Creating databases in MySQL:-

The CREATE DATABASE command is used to create a database in MySQL.

Syntax--
CREATE DATABASE <database name>;
For example:-

CREATE DATABASE portal_express;

For Detail Click the Link :- https://youtu.be/NFwSXi_f_WY

Viewing Databases in MySQL:-

If you want to know how many Databases in MySQL then, we need SHOW DATABASES
command.
Syntax—
SHOW DATABASES;
For example:
SHOW DATABASES;

For Detail Click the Link :- https://youtu.be/NFwSXi_f_WY

Accessing Database in MySQL:-

After creating database we need to open it to work in it. We use USE command to access
database in MySQL.
Syntax--
use <database name>
For example:

use portal_express ;

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

For Detail Click the Link :-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ROfSrc3AuF8&list=PL2fNQnSKhEooBwL41z5X4SO372jZ
Oc14P&index=4

Delete / Remove Database from MySQL:-

To delete/remove database from MySQL we need DROP command.
Syntax--
DROP DATABASE <database name>;
For example:

DROP DATABASE portal_express;

Creating Tables in MySQL:-

To create table in MySQL database, we need CREATE TABLE statement.
Syntax--
create table <table name>
(<column name > <data type> [<size>] <constraints of you want>,
<column name > <data type> [<size>] <constraints of you want>,
<column name > <data type> [<size>] <constraints of you want>....)
For example:

create table student

(Name varchar(40),
Roll_no integer,
Marks integer(10),
Class integer);

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dS_8tjhjuj8&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8
C6cJ&index=5

Viewing Table of Database:-

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If you want to see, how many tables has been created in Database, then we need SHOW
TABLES command.
Syntax--
SHOW TABLES;

For example:
SHOW TABLES;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dS_8tjhjuj8&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8
C6cJ&index=5

Inserting Data into Table:-

INSERT INTO command is use to insert data into a table.

(A) Inserting data for all the columns into a table:-

• In the first method, it does not specify the column names where the data will be inserted,
only their values.
Please make sure that the order of the values is in the same order as the columns represented
in the structure of the table.
Syntax--
INSERT INTO <Table name>
VALUES (value1 for column1, value2 for column2, value3 for column3, ...);
For example:

INSERT INTO student

VALUES (Ravi, 26, 87, 12);

• The second method is from specific both the column names and the values to inserted.
Syntax--
INSERT INTO <Table name> (column1, column2, column3.....)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,......);
For example:

INSERT INTO student (Name, Rollno, Marks, Class)

VALUES (Rajesh, 2, 75, 12);

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(B) Inserting Data into specific Columns of a Table:-
If you want to insert value in specific columns then we need following command.
Syntax--
INSERT INTO <Table name> (column1, column3, column7.....)
VALUES (value1, value3, value7 ...);
For example:

INSERT INTO student (Rollno, Class, Name, Marks)

VALUES (14, 11, Nilay, 81);

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PjUe634wTSo&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=7

(C) Inserting NULL values into a Table:-

To insert value NULL in specific columns, you can type NULL without quotes and NULL will be
inserted in that column.
Syntax-
INSERT INTO <Table name> (column1, column3, column7, column4.....)
VALUES (value1, NULL, value7, NULL ...);
For example:

INSERT INTO student (Rollno, Class, Name, Marks)

VALUES (14, 11, Nilay, NULL);

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3u3CXdlBEGg&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=13

Inserting Dates into table:-

Dates are by default entered in 'YYYY-MM-DD' format i.e., first four digits depicting year ,
followed by a hyphen , followed by 2 digits of month , followed by a hyphen and a two digit
day. All this is enclosed in single quotes.

