However,

48
Tanzania, Second-Five-Year Plan for economic and social
Development, 1st July, 1969-30th June, 1974 (Dar-es-Salaam:
Government Printer, 1969).
49
Bikas, C. Sanyal and Michael J. Kinunda, Higher Education for
Self-reliance: The Tanzanian experience Paris: International
.

Institute for Educational Planning--UNESCO, 1977.

 50

the problem seems to be

that most adults are
not familiar with what
goes on in secondary schools.
Although there has been an
increase
in local initiative as regards the
construction of secondary schools,
the curriculum is still
determined by the government.

The educational leaders or managers of the

secondary schools
have more curriculum decision
making privileges since they are

involved in policy formulation. 50

The curriculum process is tied
to
the political process, therefore, the educational
leaders with more
political authority have more say
in curriculum matters.

The teachers as leaders in the

communities have a lot of
direct influence on the curriculum
process because they are allowed
to assist in curriculum policy
formulation as community leaders

and they also assist in designing

community projects as educators. 51
The students observed role was in
the field of community development

where they assisted in designing community 52

projects. However
they have little influence on the curriculum
process.

The Objectives of Education in Zambia

1969 to 1983

At the First National Education Conference held in

Lusaka in

1969, President Kaunda of Zambia called for a curriculum that related

the work of the school to the life of the local community. Kaunda

also emphasized _jlf-reliance and self-employment as a major goal of

 51

primary and secondary education

in Zambia. The call for self-reliance
as a goal came in 1969 after realizing
the problem of both primary
and junior secondary
school leavers.

The Second National

Development Plan prepared in
1971, proposed
an educational system at
both the primary and secondary
levels that
would prepare learners for
self-employment. 53 The 1974 report
on
Aims and Objectives for
education in Zambia reiterated
the same aims
and objectives outlined in
the 1969 report and the Second
National
Development Plan. 54 The draft statement on
educational reform
repeated the call in more explicit
terms:

Education for development must be

a revolutionary
system of education which is
inseparable from the
Humanist revolution of Society.
.The aim wi 1 1 be
. .
to develop the potential of
each Citizen to the full
for the creation of a Humanist
Socialist Soci ety
and for selfless service to
humanity. ^

The rationale behind these objectives

is that the system and

the programs to be carried out

will serve the nation's development

and that all people in the nation will have access to an

educational
program that will interest them.

M ist of P,ann1n 9. The Second National Development

pi
Plan 1972-76 (Lusaka: T 7
Government Printers, 1971).

54
Zambia, Ministry of Education-Curriculum Council,
nk . . Aims and
£bjecti yes fo r Education in Zambia A report submitted to the
.

Curriculum Council by the Sub-committee on educational

objectives
(Lusaka: Government Printer, 9 May 1974, CC/74/2).

55
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Education for Development
,

PrJLfT Statem ent on Educational Reform (Lusaka: Government Printer

1976), p. l.
 52

The major theme in education

for development in Zambia is
the
combining of work and study.
Productive work is supposed to be
part
of the curriculum at all levels of education. This, it is hoped,
will help to reorientate attitudes
of the learners towards the

dignity of physical labor to make learning more

meaningful by combining
theory and practice through
productive work and to prepare learners
for the world of work. Education for development is to help
meet the
economic objectives of the country
by tapping the energies of the

young learners for economic production

which would help reduce public

costs on education. Such an approach is very important for

a develop-
ing country like Zambia which does
not have enough resources to cater

to every secondary school student.

The above objectives were incorporated into

the current

official educational reform document 56 and the

Third National Develop-
ment Plan which began in January 1980. 57
The learner is to:

Obtain an education based on his interest, abilities

and
needs to attai n intellectual excellence and acquire
practical skills or experience; contribute to the economic
and soci al devel opment of Zambia; learn how to participate
in the national and community problems and to
foster
national unity; develop emotionally, morally, spiritually,
socially and politically so as to be increasingly able to
cope with life's problems; develop cultural and aesthetic
appreciation, develop the spirit of self-reliance and
patriotism and the sense of international sol idari ty.

56
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Educational Reform: Proposals
- id Recommendations (Lusaka: Government Printers, 1977).

57
Zambia, The Third National Development Plan 1979-83
~
(Lusaka: Government Printer, 1979).

58
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Educational Reform: Proposals
and Recommendations , p. 5.
 53

Cumculum Developmen t for Zambian Spcondarv School =

The Prescribed Roles

One of the government

statements is that the local
communities
in Zambia have to
demonstrate resourcefulness
before more decision
making privileges are awarded 59
them. Therefore, the local communities
are urged to participate by
becoming members of the local
education
councils. These councils deal mainly with
managerial and disciplinary
problems in secondary schools
rather than curriculum issues.
The
local community has also been
requested by the government to promote
and carry out building schemes.
The local community could also
give
financial assistance to an ailing
secondary school that needs books
and other educational materials.

There is no specific statement that

outlines the role the local
community is to play in curriculum decision making
in the secondary

schools. The government has indicated that

this might be one of those

decision making privileges that might be awarded

later after the
local communities have demonstrated resourceful ness.

For the purpose of this section, the educational

leaders can

be divided into three groups in Zambia: educators, educational

admi ni s trators , and politicians. The educators include specialists

in such fields as curriculum, reading, psychology,

testing, examina-

59
Ibid., p. 8, paragraph 14.
 54

tions, research and

instructional technology. The educational
administrators are the government
employees who manage the
educational
system in Zambia. Some of them might be
educational specialists,
but some might be specialists
in other fields. Then there are
politicians who are appointed
to work in the Ministry
of Education.
The role of the educational
specialists can be summarized as
designing
and reviewing secondary
school curriculum, preparing
materials for
secondary schools, evaluating
curriculum and programs for secondary
educati on.

The educational administrators,

on the other hand, are expected

to coordinate And administer

the professional development in the
ministry of Education; plan the
Educational system; prescribe

specifications for secondary education and

collaborate with
specialists in other fields.

Jhe Curriculum Development Center

The Curriculum Development Center (CDC) is

the government

department within the Ministry of Education that

is charged with the

responsibility for Curriculum development. Its prescribed role is to

construct a course of study for secondary school students especially

now that Zambia has broken away from the

Cambridge controlled

examination and Bri ti sh-control led syllabus. ^

The government has suggested that the CDC work be guided by

the committee system in curriculum decision making

matters. These

61 ,
Zambia.
,. ...
Ministry of Education, Educational Reform: Proposals
"
and Recommendations.
 55

committees should consult with

other educators and take into
consideration the needs of the
teachers and the expectations
of
the local community.
Membership to these committees
is by
appoi ntment.

The educational leaders have more privileges

in curriculum
decision making than the other
three groups. The educational leaders
can design, develop, implement
and evaluate the secondary
school
system. And each of these stages implies
more curriculum decision
making privileges.

The Teachers

In Zambia there are certain

prescribed roles for the teachers.
The government assumes that the
teacher possesses certain knowledge,

skills and attitudes. According to the government statement on

aims
and objectives for teachers' training, the teacher should be able to:

Relate to parents and members of the community,

appreciate
the role of the school as an instrument
of change and
development of the community; identify himself with
the
needs and interests of the community he is called
up to
serve,! .design effective instruction in terms of
. .

formulating lesson objectives, organizing groups, making

and choosing appropriate teaching materials;
know . . .

and understand the objectives of primary education

and
aim at achieving them; assess pupils' needs, cater
. . .

for individual differences and evaluate their progress;

• • integrate subject areas.
• .62 . .

62
Zambia, Curriculum Council, Statement on Aims and Objectives
_forPrimary Teacher Training Report presented by the Sub-committee
.

on primary teacher training, CC/75/3, (22nd April 1975), p. 8.

These same objectives have been extended to include secondary teacher
traini ng.
 56

If the teacher is expected

to play this prescribed role,
then
she/he must be involved in the
task of designing curriculum.
Teacher
involvement can help the teacher keep
pace with societal change
which is more likely to bring
about desirable changes in students.

The Students

The Zambian government stresses

students' contribution to
educational development by carrying out
the following tasks:

1. Sharing knowledge acquired from the

classroom with

other members of the community who did not

have the

chance to reach secondary school level.

2. Initiating and designing community programs.

3. Carrying out research in the local community.

The students are expected to work on such programs

as the

literacy campaign, population census, nutrition work and

the offering

of general services to the local community.

The above outline suggests greater involvement in what goes

on in the school and the local community by the student. However,

there is one aspect of curriculum development, curriculum decision

making that is missing from the document. There is no clear statement

on whether the secondary school students should be able to decide on

what they learn in the schools. The only available statement

concerns representati ve councils through which students can channel

63
Zambia, Ministry of Education, Educational Reform: Proposals
and Recommendations.
 57

their problems. The documents do not

state the procedure to be
followed in forming students'
groups that will be involved
in the
curriculum process.

Administration and CurricuTumin

Zambia

With the Education Act of

1966, the administration of the
primary and secondary schools
was centralized. 64 The Act provided
for one comprehensive system
of educational administration
which
applied to both the primary and
secondary schools. All the
responsibilities of educational devel
opment were invested in the
Minister of Education. The Minister determines how many
students can
be allowed in any school; the number of days in a year that the
students should be in school; the
subjects to be offered and for

each subject the actual syllabus

that is to be followed. She/he is
responsible for enforcing these regulations.

However, since 1974, there has been a general call in Zambia

to integrate the work of the schools

and the life of the local

community. This implies that there is need to involve

various groups
of people in the curriculum process, especially
if the concept of

development education is to be effected. Involving the various

groups could help in adapting the curriculum to the

local conditions

and it is also likely to lead to an endogenous

based educational

system. The peoples involvement also means more personal growth and

plurality in development.

64
Zambia, Education Act, 1966 (Lusaka: Government Printer,
1966; the 1979 Supplement to the Act did not change the centralization
aspect of the administration and curriculum procedure.
 58

The Problems of Curriculu m Development

in 7 am M,

The administrative structure

of education has a number of
implications on who can play an active
role in the curriculum
process and who cannot. The centralized nature of
curriculum
development leads to a wide gap between the educational
leaders on
one hand and the local community,
teachers and students on the other.
The educational leaders are associated with power and
the other
groups have none.

The other observed problem is with the

expressed curriculum.
The parents can not be involved effectively
because the content of
the secondary schools is alien to them and
this leaves them as

passive observers of development whose children are taken

away from
their value system and are partially immersed in
an alien system.

The third observation made by this author was that

the teachers

in the urban areas, Lusaka in particular, were more

actively involved

in the curriculum process than the majority of the teachers in the

other regions of the country.

Summary i

The literature reviewed in this chapter demonstrates the

problem of balance in curriculum decision making. There is the

centralized authority and administration on one hand and desire for

local initiative on the other. The main issue seems to be that of

reconciling the two and specifying what curriculum decision making

activities are suited for what group.

 59

mbia is not only faced by

the problem of reconciling
the
two but also a foreign
inspired expressed curriculum.
The next
question then is how can the
educational leaders, the
community
members, the teachers and the
students participate effectively
in
the curriculum process?
 CHAPTER III
RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES

The Research Design

I introduction

Two research designs in

particular had a major influence on
this design. These were the research designs
by Goodlad and
Associates of "The Study of Schooling"
and Liechty's study of

Citizen Participation in Education." 1

They proposed designs in
education that were exploratory in
nature and not only confi rmatory.
They demonstrated the significance
of concept and descriptive

studies in assisting and improving the

relationships among variables
in the curriculum process. It is on an exploration of these

conceptual-descriptive studies that confirmatory kinds

of studies

can be based. The development of the descriptive questionnaire

design discussed in this chapter was also guided

by the review of

curriculum design activities and roles of community,

educational

leaders, teachers and students outlined in chapter two.

This chapter consists of four parts. The first part describes

the development of the instrument, its objectives, design

and

^ohn I. Goodlad and Associates, "An overview of 'Study of

Schooling'." Phi Delta Kappan (Nov. 1979): 174-178; Thorn A.
Liechty, "Pattens of Citizen Participation in Education," A paper
presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, San Francisco, April, 1979.

60
 61

items. The second part delineates the sampling

procedures and
sample used in the study. The third section deals with the admini-

stration of the instrument to the local

community, the educational

leaders, the teachers and the students. The final section discusses

the plan for analyzing and reporting data.

The Development of the Instrument

A list of curriculum design activities included

in the

questionnaire was drawn from three major data sources. These sources
were: the writings of curriculum theorists and educational
planners

reviewed in chapter two; secondly, the definitions and proposals

made by a group of doctoral students in the curriculum program at

the University of Massachusetts with whom the researcher met

regularly; thirdly, consultation with Dr. Ralph W. Tyler and Dr.

Robert L. Sinclair.

After the compilation of the curriculum design activities,

there was a need to define these activities and to include meaningful

ones in each set. Through consultation, the researcher had to decide

which activity had more meaning for the community, educational

leaders, teachers and students. This procedure meant the development

of criteria, in order that the variables used in each set of

questi nnai res were different, but at the same time ensure that

the major research objectives were the same for all the four sets

of questi onnai res.

 62

The questionnaires contained

varying questions.

1. A factual - biographic section which asked

for facts
about age, sex, education,
and other personal background

i nformation.

2. Opinion-Value questions which inquired

into the attitude
of the respondents toward
involvement in curriculum
design activities.

3. Implied knowledge questions which

assumed that the
respondent knew and understood the
listed curriculum
design activities.

The responses to the questions could

be split into short

response, cl osed-standardized and

open-ended responses. The short
open response asked mostly for one
word answers or short phrases.

The closed standardized type asked the

respondents to choose from
a given choice. The open-ended type of response was enlisted
for
qualitative statements. This was where the respondent was given the

chance to say as much as he/she wanted.

The Period of the Development and Administration

of the Questionnaires

The research design and the questionnaires were developed

between December 1980 and March 1981. The field study was carried

out between '.arch and August 1981. It involved actual visitations

to the Zambian school communities and educational departments under

 63

study. This was done to insure a higher number of returns on the

quest! nnai re responses and written

documents with actual observations.

Permission was sought and granted by

the Permanent Secretary
of the Ministry of Education to
carry out the study in the schools,

government offices and to use government

reports.

Questionnaire Objectives

The questionnaires were designed to

answer three main
questi ons:

1. Whether the respondents had some desire to

participate
in curriculum design activities for secondary
schools.

2. Who the respondents thought would be the best

group

of people to perform the listed curriculum design

activi ties.

3. What suggestions the respondents had regarding the

improvement of the current designing activities and

procedures.

These three questions agreed with the specific research

objectives of the study, that is: To determine what the local

community, educational leaders, teachers and students thought ought

to be their role and who they thought would play this role best

then and in the following decade.

Design and I terns of the Questionnaire

Each of the four sets of questionnaires had three 'sections

to it. There was a section on background information which helped

 64

to identify the respondents.

The background information
was important
in that it was later matched against each
of a group of variables in
the other two sections that
dealt with current and future
curriculum
design activities. This helped in delineating
which group of people
or people with certain
characteristics responded to certain
questions.
The other section on all the
sets of questionnaires had a
list of curriculum designing
activities. The list was arrived at
by first screening the reviewed
literature in chapter two to find
out what the different curriculum
theorists and practitioners define
as curriculum design activities.
A list of all possible curriculum
design activities was compiled and
some thirty activities were drawn.

These were condensed to twenty for

each questionnaire. Then later,
ten were sampled for inclusion in the
questionnaire.

