B.

Sc Electronics D2 P4 (2020)

1. Objective Type Questions:-

I. The resonant frequency of an RF amplifier is 1MHz and its bandwidth 10KHz. The Q-
Factor will be:

Q = Wr/BW
Where, Wr = resonant frequency
BW = Bandwidth of the amplifier
Given, Q = 10⁵/10³ = 100

II. Which one is an advantage of AM over FM?

Probability of noise spike generation is less in AM.

III. The PWM needs:

More bandwidth than PPM.

IV. In an FM signal, there are:

Infinite number of sidebands.

V. An electromagnetic wave get refracted, when they:

Pass through a medium of a different dielectric constant conducting medium.

VI. Video signal is:

Camera signal + Blanking Pulses + Sync Pulses

VII. The reproduced picture resolution depends upon:

Frequency response of the video section.

 VIII. What is the wave length of super high-frequency (SHF) especialy used in Radar &
satellite communication?

1cm to 10cm.

IX. In an optical fiber, the concept of numerical aperture is applicable in describing the
ability of:

Light collection

X. The radio wave from the transmitter antenna to ionosphere and back to earth is
correctly known as the:

Sky wave.

Subjective Type Questions:-

2. Explain the generation and detection techniques of ssbsc signal. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of ssbsc scheme?

Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC) is a technique used in radio communication to

transmit information using a single sideband of the carrier signal while suppressing the other
sideband and the carrier itself. This technique offers advantages such as efficient use of
bandwidth and power, reduced noise and interference, and improved signal-to-noise ratio.

Generation Techniques:

There are two methods for generating an SSBSC signal:

1. Filter Method: This method uses a filter to remove one of the sidebands and the carrier
from the modulated signal. The filter can be a mechanical filter or an electronic filter,
and it can be a high-pass or low-pass filter depending on which sideband is to be
retained.

2. Phase Shift Method: This method involves shifting the phase of the carrier signal by 90
degrees before it is modulated with the message signal. This results in the suppression
of one sideband and the carrier, leaving only the other sideband.

Detection Techniques:
The detection of an SSBSC signal is achieved using the coherent detection technique, which
involves mixing the received signal with a local oscillator signal of the same frequency and
phase as the carrier of the transmitted signal. The resulting product is then passed through a
low-pass filter to recover the original message signal.

Advantages of SSBSC:

1. Efficient use of bandwidth and power.

2. Reduced noise and interference due to the suppression of one sideband and the carrier.

3. Improved signal-to-noise ratio.

4. Compatible with frequency modulation (FM) and amplitude modulation (AM) receivers.

Disadvantages of SSBSC:

1. The coherent detection technique requires the use of a local oscillator, which can
introduce phase noise and drift, affecting the quality of the received signal.

2. SSBSC signals are more susceptible to frequency offset and Doppler shifts, which can
cause frequency distortion and loss of signal quality.

3. What is superherodyne receiver? Explain the working operation of it using suitable block
diagram?

A superheterodyne receiver is a type of radio receiver that converts a high-frequency signal

(known as the radio frequency, or RF) to a lower intermediate frequency (IF) using a process
known as heterodyning. This allows for improved selectivity, sensitivity, and stability compared
to other types of receivers.

The basic block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver is as follows:

Antenna -> RF Amplifier -> Mixer -> IF Amplifier -> Detector -> Audio Amplifier ->
Speaker/Headphones
 1. Antenna: The antenna captures the radio frequency signal and converts it to an electrical
signal.

2. RF Amplifier: The RF amplifier amplifies the signal from the antenna to a level sufficient
for further processing.

3. Mixer: The mixer is the heart of the superheterodyne receiver. It combines the RF signal
with a local oscillator signal to produce an intermediate frequency (IF) signal. The local
oscillator frequency is chosen so that the difference between the RF frequency and the
local oscillator frequency is equal to the desired intermediate frequency.

4. IF Amplifier: The IF amplifier amplifies the IF signal to a level sufficient for detection.

5. Detector: The detector demodulates the IF signal to recover the original audio or data
signal.

6. Audio Amplifier: The audio amplifier amplifies the audio or data signal to a level
sufficient to drive a speaker or headphones.

The key advantage of the superheterodyne receiver is that it can use a fixed-frequency IF
amplifier, which provides improved selectivity, sensitivity, and stability compared to other types
of receivers. Additionally, the local oscillator frequency can be easily tuned to allow the receiver
to select different RF frequencies.

