METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHING

ENGLISH TO YOUNGSTERS AND ADULTS

UNIDAD 2
Current and alternative twentieth century
approaches and methods
Autor: Ninfa Sofía Guevara Peñaranda
 ÍNDICE

1. Unit 2: Current and alternative twentieth century approaches and methods ................. 3
Theme 1: Current Approaches and Methods .................................................................................... 3
Objective: .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction: ..................................................................................................................................... 3

2. Subthemes .................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Subtheme 1: CBI & CLIL ......................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Subtheme 2: Task-based Language Teaching ...................................................................... 8
2.3 Subtheme 3: The Lexical Approach .................................................................................... 11
2.4 Subtheme 4: Cooperative Language Teaching................................................................... 14

3. Preguntas de Comprensión de la Unidad .................................................................... 16

4. Material Complementario .......................................................................................... 17

5. Bibliografía ................................................................................................................ 18

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 Current approaches and methods

1. Unit 2: Current and alternative

twentieth century approaches and
methods
Theme 1: Current Approaches and Methods
Objective:

Identify the teaching and learning process as well as the application of methods, techniques,
and strategies in the classroom.
Introduction:
Despite recent advancements in our understanding of language teaching and learning,
language teachers continue to experiment with new instructional designs and pedagogies.
The changing status of English as an international language has increased the demand for
more effective language education methods. Teachers and teacher educators are constantly
reviewing previous and contemporary practices as they search for useful activities and
resources for their classrooms. Knowledge of these, as well as prior traditions in language
instruction, is essential for today's language teachers.

2. Subthemes
2.1 Subtheme 1: CBI & CLIL
Content Instruction (CBI) is a method of
teaching second languages that centers
on the content students will learn rather
than a linguistic or other syllabus. So,
students study language and subject at
CBI CLIL
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the same time (Lyster, 2007). While

content-based instruction is often
employed in North America, content
and language integrated learning is used
in Europe (CLIL). Their focus differs
slightly. Both CBI and CLIL are part of a global trend to teach in English (Graddol, 2006). They
share traits but are not identical. CBI frequently involves a language teacher teaching
through English, co-teaching with a content teacher, or planning and conducting a course for
ESL students. Like CBI, CLIL involves a content instructor teaching content in a second or
foreign language, but it can also contain content from other subjects. That is, the CLIL
curriculum may start in the language class, whereas CBI usually starts with the content class.

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 Current approaches and methods

CBI and CLIL are based on the following key principles:

• Learning a second language is more effective when used to understand content rather than
as a goal in itself. This idea distinguishes CBI and CLIL from traditional language courses
where a linguistic curriculum is used to organize and material is chosen to support it.

• Content-Based Instruction better meets the demands of second language learners.

Because CBI programs train students for academic studies or survival in an English-speaking
environment, this premise applies. CLIL programs are considered to help both individual and
civic development.

• Content is the beginning point for activating both cognitive and interactional processes in
second language learning. Focusing on understanding and expressing meaningful
information is thought to stimulate a set of cognitive skills essential to learning and
interactional processes that facilitate naturalistic second language development.

Brinton (2007) explains CBI in greater detail:

1. It eliminates the artificial divide between language and content.

2. It reflects the student's interests and needs by anticipating how the learner would use the
second or foreign language.

3. It exposes students to relevant and cognitively demanding language in the form of

authentic materials and assignments.

4. It accommodates student competency levels and talents.

5. It considers language as part of a larger communication system.

6. It believes that pupils need persistent content to learn language.

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7. It considers rich, intelligible information necessary but not sufficient for academic language
mastery.

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 Current approaches and methods

Coyle et al. (2010) describe these ideas about CLIL:

To be effective, learning materials must go beyond simply imparting knowledge and skills; instead, they
must help students build their own knowledge and understanding as well as skills.

Aspects of learning and thinking are addressed in the content (cognition). It is necessary to
assess the linguistic requirements of the topic before allowing the learner to build their own
interpretation of it.

Learned languages need to be tied to the learning context, as well as learning through that
language and reconstructing the content. This language must be clear and understandable to
the general public.

It is impossible to learn without interacting with others.

The link between languages and cultures is complicated when learning takes place in a foreign language
learning situation. CLIL is rooted in a broader educational framework and, as such, must take contextual
elements (such as the curriculum's overarching aims) into account in order to be realized.