The number ten was decided upon due to a number of

administrative factors discussed in the section on the

development
of instrument in this chapter.

The open-ended qualitative section ion each set of question-

naires consisted of general questions on participation

in curriculum

development raised by scholars and Zambian educational planners.

In

this section the respondents were given a chance to express them-

selves on curriculum issues and also to make suggestions on the

improvement of the questionnaire items.

 65

field-testing in Lusaka

One Lusaka secondary

school community and
the educational
services center were used
for field testing the
four sets of
questionnaires for the community,
educational leaders, teachers
and
students. The field testing was
done to ensure that the
instrument
collected the data it was
supposed to and also to assist
in the
detection of any misunderstandings
in the language and
subject of
the questionnaire.

After field testing, a number of questions had to be

revised
problems of comprehension of the
language in the questionnaire
were
noted. Major revisions of the students'
and the communities'

questionnaires had to be made. The questions had to be simplified

and some examples of what was

meant by thelisted curriculum design
activity had to be written for most
questions. Very few modifica-
tions were made on the teachers'
and educational leaders' question-

naires. They seemed to be more familiar with

curriculum design
language.

The Community Questionnaire ^

After field-testing and the revision of the

items, the

questionnaire had three sections. The first section required the

respondents to give biographical facts; sex, age,

academic

qualifications, occupation, association with the local

secondary

2
See Appendix for all questionnaires.
 66

school, and the number

of dependants in the
local and out of town
secondary school

The second section

requested the respondents
to indicate
Whether they desired to be
involved in curriculum
decision making.
The respondents were
given a list of ten
curriculum design activities
and adjacent to each
were columns in which they
indicated their
desires. If they responded favorably,
they went on to the next
set
of columns where they indicated
how often they would participate
in the
activity. They were given six choices,
once a week; once in two
weeks; once a month; once a school term; once in six months;
or once
a year. In the last set of columns,
the respondents indicated
which group of people among the
teachers, students, educational
leaders and local community members
would perform the activity best.

The third section of the

questionnaire asked the respondents
to suggest any skills or knowledge
to be taught to the students

that the secondary schools could

incorporate in their curriculum and
also some skills to be used in developing
curriculum. The respond-
ents had also to indicate who would
perform their suggested activity

best and give a rationale for their

choice. At the end of the

questionnaire, there was space for comments on the

subject under
study and the questionnaire items.

The community questionnaire was translated into

two Zambian

languages, Silozi and Chinyanja. The translations were done by

curriculum special sts at the Curriculum Development Center

in
 67

Lusaka. The initial plan was to have translations made

into Silozi,
Chi nyanja , Chibemba and Chitonga since these
are the most commonly
used languages in Zambia. The Chibemba and Chitonga translators

could not complete the assignment in

time and the researcher had to

proceed with only two translations into

Silozi and Chinyanja. These
translations were very helpful because most
of the community members

were literate mostly in the Zambian languages

and not in English.

In the regions where the participants could

not understand

the two languages used, the original English questionnaire was used

which in a way limited the sample to those literate tn English.

In some cases students in the school community helped

translate

while the researcher filled in the questionnaire. But the trans-

lations were not very accurate since the students themselves had

shown some difficulty in understanding the language of the subject

under study.

Educational leaders questionnaire

The first section of the questionnaire was biographical and

asked for age, sex, position in the government establishment,

academic and professional qualifications.

The second section was composed of open ended questions on

what the educational leaders perceived as the role of the teachers,

3
Mr. Namabanda Mundia translated into Silozi. He is a
language specialist who writes Silozi books for Zambian schools.
The Chinyanja translations were made by Mr. C. D. Mkangaza and Mr.
R. Mwale, curriculum evaluator and language specialist respecti vely.
 68

students and local community

members in designing curriculum
for
secondary schools. Questions
were also raised that
related to the
Zambian educational reform
documents and the concept of
participation
in the curriculum
development process. The
respondents were asked
to indicate the degree
to which the objectives
of the educational
reforms were being accomplished;
strategies used; their effectiveness
and how they could be
improved upon.

The format of the third

section was similar to the format
of the community questionnaire's
second section. This third section
had a list of fifteen curriculum
design activities and three kinds
of responses were enlisted for
each activity. The educational
leaders
indicated whether they desired to
carry out the outlined curriculum
design activity or not and, if
they did, how much time they could

spend on the activity. The third set of columns comprised

of four
columns in which the respondents had
to state their best choice for

the execution of the activity.

Teacher Questionnaire

The teacher questionnaire was comprised of

three sections.
The first section had twelve questions
which centered on the teachers'

biographical information and schools' background

information such as

enrollment, class size, subjects offered, grade and location

of the
school, whether urban or rural.

The format of the second section of this questionnaire

was the
same as that of the community members. It had ten curriculum design
 69

activities to which the teachers

had to respond to.

The third section sought

responses on future curriculum
design activities that might
be added to the current
ones. The
teachers were also asked to
suggest measures that could be
taken to
ensure that the suggested
activities were carried out.

Student Questionnaire

The first and second sections

of this questionnaire were
similar to the corresponding
sections of the teacher and community

questionnai res.

The third section had open ended

questions that asked the
students whether they had acquired
the most important skills and

knowledge that related to their lives

in their local community. If
they responded negatively, they were
asked to suggest some curriculum

design activities that could be

incorporated to improve curriculum.

The students were also requested to

suggest the best candidate for

the suggested activity and rationale for

their choice.

The Sample

The Sampling Procedure

Ten secondary schools were included in the study. A list of

all the Zambian secondary schools was secured from the planning

section of the Ministry of Education headquarters in Lusaka. The

list of schools was rearranged according to their respective school

regions. There are nine school regions in the whole country and for
 70

each, one secondary schoo!

was randomly seated. Using this same
procedure nine schools were
selected making a total of eighteen font,
five classes. As the objective was
to have twenty of the
two hundred
form five classes in
Zambia, a tenth school was randomly
picked from
all the remaining secondary
schools in the country.

The study of ten secondary

schools seemed more advantageous
than sampling form five
classes all over the country.
With ten
school communities one had
a better chance of observing the
ccmplete
curriculum process in the system.
Less chaos is created when all
of the students in one class
are included rather than
selecting a few
from each class. It was also important in
this kind of a study to
have students, teachers and
community members from one locality
to
assist in data analysis and the
matching of variables in the
development of the curriculum deci
sion making model.
10.
The selected schools were:

1. Kabul onga Boys Secondary School,

Lusaka Region
Mumbwa Secondary School, Kabwe Region
3. Serenje Secondary School, Kabwe Region
4. St. Edmunds Secondary School,
Southern Region
b. Holy Cross Secondary School, Western
Region
6. Solwezi Secondary School, North-Western Region
' Helen Kaunda Secondary School, Copperbelt
Region
8. Mansa Secondary School, Luapula Region
9. Kasama Girls Secondary School, Northern Region
Nyimba Secondary School, Eastern Region

Each secondary school was taken as the center

of the study.

Form five students were selected from each

of the above schocl". All

the students in two form five classes were

requested to respond to

the questionnaire. All the teachers who taught a form five class

made up the teacher group of respondents. Between seven and ten

 71

community members were selected

from around the school.
These
included non-teaching members
of the school community.

Form five students were

selected since they had gone through
the secondary system, had
more experience with the
curriculum process
and were generally the eldest
in the secondary schools.
It also
seemed advisable to have a group of teachers that interacted

with the form five students and

the local community.

Therefore, there was:

1* Stra ti fied sampling of secondary

schools by school regions
This was done to ensure that at
least a school from each of Zambia's
nine regions was represented.
These nine school regions coincided

with the country's nine geographic and

administrative provinces.

2. Simple random selection of one school from

each region

except for one that was randomly selected from

the remaining schools.

3. Selecting from each of the ten schools, two form

five
classes at random or where there were only two classes,
both classes

were included in the study.

4. Asking all the students in the selected classes to respond

to the questionnaire. They all did except for those who were absent

during the administration period.

5. Asking all the teachers who taught a form five class to

respond to the questionnaire. The number of teacher respondents

varied in each school from seven to ten.

 72

Jhe local community members were located

, and selected with the
assistance of the head of the school
or the deputy. The head of the
secondary school was asked to
assist in locating the local community
members becauseshe/hewas familiar
with the school area. She/he was

seen as the most appropriate person

for this venture because she/he

held a leadership position in the Government

and therefore more likely

to assist and introduce less bias

in the sampling procedure. One
other precaution taken to reduce
possible bias was that the head did

not have prior knowledge of the actual

content of the community
questi onnai re.

There was a systematic sampling of houses around the school.

Depending on the size of the local community, either

every second or
third house was selected. Between seven and ten local residents were
included in the study. If the residents of the selected house were

not there then the next house in the row was selected.
In each house

only one member of the family responded to the questionnaire.

This

was usually the head of the household, and if absent then the
most

senior member available.

In the case of educational leaders , twenty were selected from

the ministry of education's departments. The researcher located the

educational leaders since she was familiar with the departments and

the procedures of enlisting cooperation. Two members were selected

from each of the ten departments. This included the heads of

departments, which took care of the ten educational leaders. The

 73

other ten were randomly

selected from the other
members of the
department.

The following departments

were included in the study:

Administration
2. Inspectorate
3. Development and Planninq
A.
10. Staffing
5. Examinations
6. Center for Continuing Education
7. Curriculum Development Center
8. Zambia Library Services
9. Psychological Services
Educational Broadcasting Services

Another smaller group of five

educational policy makers and
politicians was interviewed. They were asked questions that
appear
on the second section of the
educational I
leaders questionnaire to
substantiate the other educational leaders
responses. A more

comprehensive view of the educational reforms

was collected in this
manner. Similar questions were asked to the heads
of the secondary

schools visited to clarify the issues raised

in the educational

reform documents.

These different groups were surveyed and observed

due to the

governments proposed involvement of teachers, students,

educational
leaders and community members in curriculum deci sion
making. All

these people are in some way affected by the curriculum

process.

Therefore it was important to ask them about their views on the

listed curriculum design activities aV their thoughts about the

future curriculum process.

 74

ZAMBIA
 75

Ihe Schools in the Sample

The schools in the sample were

all secondary schools with

complete form one through form

five classes. Seven of them were
boarding schools.

1. Ka bul onga Boys is a

government urban day school situated
on the Lusaka plateau, about
6 kilometers from the
capital city’s
town center. It is a grade one school with an
enrollment of 1,200
males. The head of the school is a male. The teachers are also
mostly male and the local community
is composed of people who work
in the capital city.

.Mumbwa secondary school is a government boarding school

in the central region of the country. It is surrounded by undulating

hills, maize and sunflower farms. It is a grade one school headed

by a male with an enrollment of 711 males and 492
females. It is in

a semi urban setting with a total population of about 30,000 people.

3 - Serenje S econdary is a government boarding boys' school

with a student population of 1,270 males. It is a grade one school

in a rural farming setting. Most of the community around the school

are subsistence fanners, or part time workers in the railway

industries.

4. Saint Edmunds is a government aided secondary school. It

is a small grade 3 boys boarding school with 500 male students in

Mazabuka area in the southern part of Zambia. Mazabuka is situated

on a plateau and commercial maize farming is carried out in the area.

 76

St. Edmunds is headed by a Catholic priest. The school was

established by Catholic missionaries
but the government has with
time gained more decision
making powers and funds most
of the school's
projects.

H oly Cross girls seco nda ry school

with an enrollment of
530 students is an aided
grade 3 boarding school in a
rural setting
of western Zambia. It is located at the edge of
a plateau
forest, overlooking the Zambezi
river valley, from which Zambia
gets its name. It is the only girls secondary
school in the western
region of Zambia. Although established by the Catholics,
the
government has been assuming the
predominant role in both management
and curriculum issues. Both the head and deputy are males
appointed
by the Ministry of Education.

1 wezi secondary is an all male government boarding

school. It is a igrade 2 school with 850 males

headed by a male.
All teachers except two are males. The school is about three

kilometers from Solwezi town which is the administrative

head-
quarters of the North-Western Province.

7 - Helen Kaunda girls secondary is a government day school

with 1 ,025 girls. It is located in the city of Ki twe which is the

heart of the copperbelt region. The copperbelt region is the most

populous region in Zambia with more than a million out of the total

five million Zambians. The school is headed by a male. Most of the

local people in the region work in the copper mines or the copper

related industries.
 77

8. Mansa is a grade 2 government co-educational

day school
wUh 500 boys and 300 girls.
1 1 i s si tuated in the Luapula
val 1 ey
where mixed facing,
fishing and a battery factory are the
main
sources of income for
the localities.

9 -
secondar y is a grade one government
boarding
school in the Northern region
with 1,000 girls. It is administered
by a female and most
of the teachers are
female. The area around
the school is characterized by
mixed subsistence farming
and road-
related industries.

10. Milba^econdary is found in the Eastern region

of
Zambia. It is a co-educational
government boarding school with
420
males and 205 females. The school is located
across from the
Luangwa valley one of the most
populous wild game reserves in
Africa.

Groups in the Study

The largest group was that

of students. Figure 1 demonstrates
that the students comprised
74% of the total people in the study.
The second largest group
comprised the teachers who made
12% of the
total people in the study. The third largest group was
that of the
community people who made 11.4* of
the total. The smallest group
was that of educational leaders with 2.6%.

Figure 2 represents the proportions of the participants

by
school c immunity. This graph excludes the educational leaders who
were mainly from the Ministry of Education
headquarters or the
educational services center. The largest group was from Serenje
 78

Figure 1

Proportions of the groups

in the Study

frequency

Percentile

CL)
T3 c/1 C/1
<T3 s_ -M
c CD CD c
3 -C CD
cj
CO
o3
O CD 4->
C_3
00

Groups in the Study

 79

Figure 2

c t,
L by
school Community

frequency

Percentile

cn
c
o
-Q
03

School Community
 80
schoo, communi
ty which is iocated in the
central region. The second
was Kabul onga school from
the Lusaka region,
followed by Mum bwa
Solwezi, Mansa, Nyimba,
Kasama, Holy Cross, Helen
Kaunda and St.
Edmunds in that order.
The percentile range
was 5.2 with 12.2% as the
highest and 7% of St. Edmunds
the lowest.

Ad ministration of the
Questionnair es

Self- Admini stered Questionnaires

The teachers, educational

leaders and local community members
had a self-admini stered
questionnaire. They were presented with
the questionnaire and the
purpose of the study was both verbally

explained and written instructions

given where necessary. After that
they were left alone to complete
the questionnaire which was
collected
later on during the same day or the
following morning. A time limit
was given to ensure that the
questionnaires were not lost by the

respondents.

Group-admini stered questionnai res

The students were assembled in their

respective classrooms
where the purpose of the inquiry was explained
and the questionnaires

administered to the whole group at once. The students completed the

questionnairesand the researcher collected them when they had

finished. Completeness of the responses to the questions was checked

before collecting the questionnaires.

 81

Anonymity was kept throughout

the study. The community,
educational leaders, teachers
and students were given
identification
numbers and were asked not
to write their names
on the questionnaires.
Each school had a code
number and a type number
for each of the
teachers, students, community
members and educational leaders.
The
different educational departments
were also given an
identification
number.

