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HOW ARE FORGINGS PRODUCED?

FIA Members
Forging--metal shaping by plastic deformation--spans a myriad of equipment and techniques.
Knowing the various forging operations and the characteristic metal flow each produces is key to
understanding forging design.

Forging Hammer and Press Forging

Producers & Generally, forged components are shaped either by a hammer or press. Forging on the hammer
Suppliers is carried out in a succession of die impressions using repeated blows. The quality of the forging,
and the economy and productivity of the hammer process depend upon the tooling and the skill of
the operator. The advent of programmable hammers has resulted on less operator dependency
and improved process consistency. In a press, the stock is usually hit only once in each die
impression, and the design of each impression becomes more important while operator skill is
Designers & less critical.
Buyers of
Forgings
The Processes
Open Die Forging Open die forging with hammers and presses is
a modern-day extension of the pre-industrial metalsmith working
Student & with a hammer at his anvil.
Academia
In open die forging, the workpiece is not completely confined as it
is being shaped by the dies. The open die process is commonly
associated with large parts such as shafts, sleeves and disks, but
part weights can range from 5 to 500,000 lb.
Forging
Foundation Most open die forgings are produced on flat dies. Round swaging
(FIERF) dies and V dies also are used in pairs or with a flat die. Operations
performed on open die presses include: Fig. 1. Compression between
narrow dies.
1. Drawing out or reducing the cross-section of an ingot or billet to
lengthen it.
2. Upsetting or reducing the length of an ingot or billet to a larger diameter.
3. Upsetting, drawing out, and piercing--processes sometimes combined with forging over a mandrel
for forging rough-contoured rings.

As the forging workpiece is hammered or pressed, it is repeatedly

manipulated between the dies until it reaches final forged
dimensions. Because the process is inexact and requires
considerable skill of the forging master, substantial workpiece
stock allowances are retained to accommodate forging
irregularities. The forged part is rough machined and then finish
machined to final dimensions. The increasing use of press and
hammer controls is making open die forging, and all forging
processes for that matter, more automated.

In open die forging, metals are worked above their recrystallization

temperatures. Because the process requires repeated changes in
workpiece positioning, the workpiece cools during open die forging Fig. 2. Roll forging.
below its hot-working or recrystallization temperature. It then must be reheated before forging can

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continue. For example, a steel shaft 2 ft in diameter and 24 ft long may require four to six heats
before final forged dimensions are reached.

In open die forging of steel, a rule of thumb says that 50 lb of falling weight is required for each
square inch of stock cross-section.

Compression between flat dies, or upsetting, is an open die

forging process whereby an oblong workpiece is placed on end on
a lower die and its height reduced by the downward movement of
the top die. Friction between end faces of the workpiece and dies
prevents the free lateral spread of the metal, resulting in a typical
barrel shape. Contact with the cool die surface chills the end faces
of the metal, increasing its resistance to deformation and
enhancing barreling.

Upsetting between parallel flat dies is limited to deformation

symmetrical around a vertical axis. If preferential elongation is
desired, compression between narrow dies (Fig. 1) is ideal.
Fig. 3. Roll forging using
Frictional forces in the ax ial direction of the bar are smaller than in speciality shaped rolls.
the perpendicular direction, and material flow is mostly axial.

A narrower die elongates better, but a too-narrow die will cut metal instead of elongate. The
direction of material flow can also be influenced by using dies with specially shaped surfaces.

Compression between narrow dies is discontinuous since many strokes must be executed while
the workpiece is moved in an axial direction. This task can be made continuous by roll forging
(Fig. 2). Note the resemblance between Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. The width of the die is now represented
by the length of the arc of contact. The elongation achieved depends on the length of this contact
arc.

Larger rolls cause greater lateral spread and less elongation

because of the greater frictional difference in the arc of contact,
whereas smaller rolls elongate more. Lateral spread can be reduced
and elongation promoted by using specially shaped rolls (Fig. 3).

The properties of roll-forged components are very satisfactory. In

most cases, there is no flash and the fiber structure is very favorable
and continuous in all sections. The rolls perform a certain amount of
descaling, making the surface of the product smooth and free of
scale pockets.