For example:
‘2020-07-01’

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Modifying Data in a Table:-

(A) Updating multiple Columns:-

Modifying the values in more than one column can be done by separating the columns along
with the new values using SET clause, separated by commas.
Syntax--
UPDATE <table name>
SET <column 1>=<new value>,<column 3 >=<new value>,<column 5>=<new value>
WHERE <condition>;
For example:

UPDATE student
SET Class=12, Marks=71
WHERE Name= ‘Rajesh’;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Q1DT03jmeQ&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=8

(B) Updating Single Value:-

Syntax--
UPDATE <table name>
SET <column 1>=<new value>
WHERE <condition>
For example:
UPDATE student
SET Class=11
WHERE Name= ‘Ravi’;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Q1DT03jmeQ&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=8

(C) Updating using an expression or formula:-

Like that: --
UPDATE <table name>

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SET <column 1>=<new value> + 1000
WHERE <condition>;
For example:

UPDATE student
SET Marks=Marks + 5
WHERE Name= ‘Rajesh’;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hc9Hn6Z6zhM&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8C6cJ&
index=29

Removing Data from a Table:-

• The DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table.
Syntax--
DELETE FROM <table name>
WHERE <condition>;
For example:

DELETE FROM student

WHERE Name= ‘Rajesh’;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m7OO6fyDp74&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=9

• Truncate Statement: -
The MySQL TRUNCATE command is used to delete all the rows from Table and free the space
containing the Table.
Syntax--
TRUNCATE TABLE <table name>;

Difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE statement:

DELETE Statement: This command deletes only the rows from the table based on the condition
given in the where clause or deletes all the rows from the table if no condition is specified. But
it does not free the space containing the table.
TRUNCATE Statement: This command is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the
space containing the table.

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

ALTER TABLE Command:-
The ALTER TABLE command is used to modify the definition (structure) of a table by modifying
the definition of its columns. The ALTER TABLE command is used to perform the following
operations:
• To add a column to an existing table.
• To rename any existing column.
• To change the datatype of any column or to modify its size.
• To remove or physically delete a column.

(A) Adding a Column to an existing Table:-

To add new column in existing Table, we need ADD command.
Syntax--
ALTER TABLE <table name> ADD (<column_name> <datatype> [size]);
For example:

ALTER TABLE student ADD (School char(50));

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_prNB43dlIA&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG
8C6cJ&index=6

(B) Adding a Column with default value: -

Alter table command can be used to add a new column to an existing Table with default values.
Syntax--
ALTER TABLE <table name> ADD (<column_name> <datatype> [size] default <data>);
For example:

ALTER TABLE student ADD (School char(50) default “K.V”);

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_prNB43dlIA&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG
8C6cJ&index=6

(C) Modifying an existing Column definition:-

The MODIFY clause can be used with ALTER TABLE command to change the datatype, size
constraints related to any column of table.
Syntax--

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ALTER TABLE <table name>
MODIFY (<Column name> <datatype>);
For example:

ALTER TABLE student

MODIFY (Name char(100));

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_prNB43dlIA&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG
8C6cJ&index=6

(D) Renaming a Column:-

Syntax---
ALTER TABLE <table name>
CHANGE <old Column name> <new column name> <datatype [size]>;
For example:

ALTER TABLE student

CHANGE school school_name char(60);

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8A7bAP1GAKI&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=26

(E) Removing a Column:-

To remove or drop a column in a table. Like that:-
Syntax--
ALTER TABLE <table name> DROP <column name>;
For example:

ALTER TABLE student DROP school_name;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3a3mQtmUmfE&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2V
CG8C6cJ&index=14

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

Viewing Structure of a Table:-
If you want to know the structure of a table, you can use DESCRIBE or DESC command as per
following syntax--
DESCRIBE or DESC <table name>;
For example:

DESC student;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dS_8tjhjuj8&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8C6cJ&ind
ex=5

DROP TABLE command:-

Sometimes, we may need to physically remove a table which is not in use. DROP TABLE
command is used to remove/delete a table permanently. It should be kept in mind that we
cannot drop a table if it contains records. That is why all the rows of the table have to be
deleted first and only then can the table be dropped.
Syntax--
DROP TABLE <table name>;
For example:

DROP TABLE student;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X7921fwn69s&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=10

MAKING SIMPLE QUERIES THROUGH SELECT COMMAND

The SELECT command can perform selection as well as projection. It is most extensively used
MySQL command. The general form of the statement is:-
SELECT what to select
FROM which table
WHERE condition to satisfy;