Overall, the superheterodyne receiver is a highly versatile and widely used design that has been
a mainstay of radio communication since the 1920s.

4.

(A) Define figure of a merit of a communication system. Derive an expression for the figure of
merit for FM communication system.

The figure of merit of a communication system is a measure of its performance, typically

expressed as a ratio of signal power to noise power. A higher figure of merit indicates better
performance.

For an FM (frequency modulation) communication system, the figure of merit is typically

defined as the ratio of the modulating signal power to the noise power in the received signal.
This figure of merit is also known as the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

To derive an expression for the figure of merit for an FM communication system, consider the
following:

The modulating signal for an FM system can be expressed as:

S(t) = A cos(2πfm t)

where A is the amplitude of the modulating signal, and fm is its frequency.

The FM signal can be expressed as:

SFM(t) = Ac cos[2πfc t + β sin(2πfm t)]

where Ac is the amplitude of the carrier signal, fc is its frequency, and β is the modulation index,
which is a measure of the amount of frequency deviation caused by the modulating signal.

Assuming that the noise in the received signal is white Gaussian noise, its power spectral
density can be expressed as

N0/2

where N0 is the noise power spectral density.

The received signal can be expressed as:

r(t) = SFM(t) + n(t)

where n(t) is the noise signal.

To calculate the figure of merit, we need to determine the power in the modulating signal and
the power in the noise signal.

The power in the modulating signal is given by:

Ps = A2/2

The power in the noise signal is given by:

Pn = ∫∫ Sn(f) df = N0/2 ∫∫ |H(f)|2 df

where Sn(f) is the power spectral density of the noise, H(f) is the transfer function of the FM
demodulator, and the integral is taken over all frequencies.

Using the Carson's rule, we can approximate the bandwidth of the FM signal as:

B ≈ 2(β + 1) fm

where B is the bandwidth, and fm is the modulating signal frequency.

The transfer function of the FM demodulator can be approximated as:

|H(f)|2 ≈ (f - fc)2 / [fm2 + (f - fc)2 ]

Substituting these expressions and simplifying, we get:

Pn = N0/2 [1/(3β2 + 1)] (Ac2 / 2)

The figure of merit (SNR) is then given by:

SNR = Ps / Pn = (3β2 + 1) (A2 / N0) (1 / Ac2)

This expression shows that the figure of merit of an FM system is proportional to the
modulation index squared and the signal power, and inversely proportional to the noise power
and the square of the carrier amplitude. It also indicates that increasing the modulation index
and decreasing the noise power can improve the system's performance.

(B) Describe a method to generate FM waves using a FET as voltage variable resistance VVR.

To generate Frequency Modulation (FM) waves using a Field Effect Transistor (FET) as a
voltage variable resistance (VVR), you can follow the steps below:

1. Gather components: You will need a FET, a DC power source, an RF oscillator, an RF

choke, and a capacitor.

2. Connect the components: Connect the drain of the FET to the DC power source, and
connect the gate of the FET to the RF oscillator through an RF choke. Connect a
capacitor between the source of the FET and ground.

3. Apply voltage: Apply a voltage to the FET through the drain to source terminal, which
causes the resistance of the FET to vary. This voltage can be varied by the RF oscillator.

4. Generate FM: The varying resistance of the FET causes the oscillator frequency to vary,
which produces an FM wave.

5. Adjust the circuit: Adjust the circuit parameters, such as the value of the capacitor and
the RF choke, to control the frequency range of the FM wave.

Note that this is a simplified overview of the process, and actual circuit design and
implementation will require careful consideration of component specifications, and the use of
simulation tools to optimize the circuit performance.

5. Describe the space wave propagation and derive relation for maximum distance between
transmitting and receiving antenna. Earth is assumed to be flat.

Space wave propagation refers to the propagation of electromagnetic waves (such as radio waves)
in free space, without any physical medium or obstacles to attenuate or distort the signal. In this
mode of propagation, the waves travel in straight lines, and their intensity decreases with distance
due to spreading.
The maximum distance between a transmitting and receiving antenna in space wave propagation
can be derived using the following steps:

Determine the wavelength of the radio wave being transmitted by the antenna. This can be
calculated using the formula:

λ = c/f

where λ is the wavelength, c is the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s), and f is the frequency of the wave.

Calculate the maximum distance (dmax) between the transmitting and receiving antennas using the
formula:

dmax = √[(2Rhtp × hr)/(λ)]

where R is the radius of the Earth (assumed to be flat), ht is the height of the transmitting antenna
above the Earth's surface, and hr is the height of the receiving antenna above the Earth's surface.