Language theory

CBI and CLIL are based on a number of linguistic assumptions. The following is a summary of
them:

• When it comes to merging language and content, Lexis is an essential tool. The
© Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI

development of subject-specific vocabulary is an important part of CBI and CLIL

courses since different subjects or content areas use unique language registers to
convey their meaning (Llinares, Morton, & Whittaker, 2012).
• Grammar is a useful tool for conveying information. Grammar is learned based on
how it is used in expressing ideas and information. The growth of grammatical
structures is determined by the needs of the content rather than by grammatical
complexity.
• A pragmatic and linguistic approach to language development is used (Coyle et al.,
2010). A more immersive approach may be required to "integrate the grammar point
through multiple uses across CLIL sessions, adopting a more immersive approach;
investigate reading practices throughout the school for a more integrated approach"
(p. 59).

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 Current approaches and methods

• CLIL classes place a heavy emphasis on language use in the creation of texts since
academic learning demands familiarity with a core set of text forms common across
disciplines. CBI and CLIL both emphasize the need of understanding how language is
utilized in various disciplinary genres.

Topic- or theme-based courses are a solid foundation for an integrated skills approach
because the themes chosen give coherence and continuity across skill areas and emphasize
language use in connected conversation rather than isolated fragments. They aim to blend
information, language, and problem-solving abilities.

Learning Theory

A number of assumptions about second language learning are made by CBI and CLIL. These
are some of them:

o Making subject matter understandable through language is key in CBI and CLIL. Teachers
must simplify content to make it understandable to students, just as native speakers do
when speaking with second language learners. These adjustments include speaking
slowly, changing the topic, emphasizing key words or phrases, repeating, modeling, and
paraphrasing, and giving many examples, explanations, and synonyms to aid
comprehension.

o Meaning negotiation is critical to comprehending content. This is when teachers and

students work together to grasp subject. Meaning negotiation can take several forms:
one speaker may expand on what the other stated; one speaker may give words or
expressions that the other requires; one person may ask questions to clarify what
another says.

o Corrective feedback aids learning. In CBI and CLIL, students do not just “pick up”
language. The teacher's corrected input also helps them develop language awareness
and accuracy.

o Dialogic conversation facilitates both content and language learning. Effective dialogue
in CBI and CLIL courses is said to be dialogic.
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o Prior knowledge is critical in CBI. Learners bring past information to the classroom,
including knowledge of the world, events, situations, and circumstances, and the people
involved. They may need to use expository, informational, narrative, or recount writing
kinds that are native to their language.

o CBI and CLIL rely on scaffolded learning. Scaffolding is defined as “the temporary aid
through which a teacher helps a learner know how to perform something” (Gibbons
2002, p. 10). Beginning with others' expertise, learners gradually take on more
responsibility for their own learning. In the classroom, scaffolding occurs when one
person (e.g., the teacher or another learner) has more advanced knowledge than the
other (Swain, Kinnear, & Steinman, 2010).

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 Current approaches and methods

Learner roles

CBI adheres to the "learning by doing" methodology. Learners play an active role in this in
numerous ways. Learners are required to be active interpreters of input and willing to
endure uncertainty as they progress through the learning process, as well as to experiment
with different learning methodologies and seek diverse interpretations of spoken and
written texts. Learners may be content creators as well as co-participants in the selection of
themes and activities. Learners must be committed to this new approach to language
acquisition, and CBI proponents caution that some students may not like this new set of
learner roles, making them less than ready and willing participants in CBI classes.

Learner roles are viewed as critical to success in CLIL programs as well. CLIL places a premium
on the responsibilities of teachers and students, as the nature of the subject requires more
student-centered approaches. CLIL courses are notoriously challenging for students,
especially in the beginning. Furthermore, it is undeniable that connecting with and learning
a cognitively challenging subject in a foreign language demands a level of processing that
cannot be achieved when the teacher is merely transmitting information. As a result, both
CBI and CLIL involve active participation from the student with the goal of achieving learner
autonomy.