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For Detail Click the Link :-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3a3mQtmUmfE&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8C6cJ
&index=14

Before going forward Consider the following table or look the table carefully:-
name species sex birth owner city
Ace DOG M 2018-07-16 RAHUL MUMBAI
Alex BIRD F 2019-09-13 AMIT DELHI
Ally CAT F 2015-01-01 RAVI MUMBAI
Axel DOG F 2012-04-04 KRITI DELHI
Bella CAT F 2013-05-09 JATIN CHENNAI
Bingo SNAKE M 2016-06-30 ABHAY AGRA
Bob DOG M 2020-06-12 NIKHIL DELHI
Chaz SNAKE F 2011-09-13 AMIT RAIPUR
Chevy BIRD F 2012-11-21 KRITI SRINAGAR
Max DOG M 2014-12-24 ELVISH PATANA
Dude CAT M 2015-03-31 GAURAV AGRA

Selecting all Data:-

For example
SELECT * FROM pet;

Selecting Particular Rows:-

1 = Select all pets with gender (sex) as male ("m").
SELECT * FROM pet
WHERE sex = ‘m’;
2 = Select all pets that were born on or after Jan 10, 2016.
SELECT * FROM pet
WHERE birth >= '2016-1-10’;
3 = Select all female-dogs.
SELECT * FROM pet
WHERE sex = 'f' AND species = ‘dog’;
4 = Select all snakes or birds.
SELECT * FROM pet
WHERE species = 'snake' OR species = ‘bird’;
5 = Select all male cats.
SELECT * FROM pet
WHERE (species = 'cat' AND sex = 'm');

Selecting Particular Columns:-

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1 = Display names and birth-dates of all pets.
SELECT name, birth FROM pet ;
2 = Display owners of pets born after Dec 2017.
SELECT owner FROM pet
WHERE birth = '2017-12-31’;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3a3mQtmUmfE&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8C6cJ
&index=14

Eliminating Redundant Data (with keyword DISTINCT):-

1 = Display names of all pets owner (non Redundant).
SELECT DISTINCT owner FROM pet ;
2 = Display distinct species of pets from table pet.
SELECT DISTINCT (species) FROM pet ;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TnH3fzMs-
dc&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8C6cJ&index=11

Select From All the Rows - ALL Keyword:-

• It will give values of name column from every row of the table without considering the
duplicate entries.
SELECT ALL name FROM pet;

Performing Simple Calculation: -

To perform simple calculations, you can write the expression/formula to be calculated next to
keyword SELECT, e.g.
1. To calculate 3.14159*6*6
SELECT 3.14159 * 6 * 6 ;
2. To obtain current system date.
SELECT curdate() ;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5IgVYfPWKQ&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=18

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Using Column Aliases:-
The columns that you select in a query can be given a different name i.e., column alias name for
output purposes. As per following syntax
Select <columnname> AS [column alias] [, <columnname> AS [column alias]] ….. From <table
name>;
For example:

SELECT name , species AS "Type of animals" FROM pet ;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bICen8QoiVI&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG
8C6cJ&index=12

Condition Based on a Range:-

The BETWEEN operator defines a range of values that the column values must fall in to make
the condition true. The range includes both lower value and the upper value. For example, to
list the owner, name whose pet's date of birth between 1 Jan 2014 to 1 Jan 2019 (both
inclusive), would be:

SELECT owner, name

FROM pet
WHERE birth BETWEEN ‘2014-01-01’ AND ‘2019-01-01’;

Condition Based on a List:-

To specify a list of values, IN operator is used. The IN operator selects values that match any
value in a given list of values.
For example:
To display a list of pet from 'DELHI', 'MUMBAI', 'CHENNAI' or 'AGRA' cities, you may give.

SELECT * FROM pet

WHERE city IN (‘DELHI’, 'MUMBAI', 'CHENNAI', ‘AGRA’);

• The NOT IN operator finds rows that do not match in the list. So if you write.

SELECT * FROM pet

WHERE city NOT IN (‘DELHI’, 'MUMBAI', 'CHENNAI', ‘AGRA’);

It will list members not from the cities mentioned in the list.