Ratio nale for the administration

procedure
The teachers, educational
leaders and community members
had
a self-administered questionnaire because
they did not have one
period of time in which all could
sit in one group and respond
to the
questionnaire. They each had different
schedules and with the local
community members, they had to leave their homes for various jobs

during the day. It was seen fit not to interrupt

their schedules
because the enlistment of cooperation
for any future studies would

be difficult. However, it should be noted that the

researcher
delivered and collected the questionnaires
to ensure maximum returns.

The students had a group administered

questionnaire because
it was easier to explain the instructions
and to answer any questions

pertaining to the study in one room. This procedure also ensured

maximum returns, since all were in one room and monitored by both

their teachers and the researcher. Anonymity was kept throughout

the study to ensure completeness of the responses and to reduce

obtrusiveness.
 82

PJan-for Analyzing and Reportino

th»

After the administration of

the questionnaires,
a sample of
the responses was examined
to help in the development
of a coding
scheme. Sections A and B of the
community, teachers and student
questionnaires and sections A and
C of the educational
leaders were
coded. The coding procedure was
followed by the marking and scoring
of all the questionnaires. Ordinal values were given to
responses
which were finally entered on
computer recording forms.
The data on the computer
recording forms was transfered cn
to computer cards and then on to a disc. The Statistical Package
for Social Sciences program (SPSS) was used for
analyzing the data
on the computer because this
data lent itself to quantitative

analysi s.

An examination of the distribution

characteristics of each
variable in sections A and B of the student, teacher and community

questionnaires and sections A and C of the educational leaders was

carried out on a frequency subprogram of the computer. The frequency
tables that were produced reported responses
on each listed variable

for each type of questionnaire and each

type of school community.

The relationship among variables were done

through cross-

tabulation analysis which produced tables that demonstrated

the

relationship among biographic variables in Sections A and

curriculum
design variables in Sections B or C. The Chi Square statistic was

utilized to find out the degree of association among the matched

 83

variables on the different

types of questionnaires
by sex.
Section C of the community,
teachers and students'
question-
naires and section B of the -
eduraf-innai leaders
educational were summarized in
columns and the pattern of
responses that were given was
noted.
Descriptive summaries were made
for each of the questions
because
these data lent themselves
to qualitative analysis.

The research findings are

presented and analyzed in several
ways

1. Charts illustrating:

a. The community people, the

educational leaders,

the teachers and the students'

interest to

participate according to curriculum design

activities.
b. The comparison of the community, the
educational

leaders, teachers and students responses

on each activity.

c. The perceptions of all the groups in the study on

who they thought could do the activity

best.

d. The relationship between the most interested

group
and their perceptions of who should do the
activity;

and also compare the most interested group and

the

highly perceived groups on the curriculum design

activities.

2. Grids that give:

a. A summary of all the groups' interests to participate

in the curriculum design activities.

 84

b. A summary of all
the groups perceptions
on who
should do the activities.

3. Each chart and grid

is followed by a
descriptive sugary
that interprets and
analyzes the response
patterns.

^S UMMARY QF THF EARCH DESIGN AN D

_R ES
PROCEDURES
Erocennrps -
9 School Regions

20
r*2C fora fi» e classes
10 secondary schools 563 stU(Jents
f
Un form five teachers
surveyed and observed
I

10 communities ___
Sources
87 local community
members surveyed and
observed
ta 10 educational
Da
departments * 20 educati °nal leaders surveyed and
observed

5 educatio"*l leaders/politicians surveyed

Other leaders and observed

U" ,0 headS ° f
S "' 00,S
«* -*--0
lnfo™:^
 CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION

OF FINDINGS

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter

is to present, interpret
and
analyze the research findings
that pertain to the specific
research
objectives that guided the study.
The specific research
objectives
were:

1- To determine what role the

teachers, students,

educational leaders and community people

wanted
to play in curriculum designing.

2. To determine what the four

groups thought should

be the role of the teachers,

students, educational

leaders and community people in

curriculum designing.
The chapter is divided into three
sections. The first part
outlines the response patterns of the
various groups' interests to
participate in the curriulum design
activities. The second section
discusses the various groups' perceptions of who they thought should

do the curriculum design activities.

The third section compares the

groups with the highest interest in participating

with that of the
highly perceived groups.'*'

*See Appendix for summary tables of responses.

85
 86

According

Participate

3
mm®
to
Activity

CO
Figure
^
<D
1
l
Interest to

Peoples

vO
Comnunity

CO

<U
TD
CO VO O C
—
——— —— — —
H
r'
oj|
SZ
.w
o>

1 1 1 1
1 1
1
1 1 jg 1
o o O o o o
cr> CO '0
t
in co c\j

XDU0nb0jj. 0[L^.u0Dj0(j
 87

No. r 1 .

Curriculu
,

m Design Activity
1- Serve on the Curriculum
Council.
2. Serve on the Curriculum
Committee.
3- Design community projects
and work with the
community people.
4. write or choose curriculum
materials for secondary
schools.
5. Control school finances and
curriculum changes in the
schools.
6. Discuss curriculum issues with
politicians.
7
'

Japp^ng”'^ 0 " ^ other groups of curriculum

8. Carry out needs assessment

and evaluate school
curriculum.
 88

Groups interes t to parti cip atp

The community people, the

educational leaders, the teachers
and students included in
the study indicated interest
in participating
in the given curriculum
design activities.

The community people

Figure 3 represents the interest of the

community people from
the ten different school
communities to participate in the
different
curriculum design activities. The chart demonstrates that there
is
a general interest to do most of the listed
curriculum design
activi ties.

Most community people would like to

serve on the curriculum
council. The curriculum council decides on
the curriculum policy and

aims of education. This is the body that is associated

with the
power to control the curriculum system.
The other activity of most

interest to the community people is designing

community projects and
working with other community people. The community sees need to

communicate among themselves about their own

projects. The community

people would also like to discuss curriculum

issues with the

politicians. They think they can influence the politicians in

making curriculum decisions. The community people are confident they

could initiate communication and inform the teachers,

students and

educational leaders of curriculum changes.

The activity in which the community people showed the least

interest was serving on the curriculum committee where the secondary

 89

-S IVn,'

according

Participate

4
to
o H77
i»Wi^
Activity

Interest

Figure

to
O
CO

Leaders

.a

Educational

co -o
^O C
0)
>- ZD

O o
CO V£) LO m csj

/fouanbau^ a i LiuaDja^
 90
school syllabus and subiect
ject content
confpnt ic
is decidedj upon.
They also showed
little interest in writing
and choosing curricula,
materials for
students and carrying out
needs assessment or
evaluating the school
curriculum. It must be noted here
that these three activities
require
certain skills and knowledge
to be performed well.
Although the
community people are interested
in discussing curriculum
issues
they are not interested
in controlling school
finance.

The educational loaders

Figure 4 illustrates the

interest by percentile frequency
of
the eductional leaders in participating in the
curriculum design
activities. The chart shows that 80% of
the educational leaders are
interested in writing and evaluating
curriculum materials. Secondly
they would like to communicate
directly and discuss curriculum

development changes with the teachers

in the secondary schools.

65% of the educational leaders are interested in designing

community projects, servi ng on the

curriculum council and discussing
curriculum development changes and issues
with the politicians. The
educational leaders want to get involved
in what goes on in the

community that relates to the happenings

in the secondary schools.

The educational leaders also demonstrate a desire to communicate

with other groups at three levels. They would
like to discuss issues

not only with the tc» hers and community

people but also with the

poli ti ci ans.
 91

Activity

to

According

5
Partipate
Figure

to
iM
Interest

Teachers

<u
O

H 1
h
>>
a; il
yi
o
CO
o

/fouanbajj. a[|4uaojad
 92
The educational leaders would
like to retain their position

on the curriculum council. The curriculum council formulates

curriculum policies and this is

associated with power which the

educational leaders would like to

retain.

The most unpopular activity among

the educational leaders
is that of serving on the
curriculum committees to decide on the

syllabus and course content. It must be noted here that currently

this is one of the major roles of

the educational leaders and their
dislike for it implies some dissatisfaction
with the activity.

Teachers

Most teachers are interested in doing the

curriculum design
activities. The teachers would like to get involved in
curriculum
development workshops and discussions with other groups
so that they

learn more about the curriculum process. As demonstrated in figure

5, 80% of the teachers would like to communicate directly

with the

educational leaders on curriculum matters. Since the educational

leaders have also indicated interest in working with the teachers

an administrative structure that allows for direct communication

between the two should be established.

75% of the teachers expressed interest in designing community

projects and in communicating with the community people on curriculum

iss'-es. Most of the teachers thought that the top priority should

be given to establishing lines of communication before they proceed

to perform other curriculum design activities. Their second choice

 93

Activity

to

According

6
Figure r>-
Participate
in

to

interest

Students

/Couanbaug. aL.14uao.1ad
 94
was to serve on the curriculum
committees and to write
curriculum
materials for secondary schools.
The teachers are subject
specialists
and therefore their interest
indicates that the subject
specialists
should make decisions in their
appropriate fields.
Although the teachers show
significant interest to participate,
’

they do not want to hold

all the power in their
hands by controlling
the school finances. The group that controls the
budget would have
overall power to implement
most of the curriculum design
activities,
since the group would be
controlling the money for the
implementation
of the curriculum process.

Students

Most of the students would like to

be involved in making

curriculum policy decisions at the

national level. 82% of the
students desired to serve on the
curriculum council. According to
figure 6, the second most popular
activity is to communicate with
the educational leaders and third is
to design community projects and

to work with the local community. The students are also interested

in informing the local community of what goes on in the schools.

60% of the students would like to have

some control over the

school budget, and also give talks to the

school about what goes on

in the local community. The students dislike holding discussions

with politicians.

The enthusiasm shown by the students in curriculum

policy

decision making indicates a need to have some council at the school

 95
evel that helps in the process
of fomulatinq curriculum
policy.
AH the interested students cannot
serve on one national council,
hence the need for partial
localization of policy decisions.
Students are currently denied
the privilege of making
decisions
regarding curriculum policy,
and their high interest
should be taken
into consideration and new
administrative structures designed
that
would serve this purpose.

—rou P s — nterests in serv ing on the curriculum

council .

Figure 7 represents the interests of the four

groups, the
community people, the educational
leaders, the teachers and the

students in serving on the curriculum

council where curriculum
policy decisions are made. All the groups are interested in serving

on the curriculum council. However, the students are more

enthusiastic to serve on the curriculum council

than all the other
groups. The second most interested group is
the community people.

The third is the teacher group and the

fourth, the educational

leaders

The demonstrated pattern of response is the

reverse of what
actually happens in the curriculum process in Zambia.
Most members
on the curriculum council are educational leaders and a few teachers

from the Lusaka region. There are very few local community people

on the curriculum council, and those who have seats

on the council

are those with political influence. Students do not currently serve

on the curriculum council. The response pattern suggests that the

 96

Figure 7

Interests of the Groups

to Serve on the
Curriculum Council

frequency

Percentile

Yes

No
 97

Figure 8

Interests of the groups to

serve on the
Curriculum Committee

frequency

Percentile

Groups in the study

Key

Yes

No
 98

Figure 9

Interests of the groups

to design
community projects

frequency

Percentile

Yes

i -r/~
No
 99

people with less access to

power want to parti cipate
much more than
those who already have the
privilege to do so.

in terest in serving on the curriculum

comjttee
A higher percentage of
teachers selected to serve on
the
curriculum committee than did any
other group. Figure 8 shows that
most teachers would like to
decide what subjects to offer
in the
secondary schools and also decide
on the syllabi and actual
content
of the subjects. The students were the second
interested group
followed by the community. The least interested group was
the
educational leaders.

The secondary school teachers are

subject specialists. Each
one of them has two or more subjects
in which they specialize during

their teacher training programs.

Their responses would indicate
that they think that the subject
specialists should be involved in

deciding the subject content of the

secondary schools. Although some
teachers assist on these committees, most
of the major work is done

by the educational leaders. The educational leaders who are currently

involved in designing syllabi, content and

materials for schools
are the least interested in carrying out the
activity.

Designing community projects

Figure 9 illustrates all the groups' interests in designing

community projects and working with the community people.

78% of

the teachers would like to design some community based

projects.

The community would like to advance their own community in the

 100
curriculum process by working
with fellow community
people. 65%
of the educational leaders
selected to participate in
designing
community projects and working
with the cormunity. The least
interested group is that of the
students.

In general, all the groups were interested in

extending to
the community the curriculum
happenings of the secondary schools.
The teachers, the community
people, the educational leaders and
students were interested in broadening
the definition of curriculum

development process in Zambia. Instead of restricting the curriculum

process to the schools as is currently

the case, all the groups

wanted to extend the process beyond

the schools to include the local
communi ties.

Writing or choosing curriculum materials

All the four groups of people have an

interest in choosing
and writing curriculum materials that
the secondary school students

could use. Figure 10 shows that 80% of the educational

leaders would
like to write and choose curriculum materials.
The teachers are

second, the community third, and the students are

the least interested

in this activity. The response reveals that the people with the

skills to write the curriculum materials, that is the

educational

leaders and the teachers are most interested in doing this

than the

community people and students without any skills in the field.

Control over the curriculum materials would go a long way in

assisting the change in curriculum content as outlined by the

 Figure 10 101

Interests of groups to
write and choose
curriculum materials

frequency

Percentile

Yes

R77;
No
 102
Figure 11

Interests of the groups to

control school
finances and curriculum changes

No
 103
educational reforms documents. It must be noted that
written
curriculum materials have a lot of influence on the
observed
curriculum of the schools. The choosing and writing of
the
curriculum materials is important
in Zambia where the educational

system requires students to knew

certain facts and acquire
certain skills for future use.

Cpnt rol of school finances and r nrriniinm

changes in the schools ~

All the groups were interested in

controlling the school budget
and the curriculum changes in
the schools. The educational leaders
wanted the most control, with 70% of
the respondents giving a positive
response. 61.8% of the student group would do it;
59.8% of the
community people and 59.7% of the teachers.

Figure 11 demonstrates that the educational

leaders and
students want the most control over the curriculum
changes. Currently
the educational leaders allocate funds to schools and from the given

response pattern, they would want to continue carrying

out the

task. The students on the other hand have no say over the
budget

of the school and would like to have this privilege.

The educational

leaders and students who want to control the finances would have
more
power to change what they think is important in the curriculum

process.

The community people ano the teachers, although interested

in designing and controlling curriculum changes, are not overly

enthusiastic about controlling the school budget.

 104
Figure 12
Interests of the groups to
discuss curriculum
issues with politicians

frequency

Percentile

Yes

No
 105

The students' interest in designing

the budget suggests
a
need to nonsuit the
students on the financial
needs of their schools.

Di scussing curriculum iss u es

with nolitin,..

The educational leaders

once more had the highest
percentage
of people selecting
to discuss curriculum
issues with politicians.
Figure 12 illustrates that
65* of the educational
leaders, 63.2%
the community people, 60.4%
of the teachers and 46.2%
of the
students wanted to hold
discussions with the politicians.

The educational leaders and

the community people find
it easy
to accept the idea of holding
curriculum discussions with
politicians.
These two groups thought that
there was need to talk to the
politicians
if the current curriculum
process is to change. The politicians
are perceived positively by the
educational leaders and the community
people.

From the response pattern, the

politicians have not had a very
positive impact on the secondary schools
because both the teachers
and the students were not keen
to interact with them.

Communi cating to and informing other

peop
c c le
of curriculum happeni ng~s

Figure 13 illustrates that 80.2% of the

teachers would like
to communicate directly with the
educational leaders and make

suggestions to them about curriculum changes.