Impression Die Forging

In the most basic example of impression die forging, which accounts

for the majority of forging production, two dies are brought together
and the workpiece undergoes plastic deformation until its enlarged
sides touch the die side walls
Fig. 4. Impression die
(Fig. 4). Then, some material begins to flow outside the die
forging
impression, forming flash. The flash cools rapidly and presents
increased resistance to deformation, effectively becoming a part of the tool. This builds pressure
inside the bulk of the workpiece, aiding material flow into unfilled impressions.

Impression die forgings may be produced on a horizontal forging machine (upsetter) in a process
referred to as upsetting. In upsetting, stock is held between a fixed and moving die while a
horizontal ram provides the pressure to forge the stock (Fig. 5). After each ramstroke, the
multiple-impression dies can open to permit transfer of stock from one cavity to another.

A form of impression die forging, closed die forging does not

depend on flash formation to achieve complete filling of the die.

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Material is deformed in a cavity that allows little or no escape of excess material, thus placing
greater demands on die design.

For impression die forging, forging dies become more important, and operator skill level is less
critical in press forging operations. The press forging sequence is usually block and finish,
sometimes with a preform, pierce, or trim operation. The piece is usually hit only once in each die
cavity.

The Precision Forging Advantage

Precision forging normally means close-to-final form or close-
tolerance forging. It is not a special technology, but a refinement
of existing techniques to a point where the forged part can be
used with little or no subsequent
machining. Improvements cover
not only the forging method itself
but also preheating, descaling,
lubrication, and temperature
control practices.

The decision to apply precision

forging techniques depends on the relative economics of
additional operations and tooling vs. elimination of machining.
Because of higher tooling and development costs, precision
forging is usually limited to extremely high-quality applications.

Ring Rolling Stages in the Ring Rolling Process

Ring rolling has evolved from an art into a
strictly controlled engineering process.
Seamless rolled rings are produced on a
variety of equipment. All give the same
.
product--a seamless section with
circumferential grain orientation. These 2 3
rings generally have tangential strength
and ductility, and often are less expensive
to manufacture than similar closed die
forgings. In sum, the ring rolling process
offers homogeneous circumferential grain
flow, ease of manufacture, and versatility
in material, size, mass, and geometry. 4 5
In the ring rolling process, a preform is
heated to forging temperature and placed
over the idler (internal) roll of the rolling
machine. Pressure is applied to the wall
by the main (external) roll as the ring
6 7
rotates. The cross-sectional area is
reduced as the inner and outer diameters
are expanded. Equipment can be fully
automated from billet heating through
post-forge handling. Advanced ring rolling
equipment can roll contours in both the
inner and outer diameter of the ring,

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allowing for excellent weight reductions, material savings, and reduced machining cost.

There is an infinite variety of sizes into which rings can be rolled, ranging from rollerbearing
sleeves to rings of 25 ft in diameter with face heights of more than 80 in. Various profiles may be
rolled by suitably shaping the drive and idling rolls.

Extrusion In extrusion (Fig. 6), the workpiece is placed in a container and compressed until
pressure inside the metal reaches flowstress levels. The workpiece completely fills the container
and additional pressure causes it to travel through an orifice and form the extruded product.

Extrusion can be forward (direct) or backward (reverse), depending on the direction of motion
between ram and extruded product. Extruded product can be solid or hollow. Tube extrusion is
typical of forward extrusion of hollow shapes, and backward extrusion is used for mass production
of containers.

Piercing is closely related to reverse extrusion

but distinguished by greater movement of the
punch relative to movement of the workpiece
material.

Secondary Processes Besides the primary

forging processes, secondary operations often
are employed. Drawing through a die is a
convenient way to eliminate forged draft (Fig.
7a). The mode of deformation is tangential
compression. The diameter of the drawing ring Fig. 6. a-Foward extrusion; b-backward
can be slightly smaller than the outer diameter of extrusion; c-tube extrusion; d-container
the preforged shell to control or reduce wall extrusion.
thickness and increase the height of the shell in a
drawing or ironing operation (Fig. 7b).

Bending can be performed on the finished forging or at any stage during its production.

Because forging stock may assume complex shapes, it is rare that only a single die impression is
needed. Preforming the forging stock--by bending or rolling it, or by working it in a preliminary
die--may be more desirable. Gains in productivity, die life, and forging quality often outweigh the
fact that preforming adds an operation and attendant costs. Forging in one final die impression
may be practical for extremely small part runs.