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Condition Based on Pattern Matches:-
SQL also includes a string-matching operator, LIKE, for comparisons on character strings using
patterns. Patterns are described using two special wildcard characters:
• Percent (%):- It matches any string.
• Underscore (_):- It matches any one character.
• The LIKE keyword is used to select rows containing columns that match a wildcard pattern.
For Examples:
1 = To list pet in which owner name starting with 'A', then command is:

SELECT name, owner, city

FROM pet
WHERE owner LIKE 'A%’;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UqESEa1HRv4&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=15

2 = To list names of pets who have names ending with 'y', the command would be:

SELECT name
FROM pet
WHERE name LIKE '%y’;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UqESEa1HRv4&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=15

Searching for NULL:-

The NULL value in a column can be searched for in a table using IS NULL in the WHERE clause.
(Relational operators like = <> etc. can't be used with NULL).
For example:
To list details of all pets whose date of birth contain NULL (i.e., novalue), then you use the
command:

SELECT name, owner, city

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FROM pet
WHERE birth IS NULL;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3u3CXdlBEGg&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=13

• Non-NULL values in a table can be listed using IS NOT NULL.

INSERTING DATA INTO ANOTHER TABLE

You already know that data is added to tables using INSERT INTO command but INSERT
command can also be used to take or derive values from one table and place them in another
by using it with a query.
To do this, simply replace the VALUES clause with an appropriate query as shown in the
following example:

INSERT INTO branch1

SELECT * FROM branch2
WHERE gross > 7000.00;

It will extract all those rows from branch2 that have gross more than 7000.00 and insert this
produced result into the table branch1. But for above command to work, table namely branch1
must be an existing table of the database.

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=roLkW_T5rQE&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=28

CREATING TABLES WITH SQL CONSTRAINTS:-

You already know that a table is created using CREATE TABLE command. But while creating
tables, we may need to apply certain conditions on columns. To apply conditions on columns,
SQL constraints are used.
Constraint: - A constraint is a condition or check applicable on a field or set of fields.

SQL constraints:-
Some common SQL constraints

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 S.No. Constraint Description
1 NOT NULL Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value.
2 DEFAULT Provides a default value for a column when none is specified.
3 UNIQUE Ensures that all values in a column are different.
4 CHECK Makes sure that all values in a column satisfy certain criteria.
5 Primary Key Used to uniquely identify a row in the table.
6 Foreign Key Used to ensure referential integrity of the data.

SQL NOT NULL constraints:-

By default, a column can hold NULL. If you do not want to allow NULL value in a column, you
will want to place a constraints on this column specifying that NULL is now not an allowable
value.
Look the following statement:

CREATE TABLE customer

(ID integer NOT NULL, First_name varchar (30) NOT NULL, Last_name varchar (30));

• Column ID & First_name cannot include NULL, while Last_name can include NULL.

SQL DEFAULT Constraints:-

The DEFAULT constraint provides a default value to a column when the INSERT INTO statement
does not provide a specific value.
For example, if we create a table as below:

CREATE TABLE Student

(Student_ID integer,
Last_Name varchar (30),
First_Name varchar (30),
Score DEFAULT 70);

• And execute the following SQL statement:

INSERT INTO Student

(Student ID, Last_Name, First_Name)
VALUES ('10', 'Kumar', 'Rahul');

After this SQL query, look the table.

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 Student ID Last_name First_name Score
10 Kumar Rahul 70

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3BKecpBN3uw&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=23

SQL UNIQUE Constraint:-

The UNIQUE constraint ensures that all values in a column are distinct. In other words, no two
rows can hold the same value for a column with UNIQUE constraint.
For example, in the following CREATE TABLE statement.

CREATE TABLE Customer

(ID integer Unique,
Last_Name varchar (30),
First_Name varchar (30));

Column ID has a unique constraint, and hence cannot include duplicate values. Such constraint
does not hold for columns Last_Name and First_Name. So, if the table already contains the
following rows:
ID Last_name First_name
1 Roa Ravi
2 Raj Shahu
3 Kumar Rahul

Executing the following SQL statement:

INSERT INTO Customer

VALUES ('3','kumar', 'Rahul');

Will result in an error because the value 3 already exists in the ID column, thus trying to insert
another row with that value violates the UNIQUE constraint.