71.3% of the community

people would like to give talks to the school

about the happenings

of the local community and also communicate

the same to the educa-

tional leaders. 68.2% of the students would like to communicate

 106
Figure 13

Interests of the groups to initiate

communication and to
inform other groups of curriculum
happenings

frequency

Percentile

Yes
 107
directly with educational
leaders and also talk to the
community
people about the happenings of
the school. 65% of the educational
leaders would like to communicate
with the teachers directly,
on
curriculum matters.

Currently the teachers communicate

with the educational
leaders through the bureaucratic
civil service system. And it could
be this system that repels
them and they would instead want
to have
direct lines of communication with the educational leaders.

The interest demonstrated by

these groups would indicate the

need for the establishment of a

direct line of communication that

would eliminate all the red tape when

it came to discussing

curriculum issues.

Needs assessment and curriculum evaluation

Figure 14 illustrates the interest of al 1 the teachers, students,

community people and educational leaders in carrying

out needs

assessments and evaluations of the school curriculum. All the four

groups appear interested in becoming involved in the

activities. 80%

of the educational leaders, 78% of the students, 73.6%

of the

teachers and 58.6% of the community people would like to participate.

The educational leaders are currently carrying out the

evaluation and needs assessment in the schools. They are content with

the ta~k and would like to continue doing it. The students do not

currently evaluate school curriculum or carry out needs assessment

but they are interested in becoming involved. 73.6% of the teachers

 108

Figure 14

Interests of the groups to carry out needs

assessment
and to evaluate school curriculum
100

90

80 80 78

73.6
70
frequency

60
58.6

Percentile 50

40

31
30
»

^20
20 19.8

1 % 16

10 %
& ->>
S§3

Community Ed. leaders Teachers Students

Groups in the study

Key

Yes

No
 109
would like to participate and currently
they have no such prescribed

powers. The educational leaders usually bring books and

other
materials to the teachers' classes,
try them out and go back to
the
Ministry of Education headquarters or
Educational Services Center.

The response pattern would suggest

a need to transfer some
of the power to carry needs assessment
and curriculum evaluation to

the schools where the teachers and

students are prepared to become
i nvol ved.

Summary of interests

Figure 15 demonstrates that of the eight curriculum

design
activities, the educational leaders thought they should
play a major
role in four of them.

1. Writing and choosing curriculum materials for the schools.

2. Controlling the curriculum changes and finances of the

school

3. Holding discussions with politicians on curriculum issues.

4. Carrying out needs assessment and evaluating the school

curriculum.

In writing and choosing curriculum materials the teachers

would play a supporting role. The students would play a supporting

role in controlling the curriculum changes and designing the school

budget. The community people would support the educational leaders

in holding the discussions on curriculum issues with the politicians.

The supporting role in carrying out needs assessments and evaluating

 110

process

making

decision

curriculum

the

15 in

Activities

Figure

participate

to

interests

role

groups'

Supporting

of

Summary

Aprils ul sdnoug
 school curriculum would be Ill
played by the students.

The teachers chose to play

two major roles in:

1* dec i ding the subject content

and syllabi to be

taught in the secondary schools.

2. designing community based projects

and working with

the local community people.

The students wanted to play a supportive role in deciding what they

would learn in the classroom, that
is their subject content. The
community people would like to play a supportive role in designing
projects for the other community people.

The community people would like to play

a major role in
initiating communication and informing others of
what happened in
the community. The supporting role in this sphere was desired
by the

students.

The students would play a major role in curriculum policy-

decision making. They would like to decide on the aims and objectives

of education and the curriculum development procedures

and curriculum

organization. The supporting role in curriculum policy making would

be performed by the community people who displayed an

interest

in doing so.

Perceptions of the groups: Who should

do the activity

Who should serve on the curriculum council ?

Figure 16 represents the perceptions of the community people,

educational leaders, teachers and students as to who would be the

 112

the

on

serve

should

council
thought

16

people
Figure

curriculum

of

groups

most

Who

Xouanbeu^ siiiuaDusd
 113

17

Figure

Aouantu^ a^L^uaouad
 114
best person to serve on the
curriculum council and hence be
able to
make decisions regarding curriculum
policy. The teachers were highly
perceived by the community people
and the educational leaders.
These
two groups thought that the
teachers would be the best people
to
decide on curriculum policy.

The teachers also showed confidence

in themselves by selecting

themselves as the group that could

best carry out the activity.
However, it must be noted that the
students showed the most interest
in this activity. The students thought that the
educational leaders
would perform the activity best.

The supporting role was given to the

educational leaders. 23%
of the community, 20% of educational leaders,
8.8% of the teachers

and 25.4% of the students selected the

educational leaders to serve

on the curriculum council.

Who should serve on the curriculum committee ?

Teachers scored the highest in this question as demonstrated

in figure 17, which illustrates the perception of

the groups on who

could serve on the curriculum committee best. 42.5% of the community

thought the teachers would do it best. The teachers also demonstrated

confidence in their own group with 65.9% selecting the teachers.

The educational leaders gave the teachers a second place and the

students put the teachers in the third place.

The educational leaders were perceived as the group that could

perform the supporting role. They scored a second among the community
 115

CO
S-
<D
*o a>
fO
CNJ
CD CL
on to
o
<d
Cl Q.
3 fD
vO O c
o
C\J o
'O C
«T3 3
18 3
a
LU oO
Figure

Q.
O
O)
Q.

O
O t ir-t-t
CO cD

Aouanbeuj. a^nusD,^
 116

people; perceived as the best by

the educational leaders group; as
second best by the teachers; and
as the best group by the
students.
The order of the perceptions
of who could serve on the

curriculum committee agreed with the

accepted role and interests of
the groups. The teachers indicated the most
interest, followed
by the eductional leaders. The students and the community
people
indicated the least interest-

Who should design community projects ?

Figure 18 illustrates that most groups

thought that the teachers
could be the best people to design community
projects and work with
the community people- The community people thought that the teachers

would do it best- The teachers selected their own group to do the

job and that they could be supported by educational

leaders.

The students showed more faith in the educational leaders to

design the community projects and work with the community.

The '

educational leaders also thought they would be the best people to

do i t.

Although the community people indicated high interest to

participate, they were perceived negatively by all the groups. The

general response of viewing the teachers as the best people to do

the activity agrees with the interest shown by the teachers in

designing community projects.

 117

choose curriculum

Most people thought that the

teachers would be the best group
to write and choose
curriculum materials such as
textbooks and
curriculum guides. This is illustrated in figure
19 where 37.9%
of the community, 10% of the
educational leaders, 65.9% of the
teachers
and 15.3% of the students
selected the teachers. The teachers scored
a first among its own group and
community people. They took second
place among the educational leaders selection and were third

according to student perceptions.

The supporting role in this case

would be carried by the

educational leaders who were supported by

19.5% of the community, 50%

of the educational leaders, 13.2% of the teachers, and 26.5% of

the
students. The educational leaders were considered the best group to

write or choose curriculum materials by the

educational leaders and

students. They scored a second among the teachers and a third among
the community people.

The students kept to third place and the community

were seen
as the least effective to do the activity. The students had support

from 6.9% of the community, 10% of the educational leaders,

6.6% of

the teachers and 24% of the students. This meant that they held the

last place among the community people, second place among the

educational leaders, third among the teachers and second among the

students. The community people were selected by 20.7% of the

community people; 5% of the educational leaders, 2.2% of the teachers

and 14% of the students.

 118

to
S-
<U
TD a;
03
<D
o
OJ
Q.
03
C
o
C
03 3
u
19 3
OO
"O
LU

Figure

to to
S- 4-5
O) c
-cz aj
u “O
03 3
0J 4-5
oo

o
O o o o o o O O O O
<r> CO r>v t£> LD *3- m c\j «—i

/fouanbaj^ aLL^uaDuaj
 119

finances

the

control

should

20
schools

Figure

thought the

in

people

of

groups

most

Who

Xouanbauj. aiiguaouad
 120

There was a reversal of positions between the

educational
leaders and the teachers. The educational leaders were the most
interested in carrying out the
activity and the teachers were
second
in interest, but on perceptions,
the teachers were highly perceived

and the educational leaders were viewed as the second

best.
The students and the community
people did not show much
interest in writing and choosing
curriculum materials and were also
perceived as not being capable of doing
the activity.

Who should control school finances and

curriculum changes ?

Figure 20 illustrates that the various groups

of people
perceive teachers as the most appropriate
people to control the

school budget and curriculum changes. The teachers were highly

perceived, especially by the community people and

the teacher group.

Although most groups showed confidence in the teachers

to control

the school finances, the teachers did not indicate high interest.

The teachers also felt they should control the school

budget, but

they were not interested.

The educational leaders would play a supportive role to the

teachers, the educational leaders had indicated high interest to

do the activi ty and also perceive themselves as the best people to carry

it out. The educational leaders scored a second among community

people, a second among teachers and a first among students.

Most groups of people had little confidence in the community

people and students capabilities to control the school finances.

 121

discuss

should

politicians

thought

21 with

people
Figure

issues

of

groups
curriculum

most

Who

/Couanbauj. a iLiuaDuaj
 122

However, the students were the

second most interested group
to do
this activity and could be
counted upon to play a supportive
role to
the educational leaders. The community on the other hand
had indicated
little interest to participate and
at the same time other groups
had no confidence in their
ability to control school finances.

Wh o should discuss cur r iculum

issues with politician*; ?

The educational leaders were perceived as the best

people to
hold curriculum meetings with the
politicians. This is demonstrated
in figure 21 where the educational
leaders are confident, they

should do it. The students also thought that the

educational leaders
would be the best people to hold discussions
on curriculum issues

with the politicians. The teachers and the community people thought

that the educational leaders should play a supporting role after the

teachers

The teachers were considered the second best group

by most

groups of people and therefore capable of assisting

the educational

leaders in this activity. However the students thought that the

teachers would do the worst job in this activity.

The educational leaders, who were highly perceived, had also

indicated the highest interest to participate. Although the

community people had indicated a great deal of interest, the other

groups had no confidence in them carrying out discussions with

pol i tici ans.

The teachers showed no interest, but they were willing to hold

curriculum meetings with politicians. The students on the other hand

 123
had no interest, were
perceived as the least effective
to carry out
the activity but were willing
to play a supportive role to
the
teachers.

Who should initi ate communication

among groups
an_d inf orm other groups
of curriculum happenings ?

Figure 22 illustrates the perceptions

of the various groups
on who could be the best people
to initiate communication among

groups and to inform others of curriculum

happenings. The teachers
were perceived as the best people to
do the activity. The teachers
had also indicated the highest
interest to carry out the activity.

This would indicate a need to establish an administrative

structure
in education that would allow for the
initiation of curriculum

innovation from both the schools and the Ministry of

Education
headquarters

The students would perform the supporting role to the

teachers.
The students were highly perceived by the educational
leaders who

thought that the students should initiate communication

among groups.

The teachers thought that the students should play a secondary role

to the teachers . The community on the other hand thought that the

students would be the least effective group to do the activity.

The educational leaders and community people were perceived

the least effective by most groups. The educational leaders had

little interest in initiating communication. This could indicate some

dissatisfaction with their current status where they are required to

initiate curriculum programs. The community is interested but most

 124

curriculum

initiate

of

should

groups

22
thought

other

Figure
happenings

people
inform

of
and

groups

communication

most

Who

/Couenbaug aii}uaoua,j
 125

groups have no confidence

in their ability to
carry out this activity,
Since they are interested,
they could be used in
providing a data
on how to get ideas across
in curriculum.

Who_shou1d carry needs assessment

and
evaluate school curriculum ?

According to figure 23, teachers

are perceived as capable of
carrying out needs assessment
and evaluating school
curriculum. The
teachers showed interest in this
activity and also thought they
should do it.

The educational leaders could play a supportive role according

to the response patterns of
the various groups. The educational
leaders, like the teachers, had
confidence in themselves to do the

activity and thought they should do it.

The teachers and educational leaders are currently the pro-

fessionals in the educational system, and it would be appropriate

for the people with the right skills and

knowledge to do the activity.

The community people and the students scored

low and at the

same time had little interest or appropriate

skills to evaluate

content curriculum. It must be noted here that although

the community

people and students would not be actively involved in

this activity,

they could be useful in providing information for evaluation

purposes.

A summary of perceptions of groups

Figure 24 demonstrates the perceptions of the four groups and

who most groups of people thought should participate in the curriculum

 126

leaders

Educational

fouanbaj^ a [iiueD-ia^
 127
design activities.

The teachers were highly

rated by most of the
groups and were
thought to be the best
people to do the following
curriculum design
activi ties:

1. Serve on the curriculum

council.
2. Serve on the curriculum
committee.
3. Design community projects
and work with the community

people.

4. Write or choose curriculum

materials for secondary
schools.

5. Control school finances and

curriculum changes in the
schools.

6. Initiate communication and inform

other groups of

curriculum happenings.

7. Carry out needs assessment and

evaluate school

curriculum.

The supportive role in serving on the

curriculum council and
curriculum committee, in writing and choosing
curriculum materials,
in controlling finances in initiating
communication, and in
informing others of curriculum happenings
should all be carried out

by educational leaders.

The community is expected to play a supporting role in

designing community projects. The students are expected to assist

in initiating communication and informing other

groups of curriculum

happeni ngs.
 128

the

in

participate

process

should

thought making

24

Figure
people
decision

of

groups
curriculum

most

who role

of

Supporting

summary

suoLidaouad sdnoug
 129

sjpl p3

Sjpi P3~

activity

sjagDea_L
the r*

sueipeai
do

should

Wmimm sjpi P3

MM
i/) _z:
<D
who SJ P L P3 Z
of

O-
perception
-sti. sjpi p3
" o
sj PL P3 "2
25 4-
o

Figure
their

and
Wkmmmm sjpi P3
sjp[ P3
"
rj-
-4

r~
>>

>
•

-J -r-
+J
Q.
<U
c
O

groups

sjaipeaj. ^
PO l/>

sjaqoeaj_ £
interest

highest
mrnrnmmitewmm sjaipeaj_

sjsipeej^
c\j cr.
•£

of
2 2
q. a
sjpt p3 ZJ 3
o o
S- i-
Comparison

c\j — ' CD CD
coL

m
1

m
1

LT5 ro C\J

/fouanbaaj. a [ (.iuaoja<j
 130

The educational leaders were perceived by

most groups of
people as the most capable of
discussing curriculum issues with

politicians and the teachers were

seen fit to play the supportive

role to the educational leaders.

Compari son of highest interest and

per r.Pnti on
of who would do the activity bestT~~^

Figure 25 demonstrates the groups with

the highest interest

matched against those who they thought

should do the activity. Figure
26 illustrates the highly perceived groups matched
against the most
interested groups.

The students were the most interested

in serving on the

curriculum council and they think the educational

leaders should do
it. The teachers, on the other hand, were thought by
most groups
as the people who should do it. There is an indication here that

the curriculum council should not be dominated by

one group but should

have more than one group decide the curriculum policies.

In this

particular case it would be the teachers and the students who are

operating from the schools. This would also imply that some aspects

of curriculum policy decision making should be localized to the

secondary schools.

The curriculum committees would be dominated by teachers who

indicated high interest to carry out the activity and who most

people from the groups thought should do it. The teachers are also

confident that they would do it better than any other group.