Teacher roles

Both CBI and CLIL demand more of teachers than traditional language and content teaching.
They typically cooperate with other teachers to build courses and resources. With CBI,
teachers must learn challenging new information and frequently create their own courses or
adapt materials that serve as a foundation for CBI. They must identify and adapt authentic
materials for use in class, become student needs analysts, and create truly learner-centered
classrooms. They are challenged to rethink their teaching by starting with content, as Brinton
et al. (1989, p. 3) put it. They are probably committing to material adaptation and
development and argue that any CBI instructor should have the following skills:

Figure 1. Skills for CBI and CLIL instructors

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1. Changing the classroom 2. Using team-building and 3. Putting together jigsaw 4. Identifying the background
instruction format group-work strategies reading puzzles knowledge and language
abilities that students will need
to succeed.

5. Assisting pupils in the 6. Using writing methods that 7. Applying the proper error- 8. Fostering and sustaining high
development of coping are based on processes correcting techniques levels of student self-esteem
mechanisms

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 Current approaches and methods

For both topic and language learning, CLIL teachers must adapt their language, provide extra
assistance for comprehension and production, encourage dialogic and scaffolded
instruction, and provide appropriate intervention and feedback (Llinares, Morton, &
Whittaker, 2012). To summarize, CLIL teachers appreciate students' comprehension of the
topic being taught. This is also a goal for CBI teachers, but they may be more focused on their
own content mastery and presentation.

2.2 Subtheme 2: Task-based Language Teaching

The use of tasks as the primary unit of planning and instruction in language teaching is
referred to as task-based language teaching (TBLT). According to Van den Branden (2016), it
is "an approach to language instruction in which students are given functional activities that
invite them to focus primarily on meaning exchange and to use language for real-world, non-
linguistic goals."

Task-based activities provide a better environment for the activation of learning processes
than form-based activities, and so provide better possibilities for language learning.
Language learning is said to be dependent on immersing students in tasks that challenge
them to negotiate meaning and engage in genuine and meaningful conversation, rather than
just presenting them with comprehensible material. Advocates of TBLT, like supporters of
other language-learning technologies, believe it will be more effective than the methods it
replaces.

Feez (1998, p. 17) summarizes the key assumptions of task-based instruction:

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Figure 2. Key assumptions of task-based instruction

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 Current approaches and methods

The definition of “task”

TBLT provides the concept of "task" as a central unit of planning and teaching; thus, in order
to comprehend the nature of TBLT, the concept of task must be accurately defined. Although
there are different definitions of task in TBLT, most people agree that a task is an activity or
goal that is carried out using language, such as solving a puzzle, reading a map and giving
directions, making a phone call, writing a letter, or reading a set of instructions and putting
together a toy.

Nunan (1989) offers this definition:

The communicative task [is] a piece of classroom work which involves learners in
comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while
their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. The task should
also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act
in its own right.

Edwards and Willis (2005, p. 3) offer a much fuller explanation of tasks:

• When completing a task, the learners' primary attention is on exchanging and

understanding meanings rather than practicing forms or patterns that have been
predetermined.

• The task has a purpose or goal so that learners know what they should expect to
accomplish by the end of it, such as writing a list of differences, completing a route
map or a picture, reporting a solution to a problem, voting on the best decorated
student room or the most interesting/memorable personal anecdote.

• The completed task's outcome can be shared with others in some way.

• Tasks may need one or more of the four skills: listening, speaking, reading, and
writing.
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Academic tasks are divided into four major categories:

1. The products that students are expected to create

2. The procedures that they must perform in order to manufacture these products
3. The cognitive operations that must be performed and the resources that are
available
4. The compliance system integrated.

These early task descriptions, as well as the questions surrounding their successful classroom
implementation and the training required to assist such implementation, continue to be
discussed in relation to TBLT today.

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 Current approaches and methods

Types of activities for learning and teaching

The goal of TBLT classroom activities is to provide chances for students to learn language
through task work. Six task kinds are proposed by Willis (1996): listing, ordering and sorting,
comparing, problem-solving, sharing personal experiences, and creative tasks. Pica, Kanagy,
and Falodun (1993 as cited in Nuevo, 2015) divide tasks into four categories based on the
type of interaction that occurs during task completion. The task kinds proposed by Willis, as
well as this list by Pica et al., are pedagogical task inventories:

Figure 3. Types of activities for TBLT

1. Jigsaw 2. 3. Problem- 4. Decision- 5. Opinion

tasks. Information solving making exchange
gap tasks. tasks. tasks. tasks.