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_ilEikox_U&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8
C6cJ&index=21

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

SQL CHECK Constraint:-
The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column satisfy certain condition. Once
defined, the database will only insert a new row or update an existing row if the new value
satisfies the CHECK constraint. The CHECK constraint is used to ensure data quality.
For example, in the following CREATE TABLE statement.

CREATE TABLE Customer

(ID integer CHECK (ID > 0),
Last_Name varchar (30),
First_Name varchar (30));

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eA1Dl6bohpY&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=24

PRIMARY KEY Constraint:-

A primary key is used to uniquely identify each row in a table. It can either be part of the actual
record itself, or it can be an artificial field (one that has nothing to do with the actual record). A
primary key can consist of one or more fields on a table. When multiple fields are used as a
primary key, they are called a composite key.
Primary keys can be specified either when the table is created (using CREATE TABLE) or by
changing the existing table structure (using ALTER TABLE).

Defining Primary Key through Create Table Command

You can define a primary key in CREATE TABLE command through keywords PRIMARY KEY.
Below are examples for specifying a primary key when creating a table:

CREATE TABLE Customer

(ID integer not null PRIMARY KEY,
Last_Name varchar (30),
First_Name varchar (30));

Or

CREATE TABLE Customer

(ID integer not null,
Last_Name varchar (30),

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First_Name varchar (30),
PRIMARY KEY (ID));

• The latter way is useful if you want to specify a composite primary key (i.e., having a group of
fields)
For example:-

CREATE TABLE Customer

(Branch integer not null,
ID integer not null,
Last_Name varchar (30),
First_Name varchar (30),
PRIMARY KEY (Branch, ID);

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nTF-
5NL08Ww&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8C6cJ&index=22

Defining Primary Key through Alter Table Command

You can define a primary key in ALTER TABLE command through keywords.
ADD PRIMARY KEY (<key-field>)
Below are examples for specifying a primary key by altering a table:

ALTER TABLE Customer

ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID);

• Before using the ALTER TABLE command to add a primary key, you'll need to make sure that
the field is defined as 'NOT NULL', in other words, NULL cannot be an accepted value for that
field.

Foreign key Constraints:-

Whenever two tables are related by a common column (or set of columns), then the related
column(s) in the parent table (or primary table) should be either declared a PRIMARY KEY or
UNIQUE key and the related column(s) in the child table (or related table) should have FOREIGN
KEY constraint.
For instance, if we have two tables having structures as given below:

Table: CUSTOMER

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 Column name Characteristic
SID Primary key
Last_name
First_name

Table: ORDERS
Column name Characteristic
Order_ID Primary key
Order_Date
Customer_SID Foreign key
Amount

In the above example, the Customer_SID column in the ORDERS table is a foreign key pointing
to the SID column in the CUSTOMER table.
Just like primary key, Foreign key can also be created in two ways: through CREATE TABLE and
ALTER TABLE commands.

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iWUPILYfEuY&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG
8C6cJ&index=25

Defining Foreign key through Create Table

In Create Table command, you can add foreign key's definition through following syntax:
Foreign Key (<column-to-be-designated-as-foreign-key>) references
Master-Table (<primary-key-of master-table>);
Following example shows how to specify the foreign key when creating the ORDERS table:
CREATE TABLE ORDERS
(Order_ID integer,
Order_Date date,
Customer_SID integer,
Amount double,
Primary Key (Order ID),
Foreign Key (Customer_SID) references CUSTOMER (SID));

• The above code will designate Customer_SID field of ORDERS table as foreign key referencing
SID field of CUSTOMER table.