 131

supi pg
CO

sueipQa_L

SU3Lpeaj_
r*

curriculum
sjaipee^

on
sjpi pg

groups
supi p3

interested
'
SJ P L P3r>
suaipeaj.

Activities

26
activities

highly

•sup3 •
p3
Figure

and suaipeaj_
design

perceived

suaipeaj_
c
suaipeaj_
group

highly

suaipeaj_
the
perceived
C\J

of uaipeaj_

Matching
Highly

siuapn}s_
uaipeaj.

fcid
o
00
o o
C\J

touanbau^ a^.nuaojsd
 132

In comparing the willingness

and the perceptions of
the groups
on designing community
projects, the teachers come
out as the most
willing and at the same time
most confident that they would
do the job
The teachers are also perceived
by the other groups as the
most
capable. Although the teachers come out
strongly on this activity,
it should be remembered that
the community people had showed
a great
deal of interest in designing
their own projects and working with

other community members.

The educational leaders are highly interested and willing

to
write and choose curriculum materials for
secondary schools. The
teachers on the other hand are thought by
most people to be the people
who should do it. There is need, then, to consider having
people from
both groups write and choose curriculum
materials.

The educational leaders are also interested and willing to

design the school budget and control the school

finances. However,
most groups of people thought that the teachers
would do the best

job in controlling the school finances. There is also an indication

here for mixing groups to design the school budget.

The discussion of curriculum issues with the politicians is

left to the educational leaders by most groups of people. At the same

time the educational leaders are interested and willing to discuss

curriculum issues with the politicians. Although this activity could

be dominated by educational leaders, the community people, who had

indicated a lot of interest to meet with politicians on curriculum

issues should be considered.

 133

The teachers are both

interested and willing to initiate
communication and inform the community,
students, educational leaders
and fellow teachers of curriculum
happenings. They are also perceived
by most groups of people as
the people who should do it.

The educational leaders are interested and willing

to play
a major role in carrying out needs
assessment and evaluating school
curriculum. However, most groups of people think
that the teachers
should do it. This would require the balancing of
the two groups by

skill in carrying out needs assessment

and evaluating school

curriculum. It is also important that the students

and the community

people be used as the data sources for needs

assessment and
evaluation of secondary school curriculum.

Some Observations

The response profile showed in a general way that people at

all levels of the curriculum enterprise were eager to

participate in

various dimensions of the curriculum process. Students, community

people, educational leaders and teachers want to be involved in

curriculum decision making. The interest to participate varies

from one dimension of the curriculum process to the next. However

most groups of people show more confidence in the teachers and

educational leaders ability to carry out the activities. The teachers

and educational leaders also demonstrated confidence in themselves

to do most of the activities.

 134

Students had an idea of shared

decision making in curriculum
development In that they suggested
other people to do the
activity.
Their pattern of response
leveled off on most activities
as compared
to that of the teachers
or educational leaders.

The educators, teachers and

educational leaders would take
the
responsibilities of the curriculum
design activities where
specialist
skills are required. However the community people and
the students
would be given a role of providing
data for decision making. This
means that there would be involvement
of all the groups in the

curriculum process but doing different

activities with different
responsibi li ties.
 CHAPTER v

SUMMARY , IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

The purpose of this

chapter is threefoid.
First, the nature
of the investigation and
findings of the study are
summarized.
Second, the implications of
these findings for education
in Zambia
are suggested. Third, recommendations for
further research are
advanced.

The first section of this

chapter is a summary of the problem,
purpose, design and findings for
four research objectives that
guided this study. These were;

1. To identify the objectives

of education for development

outlined by the Zambian Government

that will guide

curriculum development in the next

decade.
2. To identify the prescribed and
currently performed role
of teachers, students, educational
leaders and local

community in designing curriculum.

3. To determine what role these four

groups wanted to play

in curriculum designing.

4. To determine what the four groups thought

ought to be

the role of the teachers, students,

educational leaders,

and community people in curriculum designing.

135
 136

The second part deals with the

implications of the findings of the
study as they relate to the objectives
of education for development
in Zambia, the current structures and
procedures for curriculum
development. The implications from the various
groups response
patterns are given as an outline of a descriptive conceptual design
for developing secondary school
curriculum. The third section gives

recommendations at three levels. Recommendations for institutions to

alter their present practices; recommendations
to continue research

in the same area as the present study;

and to carry out research that

is tangential to the current study.

Summary of the Study

The Zambian government and educators have identified

problems
of education that are related to the inherited colonial
educational

system and those perpetuated by the system since the attainment

of

independence in 1964. These problems include:

1. Wastage of learners at both the primary and secondary

school levels caused by both a foreign inspired in-

appropriate curriculum and a highly stratified

examination controlled curriculum.

2. Lack of appropriate input into the curriculum process

of the various groups of people that could lead to the

general improvement of the Zambian society.

Although the Government has taken note of these problems,

educators in Zambia have not fully explored ways of solving them.

 137

Attempts at curriculum refers

have not produced the
desired effects
and the same problems have
continued. The main problem is that
the
Zambian educators have not
outlined specific suggestions
as to what
the role of these various
groups of people should be on
various
dimensions of the curriculum
process which would reduce the
existing
dysfuncti ons.

The purpose of the study was

therefore to explore the degree
of interest, willingness and
perceptions of the teachers, students,

educational leaders and community people on

involvement in the
curriculum process. And from their response profile
to outline

dimensions of a curriculum decision making design for

developing
secondary school curriculum in Zambia.

A conceptual-descriptive design was

utilized in this study.
A literature search of materials on
curriculum designing theory was

carried out. Case studies on the curriculum process in

the U.S.A.

U.S.S.R., Kenya and Tanzania were surveyed to

serve as a comparative
base for the analysis of the curriculum process
in Zambia. Govern-
ment reports, committee minutes and observations
were used to gather

information on curriculum development in Zambia.

The field study included a questionnai re-i ntervi ew survey of

ten secondary school communities from the nine school regions

in

Zambia. Each school community was composed of form five students,

teachers and community people. The educational leaders were

selected from ten different departments of the Ministry of Education,

some were from among politicians, admi nistrators and other pro-
 138

fessionals. The sampling frame included

stratified sampling of
secondary schools according
to region and then random
sampling within
each school region. The educational leaders
were stratified according
to department, profession,
official position and interests.
With
this procedure a total of
761 people were surveyed, 563
students,
91 teachers, 87 community people
and 20 educational leaders.

Findings of the Study

The summary of the findings of

the study are organized

according to the research objectives.

To identify the objectives of

education for development

outlined by the Zambian Government

that will guide

curriculum development in the next decade.

Development education objectives in Zambia

aim at developing

individual learner's potential by providing

secondary school curriculum
that would enhance the spirit of
self-reliance within the learner.

This kind of education also aims at producing

productive Zambian
Humanists who would be able to combine work and
study and hence help

meet both the social and economic objectives of the

Zambian society.
According to the objectives of education in Zambia,
every individual

should be allowed access and be allowed to participate

in the

educational system. The adult workers should be learners, the learning

youths should be producers as well.

To identify the prescribed and currently performed role

of teachers, students, educational leaders and local

community in designing curriculum.

 139

Teachers are expected to

communicate discipline and
curriculum
problems to the parents of
the learners, participate
in instructional
decision making, teach, carry
out needs assessment and
evaluate
curriculum. However, the role of the teachers
is currently limited
to instructional decision
making since they are at the
lower end of
the current structures and
procedures of curriculum development
in
Zambia.

According to Government guidelines,

the students should

communicate school information to and

help design local community

programs. In practice, their role is limited to receiving

information
from the teachers to become effective
learners. They are not included
in the current structures and
procedure gui del ines for curriculum

designi ng.

There is no specific prescribed role for the

community people
in the current educational reform documents and the community people

are not part of the current civil service

system. The educational

leaders have the curriculum decision making

privilege on all the

outlined curriculum design activities. They are expected to design,

review and evaluate secondary school curriculum

programs. They are

also part of the civil service structure which has rules

and

regulations for curriculum development.

To determine what role these four groups wanted to play

in curriculum designing.

82 . 1% of the students wanted to play a major role in curriculum

 140

policy ma king and 79.3* of

the co mmu nity wanted to
play a supportive
role in this activity.
73.6% of the teachers wanted
to take up the
major responsibility in designing
the school syllabus and
59.5% of
the students wanted to
lu assist. 7
/8/ of the ±teachers were interested
R°/0 n-e .

in playing the major

role in designing community
projects. The
supportive role was selected by
67.8% of the community people.

The educational leaders were interested and willing

to play
the major role in the following
activities: Writing and choosing
curriculum materials (80%); controlling
the school finances (70%);

discussing curriculum issues with

politicans (65%). 73.6% of the
teachers would assist the educational
leaders in writing curriculum

materials. 61.8% of the students would play a supportive role in

controlling the school budget and 63.2% of
the community people wanted

to assist in discussing curriculum

issues with politicians.

80.2% of the teachers were interested and

willing to play a

major role in informing other groups of curriculum

happenings. 71.3%
of the community people indicated that they
would assist if given the
chance. 80% of the educational leaders wanted to assume the major

responsibi li ty in carryi ng out needs assessment and evaluating

curriculum programs and 78% of the students wanted to assist.

To determine what the four groups thought should be

the

role of the teachers, students, educational leaders

and community people in curriculum designing.

Most groups of people thought that the teachers should play a

major role and be responsible for curriculum decision making in the

following activites: curriculum policy making; syllabus designing;

 141

designing community projects;

detemining curriculum materials
for
secondary schools; designing the school budget;
disseminating
curriculum information; and carrying
out needs assessment and

evaluating secondary school programs.

Most groups thought that the
educational leaders should play a
supportive role in curriculum
policy making; syllabus designing;
determining curriculum materials;
disseminating curriculum information
to various groups of people and

in carrying out needs assessment

and evaluating curriculum programs.

The educational leaders should hold discussions with

politicians
regarding curriculum matters; and that
the teachers should assist

them in carrying out this activity.

The community should assist the

teachers in designing community projects.

The Implications of the Findings

The objectives of educaton for

development in Zambia

Educators and policy makers in Zambia have identified

objectives
that are to guide the educational system within the
next decade.

The first period of education after independence,

1964 to 1969, had

objectives for national development that emphasized the unifying

of

the educational administration and curriculum process. During the

period 1969 to 1974 the problems of the prior system began to be

felt through the unemployment of both the primary and secondary

school leavers.

Since 1974, there has been an effort to outline educational

objectives that would assist in solving some of these problems. This

 142

has been viewed as a system

of education that includes
rather than
excludes the most people. It would be an educational
system that
combines work and study/ The learners would not only
be consumers
but also producers. The learners are to contribute
to the cost of
their own education. The workers and adult population
in general
would also be incorporated as
learners.

The curriculum process would

incorporate the same principles
of participation, production,
work and study. However, the
objectives of education for development
in Zambia have problems
with clarity and specificity of the
implementation procedures.

The objectives of secondary education

in Zambia agree in

principle wtth the stated objectives of

development education. The
guiding philosophy in education is that
of Zambian Humanism. Zambian
Humanism requires that secondary schools identify
themselves with
the interests and needs of the local
community.

If education for development is to have the

outlined objectives,
it cannot be planned as a separate system
from the totality of the

social, political and economic forces. Education is influenced by

society and since, education and development are related

processes
of purposeful planned change, it is difficult to design curriculum

and reform education and leave the other aspects of the political

economy. This would also imply a need for change in the curriculum

process, selection and reward systems.

Since secondary education in Zambia is charged with the duty

of preparing effective Contributors to social development and applying

 143

knowledge to solving development

problems, more groups of people

should be allowed to plan, control,

implement and be responsible
for the curriculum process.
Related to participation would be the

need to decentralize some of the

curriculum design procedures, which
further implies the mobilization and
educating of the various groups
of people to carry out the curriculum
design activities.

The major theme of development

education in Zambia is the
linking of work and study. The educational reform documents imply
that the curriculum process be localized
since different localities

have different kinds of economic activities.

Relating the work of

the school to the life of the community would imply a thorough under-
standing of both the secondary school system and
the local community

by whoever is involved in designing the school

curriculum.

Participation in curriculum designing by the community people,

the educational leaders, the teachers and the students could

contribute to the desired objectives of development education. The

various groups can provide varied vital information regarding the

needs and necessary procedures in development education. Through

communication between the professionals and community people, the

professionals will understand the community better and the community

would understand the professionals better, which would meet the

intentions of development education in Zambia. This kind of

communication eventually could lead to the establishment of quality

schools which reflect both the professional and local community's

concern. The local community feels and knows its needs and its
 144

youths' needs better and could therefore

provide useful background
information about the students which
could be utilized by all the
parties concerned.

Curriculum Structures, Procedures and

Roles in Curriculum Development

The educational leaders, teachers, students and the

community
people have prescribed roles in the
government plans. The prescribed
roles are matched against a set of government structures.

There is a bureaucratic civil service system in which the

educational leaders have most of the powers in

curriculum designing.
The educational leaders review, plan and implement the curriculum

policy decisions. They decide on the syllabus and content of

materials that are taught in the secondary schools. The teachers have

instructional decision making powers in that they teach

the prescribed

content to the students. They decide on the teaching methodology

too.

The students 1

role in curriculum designing is limited by the

bureaucratic civil service system in that they are not public

workers therefore, their major role is just to be effective learners.

The same applies to the community people who are not given any

responsi bi 1 i ty in curriculum policy formulation or deci si ons

regarding curriculum content, school finances, curriculum evaluation

and needs assessment. Although the comrii^.iity people are expected

to participate on paper in practice they are expected to be passive

observers.
 145

The current structures of

educational administration define
the role of the educational
leaders, the teachers, the
community
people and the students. The educational leaders have the prescribed
responsibility over all the major
curriculum design activities.
The teachers' role in the
current structure is seen as that
of passing
on knowledge and skills which
are spelled out in the course
materials,
teachers' and students' handbooks. The students' role is to learn

and the community have no role

to play in designing secondary
school
curriculum.

Such structures and procedures do not

lend themselves to
a number of ideas that can be contributed
by teachers, students and

community people. There is some artificiality in a curriculum

designed solely by a small group of educational leaders who
are far
removed from the school community and this
makes it difficult for

the teachers to implement the curriculum. The lack of cooperation in

curriculum designing can lead to lack of effective

interaction
among the various groups concerned with secondary
education, which

in turn pose problems for curriculum implementation.

Involving community people, teachers and students in designing

curriculum will help in adapting the curriculum to the local conditions,

and it is also likely to lead to an endogenously based educational

system. The involvement of the various groups also means more personal

growth and plurality in curriculum development.

 146

i St an< wi11i r q n es s of teachers.

7^
'
st.irWc
e [imin
ducational
|
| ileaders
!
?
and community people tn niFtTEipate

The educational leaders, teachers, students

and community
people who responded to the
questionnaires and interviews of this
study demonstrated high interest
and willingness to participate
in
designing curriculum. The students and community people
who have
limited roles to play in curriculum
decision making wanted to decide
on curriculum policy. However, these two groups of people
were
viewed by most people as the least
capable to perform these duties.

The teachers and the educational

leaders were interested and

most groups of people thought they should

carry out the activities.

A closer examination of the response

pattern brought up the issue of

having more than one group perform the

activity. It revealed that

there are two levels at which groups could be

involved. The first

level is the one of assuming the major responsibili

ty in the venture.
The second level includes involvement by providing the data for

decision-making on the various dimensions of curriculum designing.