Learner roles

In current TBLT plans, a variety of distinct responsibilities for learners are assumed. The
following are the primary responsibilities implied by the task work are:

• Team player. The majority of assignments will be completed in small groups or in

pairs. Adaptation may be necessary for students who are used to working in groups
and/or alone.

• Observe what is going on. To enhance learning or practice for real-world tasks,
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responsibilities are used in TBLT. In order for students to learn how language is used
in communication, they must be given the opportunity to participate in class
activities.

• A person who is willing to take a risk. It's common for assignments to urge students
to communicate in a way that they don't have the linguistic resources or previous
experience to do so. To be sure, it's been claimed that this is the purpose of these
tasks. Paralinguistic signals such as intonation (where appropriate), pitch, and
loudness (when appropriate) will all be important in the restatement and

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 Current approaches and methods

paraphrasing process. Guessing from linguistic and contextual clues, asking for
clarification, and discussing with other students may be necessary.

Teacher roles

Teachers in TBLT should play the following duties, according to Van den Branden (2006).

• Maintaining a high level of motivation across the many stages of a task-based activity
is an important goal.

• Task-based activities can be organized effectively by providing clear instructions and

preparing students for task performance, guiding the formation of groups (for group
work), and ensuring that students have all the materials necessary for task
completion or are informed of the ways they can obtain these materials.

• Interact with the students as they are working on the task and make distinctions
among the individuals (or groups of individuals) involved.

Additionally, teachers in TBLT assume a variety of additional tasks, including:

• Selector and task organizer. Choosing, customizing, and/or inventing the activities
themselves is a significant part of the teacher's job, as well as arranging them in a
way that meets the requirements and interests of the students.

• Learners are taught how to do their jobs. Pre-task preparation or cuing is critical for
TBLT proponents, according to most. Topic introduction, clarification of task
instructions and assistance in learning or recalling useful terms and phrases are only
few examples of these activities. It can be either inductive and implicit, or explicit and
deductive.

• Raising one's level of awareness. Learners in task-based language learning (TBLT)

must pay attention to or observe the most important aspects of the language they
use and hear in order to learn it. Pre-task activities such as text exploration, guided
exposure of parallel tasks, and the usage of highlighted information are all examples
of form-focused methods.
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• Keep an eye on things. The teacher's responsibility is not simply to assign tasks to
students, but to monitor and evaluate their performance on those activities and
decide whether or not to intervene.

2.3 Subtheme 3: The Lexical Approach

The Lexical Approach emphasizes the importance of multi-word lexical units or “chunks”
taught and employed as separate items. In contrast to early debates of the Lexical Approach
(Lewis, 1993), later discussions have stressed the function of multi-word units (or “chunks”)
in language learning. Words, particularly multi-word combinations, are believed to be the

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 Current approaches and methods

building blocks of language learning and communication, not grammar, functions, concepts,
or other planning and teaching units.

The definition of “chunks”

According to the Lexical Approach, chunks are a key component of naturalistic language use.
This is especially true if students want to develop the pragmatic fluency that comes from
understanding the proper lexical phrase for the right functional scenario. Schmitt (2000)
clarifies that chunks can be collocations or fixed phrases. The Lexical Approach can be
summarized in this way: language as prefabricated multi-word chunks rather than standard
grammar and vocabulary.

Theory of language

The Lexical Approach exemplifies what we call a structural perspective of language.

Language is viewed as a system of structurally connected elements for the coding of meaning
in this model. Historically, the system's components contained lexical objects as well as
grammatical units. The Lexical Approach introduces a new level of "structure," multi-word
units. Collocation also plays a significant part in lexically based theories of language. For
example, consider the following verb-noun collocations:

do my hair / the cooking / the laundry / my work

make my bed / a promise / coffee / a meal

Many additional multi-word units are also common in language. As an example, here are
some of them:
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The lexical method analyzes and teaches language as lexical elements rather than
grammatical structures. Words and collocations compose chunks and fixed phrases. This
method tries to provide syllabus design and language teaching approaches based on a view
of language that emphasizes multi-word units, or chunks.

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 Current approaches and methods

Finally, in order to utilize language effectively, language learners must master both talents.
Based on research on first language learning, chunks are thought to play a function in
language acquisition as well. They make up a sizable percentage of the data that learners
utilize to improve their grammatical proficiency. Language, as Lewis phrased it, should be
regarded as grammaticalized lexis rather than lexicalized grammar (1993). Chunks are thus
acknowledged to be not just a fundamental characteristic of language structure and use, but
also to play a crucial role in second language learning.