Simplify the formula by assuming that the height of the transmitting antenna is negligible compared
to the distance between the antennas. In this case, the formula reduces to:

dmax = √[(4Rhr)/λ]

This formula shows that the maximum distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas is
proportional to the square root of the height of the receiving antenna, and inversely proportional to
the wavelength of the radio wave being transmitted.

Substitute the appropriate values for R, hr, and λ to calculate the maximum distance. For example, if
the transmitting frequency is 100 MHz, the wavelength would be λ = 3×108m/s / 100MHz = 3 meters.
If the receiving antenna is located at a height of 100 meters, the maximum distance between the
antennas would be:

dmax = √[(4 × 6371km × 100m) / 3m] ≈ 303KM

This formula assumes a perfectly flat Earth, and in reality, the curvature of the Earth will limit the
range of the signal even further. Factors such as atmospheric conditions, terrain, and obstacles
between the antennas will also affect the range of the signal.

6.

(A) Describe how a PAM signal is mathematically represented in time domain and describe the
expression of its frequency spectrum.

PAM stands for Pulse Amplitude Modulation, a technique used in digital communication systems
where analog signals are converted into digital signals. PAM is a type of baseband modulation
where a series of digital pulses are generated, and the amplitude of each pulse is varied to represent
the corresponding analog signal.
In the time domain, a PAM signal is mathematically represented as a series of rectangular pulses,
where each pulse represents a sample of the analog signal. The amplitude of each pulse
corresponds to the amplitude of the analog signal at the time of sampling. The pulse duration
corresponds to the sampling interval or the time between two consecutive samples.

The mathematical expression for a PAM signal can be given as:

S(t) = ∑(n=0) an p(t - nTs)

∞

Where S(t) is the PAM signal, an is the nth sample of the analog signal, p(t) is the rectangular pulse,
Ts is the sampling interval, and n is an integer representing the sampling instant.

The frequency spectrum of a PAM signal is given by the Fourier transform of the signal, which is a
sinc function multiplied by the frequency spectrum of the rectangular pulse. The frequency spectrum
of the rectangular pulse is a sinc function, given by:

P(f) = 2Ts sinc(2πfTs)

where P(f) is the frequency spectrum of the rectangular pulse, f is the frequency, and sinc function is
defined as sin(πx)/πx. Therefore, the frequency spectrum of the PAM signal can be expressed as:

S(f) = As P(f)

Where As is the amplitude of the PAM signal. Thus, the frequency spectrum of the PAM signal is a
series of sinc functions centered at multiples of the sampling frequency. The maximum frequency in
the spectrum is limited by the Nyquist frequency, which is half of the sampling frequency.

Nyquist refers to the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem, which states that in order to accurately
reconstruct a signal from its samples, the sampling rate must be at least twice the maximum
frequency component of the signal. This means that in order to prevent aliasing, where high-
frequency components of the signal can be misrepresented as lower-frequency components, the
sampling rate must be sufficiently high. The theorem is named after Harry Nyquist, an American
engineer and mathematician, and Claude Shannon, an American mathematician, who independently
developed the concept in the 1920s and 1940s, respectively. The Nyquist-Shannon sampling
theorem has become a fundamental principle in the design and analysis of digital signal processing
systems, including those used in communication systems, audio and video processing, and many
other applications.

(B) Justify the choice of 625 lines for TV transmission. Why the total number of line is kept odd in
all television system.

The choice of 625 lines for TV transmission was made based on technical and historical reasons. In
the early days of television, there were two main competing standards: the 525-line system used in
the United States and the 625-line system used in Europe and other parts of the world. The 625-line
system was ultimately chosen in Europe because it provided a higher resolution and better image
quality.
The total number of lines in all television systems is kept odd for a specific reason related to the way
the image is displayed on the screen. In a CRT (cathode ray tube) television, the image is created by
scanning the electron beam across the screen from left to right and from top to bottom. At the end
of each line, the beam returns to the left side of the screen and moves down to the next line. The
beam needs a certain amount of time to return to the left side of the screen, known as the horizontal
retrace time, and during this time no picture information is transmitted.

If the total number of lines were even, the horizontal retrace time would be centered on the screen
and the picture would appear to flicker due to the alternation of bright and dark lines. By making the
total number of lines odd, the horizontal retrace time occurs during the time when the beam is
moving from the bottom of one line to the top of the next line, and so is less noticeable to the viewer.