Students had an idea of shared decision making in curriculum

development in that they suggested other people to do certain

curriculum activities, whereas most of the teachers and educational

leaders indicated they should do the activities themselves.

Who should do the various curriculum design activities ?

Most groups of people thought that the teachers and educational

leaders should carry out the curriculum design activities especially

where some professional skills and knowledge were required. Most of

 147

the students end community

people thought the teachers
and
educational leaders should serve on the
curriculum committee and
write and choose curriculum
materials for schools. Serving on the
curriculum committee implies making
decisions on the syllabus,
content and textbooks for secondary
schools.

On certain dimensions, there was

no clear cut choice on who

should do the activity and this was

interpreted as showing need for
a team composed of various people. This applied to the question of

curriculum policy decision making, writing

of school curriculum
materials, control over school finances and
carrying out of needs
assessment and curriculum evaluation.

The findings of the study revealed that the

educational leaders
and teachers are interested and prepared
to do most of the

activities. However, there is also a strong indication that the

community and students should be included because

this would ensure

that centralized decisions are sensitive and

responsive to local

issues

Dimensions of the proposed curriculum

decision making design

Introduction

The major emphasis of the field-study was to determine the

most interested, willing and highly perceived group to carry out

curriculum design activities. Data presented in the study will be

used by future educators to develop plans for secondary school

curriculum. The intention is not to suggest that one curriculum plan

 148

IS best for education in Zambia

but rather to provide
information
that can be used to create
plans that are sensitive to various
kinds
of problems that are to be faced
in the education system
within the
next decade.

However, the researcher does advance

an overall scheme for

curriculum decision making that is

concerned with involvement of all
the groups considered in the
study for all of the activities that
were
identified in the research.

The conceptual design for curriculum

decision making proposed
here incorporates the definition of the
role of the community people,

the eductional leaders, the students and the teachers in

the design
of secondary school curriculum. These
roles are outlined in the

educational reform documents and were expressed by the various

groups
of people who were included in the study.

The findings of the study suggest a design that balances the

input from the various groups of people. There are certain activities

which could be carried out by the teachers, others by the

educational

leaders, community people and students. The participation of the

various groups in the curriculum design activities would vary from

one activity to another. Certain decisions could be made at the

schooj community level while others could be made at the Ministry

of Education headquarters.

Selected curriculum design activities should be carried out

by interested and willing groups of people with the appropriate skills

and knowledge. These people should be assisted by those who most

 149

groups of people thought

should do the activity.

The various groups would be

involved in two ways. The highly
interested, willing and highly
perceived groups could take
the major
responsibility in decision making
and the other groups could
play
the supportive role of providing
data for decision making.

Needs Assessment

Curriculum decision making can take

place at four different
levels, the national, the local
community, the institutional and
the instructional levels. The proposed model will relate the curriculum
design activities to the national,
institutional and local community
levels.

One of the major activities in designing

curriculum is
carrying out a needs assessment. A needs assessment reveals the per-

ceived discrepancy which is the difference

between what is existing
and the envisioned ideal. The major responsibility of establishing

the perceived discrepancy should be held by

the educational leaders
and the teachers. The students and the community people should

provide data about their needs for decision making.

Curriculum and dissemination of information .

Teachers, educational leaders, students and community people

should be involved in this process. The major role should be played

by the community people who demonstrated the highest interest

and

are willing to do it. The communication pattern could be from two

directions, one from the Ministry of Education headquarters and the

 150

other from the school community.

Both formal and informal
networks
of communication should be utilized
to disseminate information among

all the groups. The students and educational leaders could provide
the necessary information in the
curriculum process.

Curriculum policy decision making

The policy statements on aims of education

could be derived
from the information collected for the
needs assessment and disseminated

by the various groups. Educational aims are important in that they

set parameters and can be used as criteria

for organizing, implementing

and evaluating curriculum programs.

The students should be included in formulating

policy since

they showed much interest in doing it. Since not all the students

can sit on the national council, it would be

appropriate if some of

the policies could be initiated at the school level, hence allowing

for more involvement on the part of the students.

Politicians and the curriculum

The community people and the educational leaders should be able

to sit down with politicians and discuss curriculum issues that

affect their school committees. At these meetings the question of

incorporating the national political philosophy of Zambian Humanism

should be discussed. The statements of the national philosophy could

be analyzed and some of the ideas could be incorporated into the aims

and objectives of education.

 151

Designing communi ty work

The community people are interested

and willing to communicate

and disseminate knowledge about

curriculum issues among themselves.

The teachers also have demonstrated a

lot of interest and with their

skills and knowledge could assist the

community in designing
community projects. The two groups could also ensure that
the
community objectives and work complement what
goes on in the schools.

Designing Syllabus and course content

The teachers and the educational leaders' major responsi bi 1 i

ty
should be to formulate the specific objectives for
particular subjects,
decide on the syllabus and content of the secondary
school curriculum.

Inferences should be made from general objectives and the

guiding

philosophy of Zambian Humanism as to what should and will happen

in

the schools. From the inference statements specific objectives

should be formulated at the instructional level. This procedure

will ensure that the specific objectives of the schools match the

aims and philosophy of education in Zambia.

This activity should also ensure that participants relate the

various skills and knowledge that they want to incorporate in the

secondary school subjects to the objectives of education. The

students could be requested to provide information necessary for

making decisions as to the appropriate syllabus and content of the

school curriculum.
 152

Writing and choosing curriculum

materials

The writing and choosing of

curriculum content should be
carried out by the teachers who
are interested and are willing
to do
the activity and at the same
time are professionals in this
area.
The educational leaders could play a supportive role in which they
could coordinate the meetings for
the writing of the content, and
the
gathering of the different sources of
curriculum materials.
The writing and choosing of curriculum
materials would require
the people with various skills and
knowledge to organize the materials
for learning opportunities. In organizing the material, the involved
groups of people will have to relate the
school to the community

needs and aims of education to ensure that

the schools and

communities do not develop as two separate entities.

Evaluating school curriculum

The educational leaders and the teachers should do the

evaluation of the curriculum materials assisted by the

students who

would be part of the data source and would also provide

information

about the learning environment in the school and the community.

Evaluation of school curriculum should take place at various

stages of the curriculum process. Before the curriculum materials

go to the secondary schools, there is need to carry out small group

trials. Small group trials are necessary because there might be

some aspect of learning that had not been taken care of which might

require some revision. After the material is introduced to the

secondary school classrooms, there should be another evaluation at

 153

the end of each major section of the

material. Such kind of
evaluation would serve as a major point for decision making. A
decision which could be modified after the
follow up evaluation.

Continuous evaluation ensures that the materials

are appropriate

for the learner.

Financial control

The educational leaders with appropriate skills who

demonstrated
much interest should be allowed to design the school
budget. The
teachers, who most groups of people thought should do it could
play a

supportive role of providing the data for decision making. It must

be noted that the teachers were not very enthusiastic about

designing

the school budget. However, it is necessary that someone based at

the school community level assist in designing the school budget since

they will have the data for decision making. The people who would

control the school finances would be in a position to control most of

the curriculum process in that they would have power to finance

curriculum design activities that they feel most committed to.

Recommendations for institutions to alter

present practices

General recommendations

1. The Zambian educational policy makers should develop plans for

curriculum decision making that are in agreement with the objectives

of education for development. These plans will serve two purposes:

First, the educators would be able to utilize them in the curriculum

 154

process; and secondly, it would assist

in the improvement of
education
if a systematic plan for
curriculum development is utilized.

2. The Zambian educational policy-makers should consult with

other members of the society in making

decisibns on various dimensions
of the curriculum design activities.
This process will promote a

higher interest and commitment of the

youth and the other adults
in Zambia.

3. The community, the students, the teachers

and educational leaders
should cooperate at the different stages of
the curriculum process.

This means that instead of just saying that

the people should be

involved, there is need to specify the curriculum

design activities

and specify what degree of involvement would be

performed by each

group of people.

Specific recommendations

1. There has to be a change in the bureaucratic structure and the

curriculum process that is tied to the civil service system. Currently,

the educational bureaucracy in Zambia is managed through prescribed

routine which does not allow for flexibility, innovation and creativity.

Secondly, the power is concentrated in the hands of a few educational

leaders. Major decisions on most of the aspects of the curriculum

process except for instructional decision making are made at the

Ministry of Education headquarters or Educational Services Center

far removed from the schools.

There should be in its place an administrative Structure that

 155

gives power, control and responsibi

1 i
ty to the educational leaders,
the teachers, the students and the community
people.

a. The current national curriculum

development Center

should be utilized as the national resource

center
and the staff there should be coordinators
of the

different regional programs.

b. This would mean that the examination system

would

have to move away from its current emphasis on

content to skills development because the learners

from the various regions may use different subject

matter content to learn similar skills and meet

similar objectives.

The successful change of current structures to ones that

agree with the objectives of education for development and the

various groups response patterns could be ensured by:

a. Holding di scussi ons on administration and the

curriculum process. These conferences and research

studies should identify the specific problems of the

current structures and suggest future ones.

b. Consultation with such Ministries as agriculture, rural

development and health to ensure the enrichment of

ideas that could be utilized in the curriculum decision

making process. Educators are not all specialists in

agriculture, marketing or health problems. Often these

other specialists have a more concrete experience of

 156

needs and problems in their areas.

This would also

ensure the integrated approach to solving

education
problems suggested by the educational reform

documents.

2. The composition of the educational policymaking

committee
should be modified by:

a. Having both the national committee which should

have

a balanced representati ve of the various groups

interested and affected by the educational system

of Zambia.

b. Establishing committees that would decide on curriculum

policies at the school level where students, teachers

and community people could participate effectively.

3. There should be non-school discipline committees established

to complement the school subjects committees. Committees that deal

with communications among the various groups, and shared decision-

making in education in Zambia.

4. A continuous staff development program that deals with curriculum

development, change and improvement should be established. Since

this curriculum design is for decision making at the national,

the secondary school and the local community levels, there is need

for a staff development program for teachers and a community

development program for the laymen in the local community and the

students. The teachers should be provided with skills of curriculum

planning, implementation and evaluation. The laymen should be

 157

provided with appropriate skills for

curriculum decision making.
A curriculum design provides
a guideline for determining
learning
experiences and it is therefore important
that the people who deal

directly with curriculum issues acquire

the necessary skills for

curriculum decision-making.

Recommendations fo r further research

in the same areiT

The educators interested in the improvement of

the Zambian

secondary schools should carry out more research in this area of

involvement in designing curriculum. Not much has been done in

this area in Zambia. The aforegoing study just scratched the

surface by exploring the interests, willingness and perceptions

of

the teachers, students, community people and educaional leaders on

certain dimensions of curriculum designing.

The questionnaires used in this study need further refining

by some educators. Since this study was the first of its kind in

Zambia it was difficult to envisage the comprehensiveness of the

instruments.

It would also be interesting to carry out an indepth study

of one of the groups inthe study and explore the various relationships

within that group and its responses to other curriculum design

activities that were not included in this study.

Continuing on the same lines, educators could get the response

patterns revealed in this study and test them in some school

 158

committees and this would help in validating the study.

Recommendation s for further related research

One priority for effective

implementation of the objectives
of education for development
within the next decade is for
Zambian
educators to explore ways in which the educational plans could be

effected. More specifically they should inquire

into:

!• How t0 facilitate a more effective and efficiently

operated curriculum system.

This could be done by identifying the most

effective and
most efficient systems of administering the
curriculum process.

Different methodologies could be utilized to achieve

this:

a. Finding ways of reducing the current burdensome

rigid layers of the bureaucratic system.

b. Comparing and evaluating different administrative

processes to find out which one would be the most

appropriate for meeting the objectives of development

education.

2. How to restructure the curriculum process so that the

secondary schools become more responsive to the needs

and characteristics of each school community.

This would require an examination into the methods of de-

centralizing the curriculum process in such a way that the curriculum

content produced has direct as well as indirect relevance to the

local community. This would also mean reducing the power of the
 159

central authority without losing the

aspect of national conscious-
ness which is important to national
unity and development. The
educational researchers in this case would
need to:

a. Identify characteristics of the national

philosophy
and aims of education.

b. Identify particular characteristics of each

school

communi ty.

c. Define appropriate areas of content curriculum

to

match and maintain a balance among the identified

character!’ sties.

d. Outline the necessary changes in the curriculum

content.

3. How to establish effective channels of communication and

better working relations among the educational leaders,

the teachers, the students and the community people.

The interested researchers would need to identify the most

effective ways in which groups interested in participating and

affected by the curriculum process could communicate most effectively.

This would require an assessment of the effectiveness of each

communication system which could be done by:

a. Setting up workshops to identify communication skills,

channels, and leadership styles.

b. Making observations of the ongoing communication

processes.
 160

c. Having a dialogue with the various groups on

ways in

which they could improve their

communication with the

other groups.

d. Suggesting ways that could foster better

working

relations among the groups.

Cl osinq

Despite claims of reforms which emphasize education

for
development, educators in Zambia have not fully
explored ways in
which the curriculum development process oould tie in the work of

the school with that of the life of the local community.

The local

community and the school in which the same students live and

learn have too often continued to remain two separate entities.

This exploratory study was carried out to outline some

dimensions for curriculum development in secondary schools in Zambia.

First, the findings suggest how the community people, the teachers,

the educational leaders and the students could be involved at the

different stages of the curriculum development process. Second,

the curriculum plans that will emerge from the study are likely to

suggest more systematic ways for curriculum improvement. However,

any fundamental changes in the curriculum process require some

concurrent change in the structures of administration, planning and

implementation of curricul ' r

.

The study revealed that there is a need to involve various

groups of people in the curriculum process. By involving the various

 161

groups in the different parts of the

curriculum enterprise it is
possible to improve the curriculum and
better ensure the likelihood
of the implementation of the educational reforms.
Determining what
part of the curriculum development
process people are interested
in makes it possible to match the task
with the appropriate group
that is interested in doing it.

Until curriculum development is appropriately

decentralized
and placed in the hands of the people
who are close to learners and

with the right skills it will not be possible

for education to play

a central role in the accomplishment of societal

objectives that are
important to Zambia. As Zambia plans for the next decade, pro-

fessional educators and admini strators from all over

the country

with the support of the community people and students

they serve,

must begin a new sense of responsibility. They must now make

curriculum more responsive to learners and ensure that education

is a more compelling force in the improvement of the Zambian

society.
 162

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of Materials and Methods. London: Harper and Row, 1976.
A Manual ~
Cowan, , Gray, 0. James, and Scanlon, David G. eds.
J: : Education and
Natio nal Building in AFrica New York:.
Praeger, 1965.

Doll, Ronald C. Curriculum Improvement: Decision-Making and Process ’

2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1970.

Eisner, Elliot W. The Educational Imagination: On Design and

Evaluation of School Programs New York: ! MacMillan, 1979.

Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed . New York: The Seabury

Press, 1968 (1970).

Gillette, Arthur Lavery. Beyond the Non-formal Fashion: Towards

Educational Revolution in Tanzania Amherst: University of
.

Massachusetts, 1977.

Goodlad, John I. and Associates. Curriculum Inquiry: The Study of

Curriculum Practice New York:
. McGraw Hill, 1979.

Goodlad, John I. and Richter, Maurice N. Jr., The Development of a

Conceptual System for Dealing with Problems of Curriculum and
Instruction Cooperative Research Program, Washington, D. C.:
.