Types of activities for learning and teaching

Activities infused with the Lexical Approach include awareness activities, text chunking
training, and activities meant to improve chunk memory. Such activities can be included in
any course, not just those that use the Lexical Approach.

• Text chunking practice. Chunking activities aim to increase awareness of chunks and
how they work. This entails having pupils highlight or underline word strings in an
authentic text that they believe are multiword units (e.g., strong collocations).

• Memory-boosting and elaboration activities. Elaboration is one sort of memory-

enhancing activity identified by Boers and Lindstromberg (2009). Elaboration can
include thinking about the spelling, pronunciation, grammatical category, meaning,
and relationships with other words of a phrase, as well as thinking that involves the
development of visual and motoric imagery connected to the term's meaning.

• Retelling. Students participate in retelling activities after studying a book with a

specific focus on the chunks that exist in it. They summarize or retell what they have
read while attempting to employ the same chunks that were in the text.

Teacher roles

Teachers have several roles in the Lexical Approach. The teacher is supposed to be a
language analyst, able to recognize multi-word units in texts, assess their importance in class,
and employ texts to maximize their potential for chunk learning. Data-driven learning
activities can be used for both deductive and inductive learning. Willis believes that teachers
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should first create an environment conducive to learning, and then assist students in
managing their own learning, particularly lexicality. This demands teachers to “give up the
image of the teacher as ‘knower' and focus on the student as ‘discoverer'” (Willis D. , 1990,
p. 131).

Learner roles

The learner adopts the role of a data analyst, developing linguistic generalizations based on
enormous corpora of real-life language samples. A concordancer, a computer program,
generates these text lines. Students need to be taught how to use the concordancer
effectively. A vocabulary diary or electronic journal can assist learners remember chunks
they have encountered.

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 Current approaches and methods

2.4 Subtheme 4: Cooperative Language Teaching

Cooperative Language Teaching, also known as CLL, is an educational approach that aims to
maximize the use of cooperative activities among students in the classroom. The following
is how is has been defined:

Cooperative learning is group learning activity organized so that learning is

dependent on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in
groups and in which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and
is motivated to increase the learning of others.
(Olsen & Kagan, 1992, p. 8)

The following are the aims of CLL in language education:

• To encourage naturalistic second language acquisition through dynamic pair and

group exercises.

• To offer instructors an approach for achieving this aim that may be used in a number
of curriculum settings (for example, content-based, foreign language classrooms;
mainstreaming).

• To employ interactive assignments to allow students to pay close attention to specific

lexical elements, language structures, and communicative functions.

• To create opportunities for students to learn and communicate using effectively

strategies.

• To increase student motivation and reduce student stress, as well as to foster a good
emotional classroom climate.

As a result, CLL is a method that bridges the gap between traditional education and the
teaching of second and foreign languages. CLL also aims to improve learners' critical thinking
skills, which are considered essential for all types of learning.
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Types of learning and teaching activities

Three types of CLL groups are described by Johnson et al. (1994, p. 4–5).

1. Formal CLL groups. These can last from a single class period to a few weeks. These are
created for a specific activity and involve students cooperating to attain common learning
objectives.
2. Informal CLL groups. These are impromptu groups that span anything from a few minutes
to an entire class hour and are used to direct student attention or enhance learning during
direct instruction.

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 Current approaches and methods

3. Cooperative base groups. These are long-term learning groups with a regular membership
whose major goal is to allow members to provide each other with the support, help,
encouragement, and assistance they require to progress academically.

The nature and arrangement of group work are critical to the success of CLL. This demands
a well-structured learning program that encourages learners to connect with one another
and motivates them to improve their own learning. The following are the important aspects
of successful group-focused learning in CLL, according to Olsen and Kagan (1992):

• Positive interdependence
• Group formation
• Individual accountability
• Social skills
• Structuring and structures

Teacher and Learner roles in CLL

Teachers’ roles Learners’ roles
Group work organizer and counselor, Active participant, self-directed
facilitator of the learner
communication tasks, intervener
to develop collaborative skills
(Richards & Rogers, 2014)
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 Current approaches and methods

3. Preguntas de Comprension de la
Unidad
1. What are 6 assumptions of CBI and CLIL learning theory?

• Making subject matter understandable through language is key in CBI and CLIL
• Meaning negotiation is critical to comprehending content.
• Corrective feedback aids learning
• Dialogic conversation facilitates both content and language learning
• Prior knowledge is critical in CBI.
• CBI and CLIL rely on scaffolded learning.