In summary, the choice of 625 lines for TV transmission was made for technical and historical
reasons, and the total number of lines is kept odd in all television systems to minimize the visible
effects of the horizontal retrace time.

7. State the different type of colour TV system write the function of RF tuner and use of AGC.

There are three main types of color TV systems used in different parts of the world: NTSC, PAL,
and SECAM.

1. NTSC: This is the color TV system used in North America, Central America, and some
parts of South America and Asia. NTSC stands for National Television System
Committee, the organization that developed the system. It uses 525 lines per frame and
a frame rate of 60Hz.

2. PAL: This is the color TV system used in most of Europe, Australia, and parts of Asia and
Africa. PAL stands for Phase Alternating Line, which refers to the way the color
information is transmitted. PAL uses 625 lines per frame and a frame rate of 50Hz.

3. SECAM: This is the color TV system used in France, parts of Eastern Europe, and some
parts of Africa and Asia. SECAM stands for Sequential Color with Memory, which refers
to the way the color information is transmitted. SECAM uses 625 lines per frame and a
frame rate of 50Hz.

RF Tuner Function:

An RF (Radio Frequency) tuner is a component of a TV that is used to receive and process

broadcast signals. It is typically a module that is located between the antenna and the TV set.
The RF tuner's main function is to select the desired channel from the incoming signal, amplify
the signal, and convert it to a lower frequency that can be processed by the TV's internal
circuitry. The tuner also filters out unwanted noise and interference from the signal, ensuring a
clear and stable picture on the TV screen.
AGC (Automatic Gain Control) Use:

AGC is a feature in a TV that automatically adjusts the signal strength of the incoming RF signal.
The purpose of the AGC is to ensure that the signal level is consistent and not too high or too
low, which can cause distortion or loss of picture quality. The AGC circuitry is designed to adjust
the gain of the RF amplifier in the tuner based on the strength of the incoming signal. If the
signal is weak, the AGC will increase the gain of the amplifier to compensate, and if the signal is
strong, it will decrease the gain to prevent overloading and distortion. The AGC function is
important for ensuring that the TV picture is clear and stable regardless of the signal strength
and quality of the incoming broadcast signal.

8.

(A) Draw the basic block diagram of colour television transmitter and briefly explain the
function of each block.

Here is the basic block diagram of a color television transmitter:

+--------------------------+
| Video Source |
| |
+------------+------------+
|
|
V
+-----------------------------------+
| Video Processing |
| and Modulation |
| (mixer, IF, sound mod) |
+-----------------+-----------------+
|
|
V
+-----------------------+ +---------------------+ +------------------+
| Chrominance | | Luminance | | Sound |
| Processing | | Processing | | Processing |
| and Mixing | | and Mixing | | |
+-----------------------+ +---------------------+ +------------------+
| | |
| | |
V V V
+------------------------+ +--------------------+ +--------------------+
| Chrominance | | Luminance | | Sound |
| Modulated | | Modulated | | Modulated |
| Carriers | | Carrier | | Carrier |
+-------------------------+ +---------------------+ +--------------------+
| | |
| | |
V V V
+-----------------------+ +--------------------+ +-----------------+
| Chrominance | | Video | | Sound |
| Output | | Output | | Output |
+-----------------------+ +--------------------+ +-----------------+

Here is a brief explanation of the function of each block:

1. Video Source: This block represents the source of the video signal, which could be a
camera, a video player, or any other device that generates a video signal.

2. Video Processing and Modulation: This block is responsible for processing the video
signal and converting it into a modulated carrier signal that can be transmitted over the
air. This block typically includes a mixer, an intermediate frequency (IF) stage, and a
sound modulator.
 3. Chrominance Processing and Mixing: This block separates the chrominance (color)
information from the luminance (brightness) information in the video signal and mixes it
with a color subcarrier signal to create a modulated chrominance signal.

4. Luminance Processing and Mixing: This block processes the luminance information in
the video signal and mixes it with a sync signal and blanking pulses to create a
modulated luminance signal.

5. Sound Processing: This block processes the audio signal and modulates it onto a
separate carrier signal.

6. Chrominance and Luminance Modulated Carriers: These blocks represent the modulated
chrominance and luminance signals, which are combined to create the final video signal.

7. Chrominance and Luminance Output: These blocks represent the final chrominance and
luminance signals, which are combined to create the color image that is displayed on the
TV screen.

8. Sound Output: This block represents the final modulated audio signal, which is
transmitted along with the video signal and demodulated by the TV receiver to produce
sound.