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iWUPILYfEuY&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG
8C6cJ&index=25

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

Defining Foreign key through Alter Table
In Alter Table command, you can add foreign key's definition through following syntax :
ALTER TABLE <table-name>
ADD FOREIGN KEY (<column-to-be-designated-as-foreign-key>)
references Master-Table(<primary-key-of master-table>) ;
Following example specifies a foreign key by altering a table. This assumes that the ORDERS
table has been created, and the foreign key has not yet been put in:

ALTER TABLE ORDERS

ADD FOREIGN KEY (customer_sid) REFERENCES CUSTOMER (SID);

Sorting in SQL - ORDER BY:

If you want to sort or order the result set, you can use the ORDER BY clause of SQL, SELECT
statement as per following format:
Syntax:-
SELECT <comma separated select list> FROM <table>
[WHERE <condition>]
ORDER BY <fieldname> [ASC | DESC] [, <fieldname> [ASC|DESC], ...];
• Keywords ASC and DESC denote the order - ASC stands for ascending and the DESC stands for
descending.
• If you do not specify any order keyword ASC or DESC, then by default ORDER BY clause sorts
the result set in ascending order.
For example:

SELECT * FROM data

ORDER BY marks;
OR
SELECT * FROM data
ORDER BY marks ASC;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cGYBHqFd8B4&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=16

Ordering Data on Multiple Columns:-

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To order the result set on multiple columns, you can specify the multiple column names in
ORDER by clause along with the desired sort order, i.e., as:
SELECT <comma separated select list> FROM <table>
[WHERE <condition>]
ORDER BY <fieldname1> [ASC/DESC], [<field name1> [ASC|DESC], ..... ];
For example:
The following statement will sort the records firstly on the column name Section and then on
the basis of descending order of column marks.

SELECT * FROM data

ORDER BY section ASC, marks DESC;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YZzmFMYDqe0&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2V
CG8C6cJ&index=35

Ordering Data on the basis of a Mathematical Expression:-

The ORDER BY clause allows you to include the mathematical expression to order the result set
by it.
• Consider the following example statement that arrange the result set on the basis of a
calculated result:

SELECT rollno, name, grade, section, marks * 0.35 FROM DATA

WHERE marks > 60
ORDER BY section ASC, marks * 0.35 DESC;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YZzmFMYDqe0&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2V
CG8C6cJ&index=35

Sorting on Column Alias:-

If you want, you can provide a column alias name to the mathematical expression in the select
list.
For example:

SELECT rollno, name, grade, section, marks * 0.35 AS term1 FROM DATA
WHERE marks > 60
ORDER BY section ASC, term1 DESC;

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

For Detail Click the Link :-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YZzmFMYDqe0&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2V
CG8C6cJ&index=35

AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS:-
Till now, we have studied about single-row functions which work on a single value. SQL also
provides multiple-row functions which work on multiple values. So, we can apply SELECT query
on a group of records rather than the entire table. Therefore, these functions are called
Aggregate functions or Group functions.
Many group function accept the following options:
• DISTINCT: - This option causes a group function to consider only distinct value of the
argument expression.
• ALL: - This option cause a group function to consider all values including duplicates.

AVG: -
This function computes the average of given data.
Syntax--
AVG ([DISTINCT | ALL] n);
For example:-

SELECT AVG (sal) 'Average' FROM empl;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gKqQyMVXkeQ&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2V
CG8C6cJ&index=36

COUNT:-
This function counts the number of rows in a given column or expression.
Syntax--
COUNT ({* [DISTINCT | ALL] expr})
• Return the number of rows in the query.
• If you specify argument expr, this Function returns rows where expr is not null. You can count
either all rows, or only distinct values of expr.
• If you specify the asterisk (*), this function returns all rows, including duplicates and null.

For example:
• Count number of records a table empl.

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SELECT COUNT (*) "Total"
FROM empl;

• Count number of jobs in table emp.

SELECT COUNT (job) "Job Count"

FROM empl;

• How many distinct jobs are listed in table empl?

SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT job) "Distinct Jobs"

FROM empl;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UT2DrNyFSdI&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG
8C6cJ&index=37

MAX:-
This function returns the maximum value from a given column or expression.
Syntax--
MAX ([DISTINCT | ALL] expr)
• A Returns maximum value of argument expr.

For example:
• Display maximum salary from table empl.

SELECT MAX (sal) "Maximum Salary"

FROM empl;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XbqXYb_fnI8&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG
8C6cJ&index=38

MIN:-
This function returns the minimum value from a given column or expression.
Syntax--
MIN ( [DISTINCT | ALL] expr)

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

• A Returns minimum value of expr.