USOE Project No. 454, 1966.

 170

Grant Jjigel- S oviet Education

’ . 4th edition. New York: Penguin Books,

Gress, James R. and Purpel, David

eds
to the Field New York: McCutc
.

Illich, Ivan. Deschool ing Society New York:

.
Harper and Row, 1970.
Jolly, Richard, ed. Education in Africa: Research a nd Action.
Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1969.

Kaunda, Kenneth. Humanism in Zambia Part II.

. Lusaka: Government
Printer, 1974.

Kindervatter Suzanne. Nonformal Education as an Empowering

,
Process ’

Amherst: University of Massachusetts, 1979.

Leeper, Robert R. ed. The Role of Supervisor and Curriculum

Director
in a Climate of Change Association for Supervision and
.

Curriculum Development, Washington, D. C.: 1965 Yearbook.

Witter, Wolfgang Prof. Secondary School Graduation: University

Entrance Qualification in Socialist Countries: A Comparative
Study. Deutsches Institut fur International Padagegische
Forschung, Frankfurt, W. Germany: Pergamon Press, 1979.
(Translated from German by K. F. Smart.)

Mwanakatwe, John M. The Growth of Education in Zambia Since

Independence . Lusaka: Oxford University Press, 1968 (1974).

Nyerere, Julius K. Education for Self-reliance . Dar-es-Salaam:

Government Printer, 1969.

Oliver, Albert I. Curriculum Improvement: A Guide- to Problems,

Principles and Process 2nd ed. New York:
. Harper and Row,
1977.
 171

’Ma sSuseUsrTO >

Rub 1 "

Rudman^ Herbert C S t ructure

.
and Peosio^Ma ki ng in
wasmngton, U.C.. Soviet Educate
U. S. (government Printing Office, 1964.

Sauyal , Bikas C. and Kinunda, Michael

J. Higher Education fnr Seif.
a C The Ta n zanian Experience
l ? f‘ ^ Paris: International .

Institute for Educational PI

anning-UNESCO, 1977.
Schaffarzick, Jon and Sykes, Gary,
^s^_ eds Values
UIUCi Conflict
UUfl s and Curriculum
*
,

s. ons

^
from Research and Experience ,

Berkeley, Calif:
.

Taba Hilda. Curriculum Development: Theory and

Practice. New York:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1962.

Tanner DanieV and Tanner Laurel Curriculum Development:

.
Then ru
Into Practice. New York: MacMillan, 2nd ed. 1980.
^

Tyler, Ralph W. B_a_sic Principles of Curriculum

and Ins truction
Chi cago: University of Chicago Press, 1949.

Urch, George E Africanizatio n of Curriculum in Kenya Ann Arbor: .

University of Michigan Comparative Education
Series No. 12, 1968.
Wiles, Jon and Bondi, Joseph. Curriculum
Development~ : A Guide to
Practi ce London:
. Charles E. Merrill, 1979.

Wootton, Lutian R.; Reynolds, John C. Jr., Gifford,

Charles S.
Trends and Issues Affecting Curriculum Programs and P
ractices. *
Lanham, Maryl and: University Press of America, 1980.

Bibliographies and Directories

Parker, Franklin, ed. American Dissertations on Foreign Education:

A
Bibliography with Abstracts Vol 4, AFrica, New York:
.
Whitston
.

Publishing Co., 1973.

Parker, Franklin, comp. African Education: A Bibliography of 121

U.S.A. Doctoral Dissertations Washington, D.C.: World
.

Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession, 1965.

(with up-date supplement.)
 172

Yates, Barbara A. "A Bibliography on

Special Problems in
Tropical Africa" Education in
1964): 307-319.
•
^HElM^ lducation Review 8 (December

Gardinier, David E. "Education Stat s °f Equatorial AFrica:

A Bibliographical Essay" ?
' Atncan a Library Journal 3 (1972):
7-20.
 APPENDIX A

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
 174
Curriculum Development Centre
P. 0. Box 50092
Lusaka
March 24, 1981

The Permanent Secretary-

Ministry of Education and Culture
P.0. Box 50093
Lusaka

Dear Sir:

D EVELOPMENT OF A CURRICULUM PLANNING MODEL FO R

SECONDARY SCHOOLS
~ ZAMBIAN

1am coll ctl ng data for my Ed. D.

^ dissertation in which I am
8 el a CUrrICUlUm decisi °n-"'aking model
condary Schoor
SecondIrv °? for Zambian
Schools. -
Itr is important that a curriculum
be constructed that will be in planning model
agreement with the objectives of educa-
° Pment 33 OUtllned ln the currenc
educational reform
documents

I would therefore appreciate

it, if you could make an appointment
for me with the Honourable Minister
of Education so that 1 could have
a lalogue with him regarding the desired and
the actual roles of the
teachers, students, educational leaders and
community people in design-
6
ing curriculum.

The attached questions that will guide our dialogue

aim at answer
mg three main questions:

1. Do the teachers, students, educational leaders

desire to have
some input in designing curriculum?

2. What kinds of curriculum designing activities for secondary

schools ought to be carried out at the local as well as the
national arena?

3. Who best might be involved in curriculum designing activities

for secondary schools?

I will be delighted to supply the Minister's office

with the sum-
mary of the results of the s'rdy.

Sincerely yours,

Sibeso Mukoboto (TS 9072)

 175

Curriculum Development Centre

P. 0. Box 50092
Lusaka
March 31, 1981

Dear

I am collecting information that

will help me in the
nnrriPiilnm : » _

form exercise.

The attached questionnaire aims at

answering three main questions
1. Whether you have some desire in making some
contribution
m designing curriculum for Secondary Schools.

2. Are there some other people who you think

should be in-
volved in some curriculum designing activities?

3. What other suggestions do you have for the

improvement of
the current designing activities?

I will be delighted to supply you

with a summary of the results
of the study when completed.

Sincerely yours.

Sibeso Mukoboto (TS 9072)

 176

INSTRUCTIONS

1 . This is not a test but an

attitude inventory.
2 . Write all the answers in the
spaces provided on the
questionnaire.
3. Tick (/) your desired response
where applicable.
4 .
y°U n0t understand an Y Question or
lL problem
k? stated activity, write
the next to the question.

5 . Do not write your name on the

questionnaires.

Your individual responses are very

much appreciated.
 177
COMMUNITY QUESTIONNAIRE

SECTION A :

Background informatinn :

1 . Sex M F
2. Age: (a) Under 25 years
(b) 26-35 years
(c) 36-45 years
(d) 46-55 years
(e) Over 55 years

3. What kind of work do you do for a

living?

4. Which of the following statements best

describes your situation?
6. (a) Have been to school
(b) Can read and write the local language
(c) Completed the primary school course
(d) Have a Junior Secondary Education
(e) Completed secondary education (Form V or its
equivalent)?
5. (a) Do you hold any school related positions?

(b) Which one?

(c) What does it entail?

For how long have you lived in this area?

7. (a) Do you have any secondary school going-age children or

dependants ?
(b) How many of these go to the Local Secondary School?

(c) Go to other parts of the City or region?

 178

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 180

SECTION C:
18.

Are the skills and knowledge

related to the life and
occupation
of the local community being
met by the Secondary school
curriculum?

19. If not, what one curriculum designing activity should

be carried
out to ensure that the right
subjects are taught in the second-
ary school?
20. Who best might carry out this activity?
Why?
 181

LIPUZO MWA S ILUNDWAMANJE

(Translated into Silozi by

Namabanda Mundia)

KALULO YA PTT.T :

Zibiso ya mutomo wa bupilo :

1 • Munna
Musali
3.
2. Lilimo (a) Mwatasi a lilimo ze 25
(b) Mwahali a lilimo ze 26-35
(c) Mwahali a lilimo ze 36-45
(d) Mwahali a lilimo ze 46-55
(e) Fahalimu a lilimo ze 55

Mu eza musebezi mang'i o muipilisa

kaona?

4. Fa litaba ze tatama ki ifi ye talusa

muinelo wa bupilo bwamina
(a) Kana mu keni sikolo?
(b) Mwa kona ku ng'ola puo ya habomina?
6.
(c) Mu felize litopa za sikolo sa pulaima nji?
(d) Mu keni sikolo sa Sekondali nji?
(e) Mu felize lituto za fomu V kapa ze swana ni
za sitopa seo
nji?

5. (a) Kana mu sweli situlo sesi ama za sikolo?

(b) Haiba ku cwalo ki situlo mang'i?

(c) Ze eziwa mwa situlo seo ki lifi?

Se mu pilile nako ye fita kai mwa sibako mo?

7. (a) Munani bana kapa be mu uta baba kena sikolo mwa

Sekondali nji?
(b) Ku bona banana bao ki ba bakai baba kena sikolo mwa sibaka
seo se mu pila kusona?
 182

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 183

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 184

KALULO YA BULALU

18. Kana bucaziba ni zibo ze ama

bupilo ni misebezi ya batu
za
fumaneha mwa lituto za sikolo sa
sekondali?

19. Haiba hakucwalo ki ifi kalulo

ya lituto ye Lukisiwa kuli 11
ame
hande lika zeo kwa lituto ze lutiwa
mwa sikolo sa Sekondali?

20. Ba ba kona ku lukisa lituto zeo hande

ki bafi? Mi ki ka
bakalang i?
'
 185

Mafunso Yolinga Kumagulu

yosiyana-Siyana ya
anthu okhala m'mizinda ndi
m'midzi muno m* Zambia
(Translated into Chinyanja by C.
D. Mkangaza and R.
Mwale)
Gao Loyamba
Zofunika Kudziwa paciyambi

1. Mwamuna Kapena mkazi:

Ngati ndi mwamuna cizindikiro
cikhale colembeka tere
MW Koma ngati ndi Mkazi cizindikiro
cikhale colembelwa
tere: MK

2 . Zaka a. Pansi pazaka makumi awiri ndi zisanu

3. b. Zaka makumi awiri mphambu zisanu ndi
cimodzi
kufikira kuzaka makumi atatu ndi zisanu
c« Zaka makumi atatu mphambu zisanu ndi
cimodzi
kufikira kuzaka makumi anai ndi zisanu
d. Zaka makumi anai mphambu zisanu ndi cimodzi
kufikira ku zaka makumi asanu ndi mphambu
zisanu
e • Kupitilira pazaka makumi asanu ndi mphambu zisanu

Kodi mugwira nchito yanji?

4. Ndi mau oti mwa mau awa, afotokozera bwino zainu?

a. Ndinali kusukulu kuphunzira koma sindina-pindule
b. Ndikoza kuwelenga ndi kulemba cilankhulo canga
c. Ndinatsiriza maphunziro a ku sukulu o yamba
d. Ndinatsiriza maphunzilo a kuse-kondale ndi
nalekezera pa fomu 3.

e. Ndinatsiriza fomu faifi.

5. a. Kodi muli ndi udindo wina wofanana pa za sukulu zachulidwazi?

b. Udindowu ndi uti?

 186
c. Utanthauzanj i?

6. Mwakhala nthawi yotalika kotani m'dera

ill la Zambia?

7. a. Mulx ndi ana kapena a cibale amene

adatsiriza kapena amene
akali kucita maphunziro a sekondale?

b. Ndi angati mwa awa amene amapita ku ma

sekondale sukulu a
pafupi ndi-kumene mukhala?

c. Ndi angatinso mwa awa amene amapita kumase

kondale a kubwalo
kwa mzinda umene mukhalamo kapena kumadela ena
a Zambia?
 cit^

a
anthu

TO
— 187

ku sukulu

ya
phunzitsi

u
akhoza
a Atsogoleli
maphunzilo

mmizinda

Magulu
-

Ana .O
cita:
A
Amene

zo
(a) (b) (c) (d) CO

>
r—J

6mo

1/

term

1/
GAT

KAN
1/mo

2wk

1/

1/wk

apux

la
ca
mukhoza
pazociti

anthu

m'bungwe m'bungwe ndi pamaphun-

zofunika

ana
council. cikonzero

zotsatirazi
za m'makalasi.

mwai pakusankha
kukambilana
ozungulira aphunzitsi

ana.

sukulu

mmene
committee.

misonkhano
pazocita
nchito nchito
zogula

.
cilangizo ana.

cita curriculum
mwapatsidwa

kaphunzitsidwe.

zophunzitsira

Kuthandizira
mizinda.

sukulu.
ya
aphunzilira
mmade] Kuyanganira
aphunzitsi
Kudziwitsa Kuthandiza
Kuthandiza

zo
Kugwira Kugwira
subject Kukonza
sukulu sukulu. Kucita

zilo
la ni ka za mwa

kucita
Ngati .

10. 13. 14. 15. 16.

8. y.
il.
1^
1
 188

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Kodi maphunzilo ndikudziwika kwace
zomwe zinenedwa m' maphunziro
a sekondale, zili zolingana
ndi zo cita za anthu amfupimfupi
ndi sukulu?

Ngati sitero ai, cikonzero cimodzi

camaphunziro ciyenera
kukonzedwa kuti maphunziro oyenera
aziphunzitsidwa m'masekondale
sukulu?

Ndani kodi angathe kucita nchifoyi?

Cifukwa ninji?
 190

EDUCATIONAL LEADERS QUESTIONNAIRE

SECTION A:

1. Sex: M
2 . Age
(a) Under 25 years
(b) 26 to 35 years
4.
(c) 36 to 45 years

(d) 46 to 55 years
5. (e) Over 55 years

3.
6. What is your position in the Ministry?
7.

Give a brief description of your job.

How long have you been holding this position?

What is your highest academic level?

What are your professional qualifications?

8. (a) Have you had any training in curriculum development?

(b) What kind was it?

(c) How long did the training last?

 191

SECTION B :

9. What do you perceive as the role

of the teachers, students,
educational leaders and community
members in designing curri
culum for secondary schools?

10. The educational reform documents call for

the participation in
the curriculum development process of
all parties concerned with
education.
(a) How far is this objective being met?

(b) What mechanisms do you use to ensure that the

educational
policies are carried out?

(c) How effective are these mechanisms?

(d) What other strategies would you suggest for the effective
implementation of these policies?
 192
r

Mpmhpr!;

carry

might Activity
tv
>1
—
Iducational

’eachers
-O
t Jtudents
,eaders

lornmuni

-S
le

rQ
n-
4-1
e-i UJ W t -J u
0 4-1 ' — «'-N '
ca
£
3
3
O —
' >
CJ 73

1/yr

term

activities:
1/
OFTEN

1/mo

HOW

following
2wk

1/

the

l/wk

out

IRED No

LO
carry
W Yes
Q
to

like for
Council. with

Lessons.

School.
Committee.
curri-
—
based
you materials.

workshops

workshops.

materials
community
changes
the community

about
would
Curriculum

Secondary
subject plan
Politicians
community

Teachers Students
Teachers Students
members
members
— curriculum

Local Local
curriculum

ACTIVITY curriculum

chance, development

the the the

curriculum

discussions

teachers

design
on on in
(a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (d)

the

C Attend
workshops

Conduct
students Evaluate

Serve Serve Teach Write culum

Hold
Help Help for:
given

SECTION

.
11. 15. 16. 17. 19.
If lz. 14 lo. ZO.
U.
 193

THE SUBJECT

ABOUT
OR

DISCUSSION:

COMMENTS

QUESTIONNAIRE

UNDER

ANY
 194

TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE

SECTION A:
Background Information

1 . Sex F

3.
2. Age: (a) Under 25 years
(b) 26-35 years
4.
(c) 36-45 years
5. (d) 46-55 years
(e) Over 55 years
'

What is your highest academic qualification?