2. What is task-based language teaching?

According to Van den Branden (2006), it is "an approach to language instruction in
which students are given functional activities that invite them to focus primarily on
meaning exchange and to use language for real-world, non-linguistic goals."

3. What is a “task” in Task-based language teaching?

Although there are different definitions of task in TBLT, most people agree that a
task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as solving a puzzle,
reading a map and giving directions, making a phone call, writing a letter, or reading
a set of instructions and putting together a toy.

4. What is a “chunk” according to the Lexical Approach?

According to the Lexical Approach, chunks are a key component of naturalistic
language use. This is especially true if students want to develop the pragmatic
fluency that comes from understanding the proper lexical phrase for the right
functional scenario.
© Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI

5. What are some types of learning and teaching activities for Cooperative Language
Teaching?

• Formal CLL groups.

• Informal CLL groups.
• Cooperative base groups.

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 Current approaches and methods

4. Material Complementario
Los siguientes recursos complementarios son sugerencias para que se pueda ampliar la
información sobre el tema trabajado, como parte de su proceso de aprendizaje autónomo:

Videos de apoyo:
• Demo: Task-Based Learning - International TEFL Academy
https://youtu.be/59XMhMO0FMU
• The Lexical Approach explained https://youtu.be/kD7cDnHEtH0
• Using the Lexical Approach in Your Classroom | TEFL Masterclass
https://youtu.be/SWMhXIF_Uyk
• The Lexical Approach Sample Class https://youtu.be/_yyX6Bw77IM
• Cooperative Learning: The Jigsaw Method https://youtu.be/mtm5_w6JthA
• Kagan Cooperative Learning Strategies | Classroom Quick Tips
https://youtu.be/vCDnWnE5E1U
• 60 Second-Strategy: Cooperative Learning Roles https://youtu.be/zR6rTKPkjgQ

Links de apoyo:
• How should CLIL work in practice? https://www.onestopenglish.com/clil/lesson-share-how-
should-clil-work-in-practice/156531.article
• CLIL lesson plans: https://www.onestopenglish.com/children/clil/clil-lesson-plans
• Towards an Integrated Curriculum:
https://www.unifg.it/sites/default/files/allegatiparagrafo/20-01-
2014/coyle_et_al_towards_an_integrated_curriculum_clil_national_statement_and_guidel
© Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI

ines.pdf
• Putting CLIL into practice
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13670050.2016.1146425

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 Current approaches and methods

5. Bibliografía
Boers, F., & Lindstromberg, S. (2009). Optimizing a Lexical Approach to Instructed Second Language
Acquisition. Palgrave Macmillan.

Brinton, D. (2013). Content-Based Instruction in English for Specific Purposes. En C. A. Chapelle, The
Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Brinton, D. M. (2007). CBI, EAP, and ESP: Charting the boundaries. Centre for Research in Education
Conference.

Coyle, D., Marsh, D., & Hood, P. (2010). Content and Language Integrated Learning. Cambridge
University Press.

Edwards, C., & Willis, J. (2005). Teachers Exploring Tasks in English Language Teaching. Palgrave
Macmillan.

Feez, S. (1998). Text based syllabus design. National Centre for English Teaching and Research.

Graddol, D. (2006). English next. London: Bristish Council.

Lewis, M. (1993). The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward.

Llinares, A., Morton, T., & Whittaker, R. (2012). The Roles of Language in CLIL. Cambridge University
Press.

Lyster, R. (2007). Learning and Teaching Languages through Content: A Counterbalanced Approach.
John Benjamins.

Nuevo, A.-M. (2015). Task complexity & interaction: L2 learning opportunities and development. A
Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of
Georgetown University.

Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge University Press.

Olsen, R. E., & Kagan, S. (1992). About cooperative learning. In I. C. (Ed.), Cooperative language
© Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI

learning: A teacher’s resource book. Prentice Hall.

Richards, J., & Rogers, T. (2014). Approaches and Methods in language teaching. Cambridge
University Press.

Schmitt, N. (2000). Key Concepts in ELT: Lexical Chunks. ELT Journal 54(4).

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© Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI

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