(B) What are the advantages of optical communication over electrical communication or radio
communication?

Optical communication has several advantages over electrical communication and radio
communication, including:

1. High Bandwidth: Optical fibers can transmit data at very high speeds, which is several
orders of magnitude greater than what is possible with electrical or radio
communication. This makes optical communication ideal for applications that require
large amounts of data to be transmitted quickly, such as video streaming, data centers,
and cloud computing.

2. Long-Distance Transmission: Optical fibers can transmit data over very long distances
without significant loss of signal strength, which is not possible with electrical or radio
communication. This makes optical communication ideal for applications that require
data to be transmitted over long distances, such as undersea cables,
telecommunications networks, and satellite links.

3. Low Signal Interference: Optical communication is immune to electromagnetic

interference, which can disrupt electrical or radio communication signals. This makes
optical communication ideal for applications that require a high degree of signal integrity,
 such as medical equipment, aerospace, and defense.

4. Low Power Consumption: Optical communication requires less power to transmit data
compared to electrical or radio communication, which reduces energy consumption and
operating costs. This makes optical communication ideal for applications that require
low-power consumption, such as mobile devices, sensors, and IoT devices.

Overall, optical communication provides a high-speed, high-bandwidth, reliable, and secure

means of transmitting data over long distances with low power consumption, making it ideal for
a wide range of applications.

9. Define the term attenuation in context with the fiberoptic communication. Draw a
symmetric diagram for a typical experiment setup for its measurement and explain its working.
Describe clearly the method of measuring the attenuation using this setup.

Attenuation refers to the reduction in signal strength as a light signal travels through an optical
fiber. Attenuation is caused by various factors, such as absorption, scattering, and bending
losses, and it is usually measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km). Attenuation is a critical
parameter in fiber optic communication as it affects the maximum distance over which a signal
can be transmitted without degradation.

A typical experimental setup for measuring the attenuation of an optical fiber consists of a light
source, a power meter, and a length of optical fiber. The light source emits a known amount of
light into one end of the fiber, and the power meter measures the amount of light that exits the
other end of the fiber. The setup is usually symmetrical, with a connector or coupler at both
ends of the fiber to ensure that the light is transmitted through the core of the fiber.

The working of the setup involves the measurement of the power of light at the input and output
of a fiber optic cable. The attenuation of the fiber can be calculated by comparing the power of
the light at the input to the power of the light at the output. The difference in power between the
input and output is due to the losses in the fiber, which can be caused by absorption, scattering,
or bending.

Here is the symmetric diagram for this experiment setup:

[Light source] ==== [Connector] ==== [Optical fibre cable] ==== [Connector] ==== [Power metre]

The method of measuring attenuation using this setup involves the following steps:

1. Connect the light source to one end of the fiber and the power meter to the other end of
the fiber using connectors or couplers.

2. Ensure that the fiber is properly aligned and securely connected to the connectors or
couplers.
 3. Turn on the light source and record the power of the light at the input of the fiber using
the power meter.

4. Measure the power of the light at the output of the fiber using the power meter and
record the value.

5. Calculate the attenuation of the fiber by subtracting the power of the light at the output
from the power of the light at the input and dividing the result by the length of the fiber.

6. Repeat the measurements for multiple lengths of fiber to ensure the accuracy and
consistency of the results.

In summary, attenuation in fiber optic communication refers to the loss of signal strength as
light travels through an optical fiber. Measuring the attenuation of a fiber involves measuring
the power of the light at the input and output of the fiber using a light source and a power meter.
A symmetric experimental setup is used to ensure the accuracy of the measurements, and the
attenuation is calculated by subtracting the power of the light at the output from the power of
the light at the input and dividing the result by the length of the fiber.

10. Write a short note about the following:

(A) Linear Demodulator

A linear demodulator is a type of electronic circuit that extracts the original signal from a
modulated carrier signal. It is commonly used in communication systems to demodulate
amplitude modulated (AM) signals.

The operation of a linear demodulator is based on the principle of envelope detection, which
involves extracting the envelope of the modulated signal using a diode or other non-linear
device, and then passing the resulting signal through a low-pass filter to remove the high-
frequency components.

The output of a linear demodulator is a replica of the original signal, which can then be amplified
and further processed as needed.

One of the advantages of linear demodulators is their simplicity and low cost, as they require
only a few components and are relatively easy to design and implement. However, they are less
efficient than other types of demodulators, as they waste energy in the process of envelope
detection.