What are your professional qualifications?

How long have you taught in a Secondary School?

6. For how long have you taught in the present school?

7. What is your current class load (No. of Periods)?

8. What are your teaching subjects?

13.

9. What is your class size (No. of Students in subject)?

10. What is the School enrollment: Male Female

11. What is your School's grade (1, 2, 3, or 4)

12. Is your school rural or urban (More than 30,000 people equals

urban) .

Have you had some training in curriculum work?

 195

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3 3 3 4-i 4-4 60 4-4 3 H O 3 3 3 •H3 3 •H 3 O 44
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 196
24.
SECTION C:

What kind of future curriculum designing

activity would you
25. like to see incorporated in the current
designing procedure?

26. Who best might carry this activity?

Why?

What measure should be taken to ensure that the

activity is
carried out?
 197

STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE

SECTION A
Background Information :

1* Sex: M p

4.
2. Age:

3.
5.
What is the distance of your home from your school?
Give the
answer either in kilometres, time on bus, cycling
or walking
6.
to school.

What position of leadership do you currently hold in the

school?

How long have you been in the present school?

What club or organization do you belong to within or outside

the school?
198
 199
17.
SECTION C:

Have you acquired the most important

skills and knowledge that
are related to the life in the Community
where you come from?
18.

If not, what one kind of future

curriculum designing activity
19.
would you like to see incorporated in order
to correct this
"Mistake"?
20.

Who best might carry out this activity?

Why?
 APPENDIX B

RESPONSES FOR ALL STUDENTS, TEACHERS,

EDUCATIONAL LEADERS AND COMMUNITY
PEOPLE TO CURRICULUM DESIGN ACTIVITIES
 201

Table 3

Number of People in the Sample by

Sex

School Code No.

Sex 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total

Type 1 M 6 5 4 5 6 5 4 5 4 4 50
F 4 4 6 3 4 4 3 4 3 4 37
10 9 10 8 10 9 7 9 7 8 87

Type 3 M 6 7 10 6 3 9 4 6 5 7 63
F 4 3 - 2 5 - 6 3 2 3 28
10 10 10 8 8 9 10 9 10
7 91

Type 4 M 67 52 70 35 - 58 - 34 _ 40 356
F - 6 - - -
52 67 7 58 .17 207
67 58 70 35 52 58 67 41 58 57 563

Totals 87 77 90 51 70 76 58 76 72 75 741

= 459
M
F = 272
Total = 741

Departmental Code
Sex 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total

Type 2 M 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 17
F - - - - 1 1 - 1 — _ 3

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 20

Total = 20

Total sample in the study = 761

M = Male
F - Female
Type 1 = Community questionnaire
Type 2 = Educational leaders questionnaire
Type 3 = Teachers questionnaire
Type 4 = Student questionnaire
 202

16 9 1 0 0
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32.0
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8.7
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squapnq 0 0 3 at
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in
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cm
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lc 1—
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sjaipea 16 14 -

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32.0 37.8 47 19
5.06 slgnif
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lgnif 96
27.0
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19.8
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CM O' 4J < • CH . 4J
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slgnlflc

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166
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1.49 level

CD .H 1
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n
^
00
m
pappospun o O' ^ u 4J
X oc
2.7 CM
10.0
•
m rv
CM
x« = 16 4.5
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x c

M <4-1 1 <4-1
y,, <4-1 Uu <4-| <4-1
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 203

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saappaq JQ ® ^ ^ so m _m O' fl m Os I <r -a- co

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at

;
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o no cn
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1

sjaqopaj CN
•
cn
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significant

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pap-toapufl 12.0 10.8

mo cm mt
m oo sr m in m *h
•jX I OT I O m •
• cm .

O' CM

SEX

CM O CO so m r-> no m vo O'
BY •om 9 ut x -o <r cn

GROUP

aua3 8 4 >3- m om o cl m
16.0 10.8

I UT I
level

-3-0 mm in on n rs
*om x I cn
COMMITTEES:
oo
fH r* O .01

*
6 2 CO i-H CO N at
5.4
Z HT x 12.0
m co

significant

CURRICULUM

mo cm -y -o m oO m r--
CO O' P*» CM
•^n I nf T m
vo
o
THE
cn o cm m r-. CM (N N CM O' O'
O cn h oo
pap-poapun CM • cm
O'
.
*-H
-y
H O'
• o
pH
•

00
ON m
SERVE

17 13 r- <N n rs <r cm m O'

on 34.0 35.1

^ > significant
level

30 21 —
®
,
*H
C m O
4) QO m -o- co m <-h

S3* 60.0 56.8

oo cn
m m cm ao in .05

li "to ^
3 3 oo oo m oO CN \0
X $C
not
on M 4-1
CN • at
8.1
pappoapun 6.0 (0
o

tw 4-4 4-1 U-t 4-i 4- 4-i '

CO CD
3 C
4-1 0)
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10
7 4 0 0 cm cm r-,
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23.6

level

sjappap 9 6 6 1
18.0 16.2 35.3 33.3
•pa .05

4J
f>l C O' TO 3 0 0 m on <*"'
r-*.
sauapnas <r co 4-1
17.6

pH c
TO
TO

23 12 1 0 0
sjaippap 46.0 32.4
ro- 5.9

voSo
»H
mjj

SEX
6 5 114-i co vC cm C ON L”"l on
pappoapuQ
12.0 13.5
O'
pH
o
vO
BY

10 0 0 pH OS © O
GROUT
'll 1 O] ] 20.0
m

*om 9 up p <• © <r cc

co ©
pH
COMMUNITY:

nLiaa 5 4 level 2 1 i— i nn
I nT I 10.0 10.8 11.8 33.3

THE
.05

•OT X “T T CM O CO pH 5 1 eo so <r co
WITH at
<T CC 29.4 33.3
C
WORK
3
6.0
3 8.1
OO © O
•ST1« 3 "I I s?g$Pficant

AND

5 6 3 00 n 00 rH o
10.0 16.2 17.6
PROJECTS
I «I I rfct

21 17 6 1 o ro m <r
pappoapuQ 42.0 45.9 35.3 33.3

COMMUNITY

CM
pH
© •
CN CO
•
sO CO Hn
°N
CM CM
m
co
ro
co
leant

DESIGN

35 23 if
HN
pH •
N h.
•
sax 70.0 62.2
level

o
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i
3 6.0
5 n”°.
u
©© ©©
13.5
N 0 u
pappoapna Xc n

4-! 4-1 4H <4H 4-1 4-t 4-1 4-:

X u*
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5.9
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11 6 9 1 «n <r m
*P3 22.0 16.2
m 52.9 33.3

sjuapnqg
3 cn «-H
4J
CO 1 1 nO O
6.0 O' oo
5.9
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c
CO

16
P" O' U-i 2 oo ^o on o
sjaqoeax 32.0
m me 11.8

*00
CNfcH
CO

pappoapuQ 8 5 CN
II

hi m 1 ON m CN «H <N sO CN O
16.0 0
13.5
xc cn 33.3

CN

SEX
5 CN v? m o o
'll I irt | oo so m O'
BY
10.0
m cn
CN

GROUP
•
uom ux *[
CN O 4 cn oo m CN -sT sO O'
9 10.8
r'v
<r
o

mj33 6 '•T 00 level 3 o o m O' m O'

m so cn in
I UT I 12.0
o 17.6

MATERIALS:

)5

•om x uj x CO O NT 00 3 1 m cn
U r-*
v£> o CO
17.6 33.3

c
CN O cn m CO 1 1 H
CURRICULUM
J OT I o 5.9
vO in
00 33.3

U-l
O' C">

MC • QO
C1.H
CO
6 5 II
2 o o n oo m so <n
hJ
WRITING
"V* T UT I 12.0 13.5
N 0 11.8

xc
MO mm 4 1 <r m <r cn
AND papToapun CN M • •

CN o 23.5 33.3

CHOOSING

9 10 3 M cn cn o
on so •
18.0 27.0

4J
17.6
cn
cn
o
c
lea

S3 A 36 23 'O’ 2 Mm
O •
cn o»
CN
72.0 62.2
level

CN 66.7 CN sO H CO
•
M >
ignlf
CM 00
m M (U
1.11

5
00 •*h
oo o C M
5 CO O
sr oo n
U
o o O O u-l O' CN *H
CN 00 cn «H
pappoapun 10.0
o
xcO
N 4J
M CO

NM U-l U-l U-l f %f U-| U*

Eh S Eh
 206

12 5 <M 00 O O
iC^Tunnmioo 24.0 13.5
<r oi m ctn
C"!
IT|
ON
.
05 CM
pH .
cu
*? 05
> vO
0) >

sjappaq 6 m 6 2 m o
12.0
10
27.0 o 6 3 m 05 . LT5
cn
.

•pa
35.3 66.7 9.5
10.7 o vo <r level

CM CN
4J
03

s^uapn^g 2 1 ±J 4 0 0 3
CO

4.0 2.7 c
23.5 4.8
2 u 93 41
.01

CO 7.1
C 26.1 19.8

u C0
at
U
1 V-

SEX
SJSlpeaj -o
CN
o •
-o oo
•
slgnlf <M 00 O O 57“
36 leant

P^
5.09
29 16 slgnlf
00 rH 46.0 57.1
8.56
16.0 17.4
20.23
>3- cn
BY
1 = :
f
=
7 c
pappuapttfl
6 -I
xc 3 13 2 2 not 00
m CN — < u-5
II

00
GROUP
12.0 18.9
17.6
33.
21
33.3
7.1 x 50
• v©
05
. cn
x to
«-H CN

11 10 3 0 0 8 5 56
SCHOOLS:
•aX p up p 22.0 27.0
17.6
102
28.7 27.1
28.6 17.9

THE
O CM >3“
4 5 13 8
•om 9 uf x 00 m 6.3
17.9
3.7 3.9

IN 0J
>
IUJ93 4 4 a) S 00 5 3 53 27
<U

8.0 >
I UT I
level
10.8
0)
7.9
10.7
14.9 13.0
m
CHANGES
9’6Z o
‘
m
2 4 o .05

h
8.0
3 00 1 3 <N
O' v© at

•om p up p 10.8
4J 17.6 1.6
10.7 cn
.

r*.
.

at
CO

4J
CURRICULUM

oo oo c
CO
oo oo 1 0 0 00 CN v© O'
•s^ft 3 up x u 1.6
CN CM
significant

•H
43
significant

i
8.9
AND =
'h?
3 2 5.4 N
03 1 1 2 0 0 = CM >3- 00 O' 2 ifot
6.0 5.9
•2]n x QT X 33.3 3.2
not
cn m
FINANCES

26 15 m Nn 32
cn
.
v©
co
m
papxoapaQ 52.0 40.5 12 •

O5 vO »H <-H r—
CN so
50.8 42.9
^ sr

SCHOOL

17 11 4 2 18 11 108
64
ON 34.0 29.7
U 23.5 66.7 28.6 39.3
20.3 30.9

c
CO
leant
CONTROL

30 22 level
13 1 35 17 level 219 129
significant
level

S3A 60.0 59.5 >I'gn\fi<

76.5 33.3
55.6 60.7
61.5 62.3
-35
sfgnTT

)5
.05
£ .( .05 =
"
3 4 t oo o o 6 0 0 29
8.1
14 z
poppoapua 6.0 10.8
X not
at
01
not
at
6.8
X not
at
'ST

f %f f U* H ^ IU
U-j U-i u_i **4 lu 4-1 4-1
N S'?

X ^ XU,
co
I
I
T3 3 C
• CO 4-J (U
T3 Q) U
U J <U
cn *o
 207

CM O >3-00 m \o o o
Aifunmmoo sr
CM
©
— 0)
>
level

SJ0pP9q 18 9 5 2 O on h
36.0 m O' CM <— (n
•pa
24.3
C 29.4 66.7

.01

3 A co
CM 00 oo fM 00 CO <T at
sauapn^s 6.0
10.8
4-1
c
CO

1 u

sjaipeax
14 17 CM 00 o o significant

28.0 45.9 5.61

signif

m c c
• oo
CM *-H 12.8

II

papfoapufl mo m —i CM
X
4-1

0 m >j *h m =
c
SEX
VO 00 O' m 2 not

CM m x
BY

cm o <r cc 3 i
•iX l
CROUP u-p x ^ © 17.6 33.3

mo cm ^ n oo m
*om 9 up p vO m
POLITICIANS:
level

Qua: 6 3 level

nm o
8.1
2 o o oo
T UT I 12.0
11.8

.05
05

WITH 7 5 4-1 5 o o >0 m CM <H

at
•ora p up p 14.0 13.5
CO
29.4

4-»

c
1 3 CO
m
ISSUES

v z on 2.0 8.1

\0-H
a
<4-1
O O o o n m oo i—t

m cm
7.35
significant

00C
.00
r'VH =
03

6 3 = 1 o o n h vO r>» CM
x not
CURRICULUM

I UT T
8.1 2 not 5.9
<f vo
12.0
X vo m ©> 00

mo
CM
n. 05 6 2 N CO CM O'
pappoapnn o
• i-H
m
•
35.3 66.7
DISCUSS
m >3 -

17 12 m X3 -
2 >5- M 00 vO
°N 34.0 32.4
4-1 On 66.7

c CM
CO
ic
"
31 24 level
12 1 H ^ O' .
>3*
00
NO
•
level

S3 A 62.0 64.9 ignif

70.6 33.3 7N o =10.7

significant

'5 .01

2 1 4-1 O O O O
papfoapnn 4.0 2.7 CM
XC
0 4_)
CO
X at

<4-f U_ IM IU <4-4 U-l IM

S'? N <4-1

K 8

2 h 2 U-

I >> I

CO T3
 k!08

SEX

BY

GROUP

CHANGES:

CURRICULUM

OF

10 GROUPS

Table

OTHER

INFORMING

AND

COMMUNICATION

INITIATING

w
U
c
CJ 3 C/5 T3
 209

K^punimno^ 6 3 o o
28.0 16.2
17.6

<y

Sjappgq r 9 0)
r* cn 2
‘PH 14.0 24.3
m
o *4 66.7
level

1
s^uapn^s
H o 3 4-1
CO 3 o o .01
8.1
CN 4-1 17.6

c
CO at

SEX
saatpeax D O <r ao 1 o o
rsi .
*H •
O slgnlfii 5.9

BY >T m 4.35

significant

CROUP
» o 5 3 1
not
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— o 6
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MATERIALS:
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rsj
16.2 23.5

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m rH
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level
CURRICULUM

HU33 CN o 3 2 O O
8.1
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12.0 18.9
4-1
EVALUATE
NO
c NO
CO

s,)t n 1 1 ic CN 00 o o
Z X 2.0 2.7 significant

AND
r4
ignif
2.26

CO
II

4-1
J i-h r- CN 0 CN 00 o o
ASSESSMENT
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CN
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tH

psppoapun zo 17 m nj 1
52.0 45.9 33.3
NEEDS
03
CN

OUT
on A3
12 3 1
30.0 32.4 17.6 33.3
4-1
c
CO
CARRY
ic
c^
fSI
o • 22 level -O' 2 significant
level
S3 A 00 59.5
signif
CN 66.7

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05
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u

pappoapun Mu 3 CN
4-1 o o O O
8.1 0 -u
12.0
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at

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CO
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