For example:
• Display the Joining date of senior most employee.

SELECT MIN (hiredate) as "Minimum Hire Date"

FROM empl;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yVqqOK1OVvY&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=39

SUM:-
This function returns the sum of values in given column or expression.
Syntax--
SUM([DISTINCT | ALL] n)
• A Returns sum of values of n.

For example:
• Display total salary of all employees listed in table empl.

SELECT SUM (sal) as "Total Salary"

FROM empl;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WO6SsDw6NSM&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2
VCG8C6cJ&index=40

GROUPING RESULT - GROUP BY

The GROUP BY clause combines all those records that have identical values in a particular field
or a group of fields.
For example:

SELECT job, count (*)

FROM empl
GROUP BY job;

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

For Detail Click the Link :-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ag0dfsM7sU&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=41

Nested Group - Grouping on Multiple Column --

With Group By clause, you can create groups within groups. Such type of grouping is called
Nested grouping.
This can be done by specifying in GROUP BY expression, where the first field determines the
highest group level, the second field determines the second group level, and so on. The last
field determines the lowest level of grouping.
For example:

SELECT Deptno, job, count (empno)

FROM empl
GROUP BY Deptno, job;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ag0dfsM7sU&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VC
G8C6cJ&index=41

Placing Condition on Groups - HAVING Clause

The HAVING clause place conditions on groups in contrast to WHERE clause that places
conditions on individual rows. While WHERE conditions can not include aggregate functions,
HAVING condition can do so.
For example:
To calculate the average gross and total gross for employees belonging to ‘E4’grade.

SELECT AVG(gross) , SUM(gross)

FROM employee
GROUP BY grade
HAVING grade = ‘E4’

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

For Detail Click the Link :-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZJivWDXxnEo&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8C6cJ&i
ndex=42

SQL JOINS -

SQL join is a query that combines rows from two or more table .

Syntax -

Select <field list>

From <table1>,<table 2>,……
Where <join condition for the tables >
;

Example -

Select ENAME , LOC

From EMPL , DEPT
Where ENAME = “Anoop”
And EMPL.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO
;

Types of SQL joins -

(i) Cartesian Product :-

SQL join query without any join condition return all the records of joined with all records of
other table .

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6P8vaZ2Kbc&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG
8C6cJ&index=31

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

Syntax -

Select * from <table 1>,<table 2>…..

;

(ii) Equi Join :-

SQL join query that join two or more tables based on a condition using equality operator.

Syntax -

Select * from <table 1>,<table 2>

Where < column of table 1 > = < column of table 2 >
;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=azARiP3sQaY&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG
8C6cJ&index=30

(iii) Inner join :-

An inner join implement an equi join . In this join , only those rows are returned from both
the table that satisfy the join condition .

Syntax -

Select <field list>

From <table1> inner join <table 2>
On <join condition for the tables >
;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JaPaZzII7z8&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8
C6cJ&index=32

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

(iv) Natural Join :-

The join in which only one of the identical column exits.

Syntax -

Select *
From < table 1 > Natural join < table 2 >
;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6P8vaZ2Kbc&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG
8C6cJ&index=31

(v) Left join:-

The Left join is a particular type of join that selects rows from both left and right tables that
are matched , plus all rows from left table even with no matching rows found in right table .

Syntax -

Select <field list>

From <table1> Left Join <table 2>
On <join condition for the tables >
;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JaPaZzII7z8&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8
C6cJ&index=32

(v) Right Join:-

The Right join is a particular type of join that selects rows from both left and right tables that
are matched , plus all rows from right table even with no matching rows found in left table .

Syntax -

Select <field list>

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express

From <table1> Right Join <table 2>
On <join condition for the tables >
;

For Detail Click the Link :-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JaPaZzII7z8&list=PL2fNQnSKhEoqOFMtu_JppZ6a2VCG8
C6cJ&index=32

Thankyou !!

Created by -

Path Wala
Computer portal
Portal express

Created by - Path Wala / Computer portal / Portal express