Overall, linear demodulators are a useful tool for extracting information from modulated signals,
and they continue to be used in a wide range of applications, particularly in low-cost and low-
power communication systems.
(B) Vidicon Tubes

Vidicon tubes, also known as vidicons, are vacuum tubes used for capturing and converting
optical images into electronic signals. Vidicons were first developed in the 1950s and were
widely used in television cameras and other imaging devices until the 1980s.

Vidicon tubes consist of a photoconductive target coated with a thin layer of cesium oxide,
which is sensitive to light. When light falls on the target, it creates an electric charge in the
cesium oxide layer, which is then read out as an electronic signal by a beam of electrons
produced by an electron gun. The electron beam scans across the target, converting the optical
image into a series of electronic signals that can be processed and transmitted.

Vidicons were widely used in television cameras and other imaging devices because they
provided high-quality images with good resolution and low noise. They were also relatively low-
cost and easy to manufacture compared to other imaging technologies of the time.

However, vidicon tubes have several drawbacks, such as limited sensitivity to low light levels,
susceptibility to blooming and image lag, and limited lifespan due to the photoconductive
target's gradual degradation. As a result, vidicons have largely been replaced by other imaging
technologies, such as charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and complementary metal-oxide-
semiconductor (CMOS) sensors.

In summary, vidicon tubes are vacuum tubes used for capturing and converting optical images
into electronic signals. They were widely used in television cameras and other imaging devices
until the 1980s due to their high-quality images and relatively low cost, but have largely been
replaced by other imaging technologies.

(C) Photo Detector

A photodetector is an electronic device that converts light energy into electrical energy. It is a
key component of many optical systems, including fiber optic communication systems, imaging
systems, and sensing systems. Photodetectors are commonly used to detect and measure the
intensity of light, and they are often used in applications that require high sensitivity and fast
response times.

Photodetectors work by absorbing photons of light and generating a flow of electrons, which
can be amplified and measured as an electrical signal. There are several types of
photodetectors, including photodiodes, avalanche photodiodes, phototransistors, and
photomultiplier tubes. The choice of photodetector depends on the specific application
requirements, such as sensitivity, speed, and noise performance.

One of the most commonly used photodetectors is the photodiode, which is a semiconductor
device that can generate a current when it is exposed to light. Photodiodes are commonly used
in fiber optic communication systems to convert light signals into electrical signals, and they
are also used in imaging and sensing applications.

In fiber optic communication systems, photodiodes are typically used at the receiver end to
detect the light signal that has been transmitted over the optical fiber. The photodiode is placed
in front of an amplifier, which amplifies the electrical signal generated by the photodiode and
sends it to a decoder, which converts the electrical signal back into the original data.

In summary, a photodetector is an electronic device that converts light energy into electrical
energy. Photodetectors are commonly used in optical systems, and there are several types of
photodetectors available, including photodiodes, avalanche photodiodes, phototransistors, and
photomultiplier tubes. The choice of photodetector depends on the specific application
requirements, such as sensitivity, speed, and noise performance. Photodiodes are commonly
used in fiber optic communication systems to convert light signals into electrical signals at the
receiver end.

(D) Quadrature Detector

A quadrature detector, also known as a demodulator or phase detector, is an electronic device

that is used to extract the amplitude and phase information from a modulated signal. It is
commonly used in radio communications, including AM and FM radio broadcasting, as well as
in radar and other applications.

A quadrature detector works by taking the input signal and splitting it into two signals that are
90 degrees out of phase with each other. This is typically done using a phase shifter or a
quadrature hybrid. The two signals are then multiplied by a local oscillator signal that is also 90
degrees out of phase with one of the input signals. The resulting products are low-pass filtered
to extract the baseband signal, which contains both the amplitude and phase information of the
original modulated signals.

The quadrature detector is often used in conjunction with a mixer, which is used to upconvert or
downconvert the signal to a different frequency. In this case, the local oscillator frequency is
adjusted to ensure that the mixer produces an output signal at the desired frequency.

The advantages of using a quadrature detector include its ability to extract both amplitude and
phase information from a modulated signal, as well as its ability to provide a high degree of
accuracy and precision. It is also relatively simple and inexpensive to implement, making it a
popular choice for many applications.

In summary, a quadrature detector is an electronic device that is used to extract amplitude and
phase information from a modulated signal. It works by splitting the signal into two signals that
are 90 degrees out of phase, multiplying them by a local oscillator signal, and filtering the
resulting products to extract the baseband signal. The quadrature detector is a popular choice
for many applications due to its accuracy, precision, and simplicity.