Since bending of larger parts requires a machine of long stroke, special

mechanical or hydraulic presses are often necessary. Simple shapes can be
bent in one operation, but more complex contours take successive steps. If
complex shapes are to be formed in a single operation, the tool must
contain moving elements.

Special Techniques After deformation, forged parts may undergo further

metalworking. Flash is removed, punched holes may be needed, and
improved surface finish or closer dimensional accuracy may be desired.

Trimming-- Flash is trimmed before the forging is ready for shipping.

Occasionally, especially with crack-sensitive alloys, this may be done by
grinding, milling, sawing, or flame cutting.

Coining--Coining and ironing are essentially sizing operations with pressure Fig. 7.a-drawing;
applied to critical surfaces to improve tolerances, smoothen surfaces, or b-ironing
eliminate draft.

Coining is usually done on surfaces parallel to the parting line, while ironing is typified by the

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forcing of a cup-shaped component through a ring to size on outer diameter. Little metal flow is
involved in either operation and flash is not formed.

Swaging--This operation is related to the open die forging process whereby the stock is drawn
out between flat, narrow dies. But instead of the stock, the hammer is rotated to produce multiple
blows, sometimes as high as 2,000 per minute. It is a useful method of primary working, although
in industrial production its role is normally that of finishing. Swaging can be stopped at any point in
the length of stock and is often used for pointing tube and bar ends and for producing stepped
columns and shafts of declining diameter.

Hot Extrusion-- Extrusion is most suitable for forming parts of

drastically changing cross section and is, therefore, a direct
competitor to continuous upsetting and the horizontal forging
machine. In Fig. 8, a bar section of car efully controlled volume is
heated, descaled, and placed into the die. Under pressure of the
closely fitting punch (Fig. 8a), the material first fills the cavity, then
part of it is extruded into a long stem. At the end of the stroke
(Fig. 8b), a valve body is obtained that needs only grinding of the
seating surfaces. Fig. 8. Hot extrusion of a valve
body.
There are a number of variants of the extrusion process, many of
them patented. The slug may be hollow (machined), pierced in a separate operation or in the
extrusion process itself. In all instances, the quality of heating, the efficiency of scale removal or
prevention, and the effectiveness of lubrications are matters of greatest importance. The variety
of shapes produced are numerous. Dimensional accuracy, surface quality, and productivity are
high, and a greater degree of deformation can be achieved in a single operation than in any other
forging method.

Cold
Cold forging involves either impression die forging or true closed die
forging with lubricant and circular dies at or near room temperature.
Carbon and standard alloy steels are most commonly cold-forged. Parts
are generally symmetrical and rarely exceed 25 lb. The primary
advantage is the material savings achieved through precision shapes
that require little finishing. Completely contained impressions and
extrusion-type metal flow yield draftless, close-tolerance components.
Production rates are very high with exceptional die life. While cold
forging usually improves mechanical properties, the improvement is not
useful in many common applications and economic advantages remain
the primary interest. Tool design and manufacture are critical.

Warm
Warm forging has a number of cost-saving advantages which
underscore its increasing use as a manufacturing method. The
temperature range for the warm forging of steel runs from above room
temperature to below the recrystallization temperature, or from about
800 to 1,800°F. However, the narrower range of from 1,000 to 1,330°F is

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emerging as the range of perhaps the greatest commercial potential for

warm forging. Compared with cold forging, warm forging has the
potential advantages of: Reduced tooling loads, reduced press loads,
increased steel ductility, elimination of need to anneal prior to forging,
and favorable as-forged properties that can eliminate
heat treatment.

Hot
Hot forging is the plastic deformation of metal at a temperature and
strain rate such that recrystallization occurs simultaneously with
deformation, thus avoiding strain hardening. For this to occur, high
workpiece temperature (matching the metal's recrystallization
temperature) must be attained throughout the process. A form of hot
forging is isothermal forging, where materials and dies are heated to
the same temperature. In nearly all cases, isothermal forging is
conducted on superalloys in a vacuum or highly controlled atmosphere
to prevent
oxidation.

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