TITLE PAGE

AUDIENCE PERCEPTION OF HATE SPEECH AND FOUL

LANGUAGE ON SOCIAL MEDIA IN NIGERIA

(A CASE STUDY OF OWERRI RESIDENTS)

BY

MEKOMAM TREASURE CHIDINMA

20E/0114/MC

A RESEARCH WORK PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

MASS COMMUNICATION, SCHOOL OF GENERAL STUDIES,

FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE OWERRI, IMO STATE

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND) IN MASS

COMMUNICATION.

SEPTEMBER, 2022.

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Abstract

This research work examined the phenomenon of hate speech and foul language on
social media platforms in Nigeria, and assessed their moral and legal consequences in the
society and to journalism practice. It used both quantitative and qualitative methodology
to investigate the phenomenon. In the first place, the paper employed the survey research
methodology to sample 384 respondents using questionnaire and focus group discussion
as instruments for data collection. Findings from the research indicate that promoting
hate speech and foul language on social media have moral and legal consequences in the
society and to journalism practice. Findings also show that although, the respondents
understand that hate speech and foul language attract legal consequences, they do not
know what obligations are created by law against perpetrators of hate speech and foul
language in Nigeria. The paper therefore, adopted the qualitative, doctrinal and analytical
methodology to discuss the legal consequences and obligations created against
perpetrators of hate speech and foul language in Nigeria. The paper concluded based on
the findings that hate speech and foul language is prevalent on social media platforms in
Nigeria and that there are adequate legal provisions to curb the phenomenon in Nigeria. It
recommends among others things that the Nigerian government and NGOs should
sponsor monitoring projects like the UMATI in Kenya to better understand the use of hate
speech and that monitoring agencies set up under the legal regime should adopt
mechanisms to identify and remove hate speech content on social media platforms in
Nigeria.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

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1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Background to the Study Journalism, which is concerned with news coverage and

reporting, has often been seen as a tool for advocating and ensuring peace in the societies.

This is one of the many roles journalists play in the society as ascribed by the social

responsibility theory. In fact, the media should ordinarily be the conscience of the society;

unfortunately, in Nigeria today, media practitioners tend to be callous concerning their

role as peacemakers, rather they serve as the machinery for promoting disunity, igniting

crises and triggering hatred among the members of the society (Ali 2013: 1).

The recent trend in journalism malpractice in the country is the dissemination of

hate speech and vulgar language. Indeed, the press fell to the trap of reporting hate

speech by quoting directly from interviews, press statements, advertorials and sometimes

from alleged online sources. A case in point is the 2015 general elections where popular

media outlets in Nigeria, like AIT, Channels, Thisday, Vanguard and The Nation inter alia

were flushed with campaigns by several political parties displaying crass abuse of the

right of free speech including hate speech and other types of foul language (Olowojolu

2016:8). Despite the fact that some guiding journalism codes of ethic such as the

Nigerian Media Code of Election Coverage and even members of the society rejected the

use of such messages, hate speech and foul language filled the media landscape. It is

worthy of note that hate speech and foul language in Nigeria are mostly inclined to

religion or politics.

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 In general, description of hate speech tend to be wide, sometimes even extending

to embody words that are insulting of those in power or minority groups, or demeaning of

individuals who are particularly visible in the society. At critical times such as during

election campaigns, hate speech may be prone to manipulation; accusations of promoting

hate speech may be traded among political opponents or used by those in power to curb

dissent and criticism.

Nonetheless, while still countering hate speeches in the traditional media, the

emergence of new media has broadened the battlefield in combating the hate speech saga.

The new media offers an ideal platform to adapt and spread hate speech and foul

language easily because of its decentralised, anonymous and interactive structure. The

prevalence of hate speech and foul language on social media bordering on political and

national issues, and even social interaction in Nigeria, especially on Facebook, Twitter,

YouTube and LinkedIn is becoming worrisome. This is because apart from undermining

the ethics of journalism profession, it is contributing in bringing disaffection among

tribes, political class, and religion or even among friends in the society. The Nigerian

public is inundated with negative media usage such as character assassination and

negative political campaigns at the expense of dissemination of issues that help them

make informed choices.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

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 In a situation where citizens become content providers and journalists or editors

are not just supporters of particular political beliefs but play a fundamental part in setting

national agendas leaves much to be desired. In Nigeria, the quest for power and control,

and the desire of politicians to win elections at all cost is overwhelmingly stronger than

the will for the common good. These issues converge in shaping societal discourse by

ardent users of the media and social media networks. The problem this paper intends to

study therefore includes why hate speech and foul language plague the social media in

Nigeria and what ramifications this nuisance has in the society and for the journalism

profession. Most importantly, the paper investigates the consequences of these practices

in the social media, to morality, ethics and law in the society.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The following are reasons that necessitated the researcher to embark on this

research work:

1. To explore the factors that motivate hate speech and foul language on social media

networks in Nigeria

2. To identify the moral and ethical consequences of hate speech and foul language in the

social media to journalism profession and the society

3. To ascertain the legal implications of using social media to promote hate speech and

foul language in Nigeria

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4. To verify if hate speech and foul language on social media can be constricted to

conform to the ethical and moral standards of journalism profession

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the factors that motivate hate speech and foul language on social media

networks in Nigeria?

2. What are the moral and ethical consequences of hate speech and foul language in the

social media to journalism profession and the society?

3. What are the legal implications of using social media to promote hate speech and foul

language in Nigeria?

4. Can hate speech and foul language on social media be constricted to conform to the

ethical and moral standards of journalism profession?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study centers on those who will gain or benefits from the

study such as;

1. The researcher: this is because the study is required for the award of National

Diploma (ND) in purchasing and supply will not be awarded.

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 2. Other students: it will seriate as data to other students who may be faced with

similar problems for reference purpose.

3. To the Society: On completion of the study, the research work will serve as

databank to the society since it will be devoid of hate speeches. The reason is that

they would be able to know whether they have been doing things right or wrong

and therefore learn from it.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This research work is aimed at evaluating the audience perception of hate speech

and foul language on social media in Nigeria with particular reference to Owerri

residents.

1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS

AUDIENCE: a group of listeners or spectators The concert attracted a large audience. b :

a reading, viewing, or listening public The film is intended for a young audience.

PERCEPTION: the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory

information in order to represent and understand the presented information or

environment

HATE SPEECH: abusive or threatening speech or writing that expresses prejudice

against a particular group, especially on the basis of race, religion, or sexual orientation.

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FOUL LANGUAGE: offensive and contains swear words or rude words.

SOCIAL MEDIA: Social media are interactive technologies that facilitate the creation

and sharing of information, ideas, interests, and other forms of expression through virtual

communities and networks.

MASS MEDIA: diverse array of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass

communication. The technologies through which this communication takes place include

a variety of outlets. Broadcast media transmit information electronically via media such

as films, radio, recorded music, or television

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter intends to bring to limelight existing literatures which relates to the

subject of study. These literatures shall be sourced from Newspapers, textbooks,

magazines as well as journals.

For better comprehension, this chapter will be subdivided into the following

subheadings:

1. Conceptual review

2. Theoretical literature

3. Empirical studies

4. Summary of literature

2.2 CONCEPTUAL REVIEW

2.2.1 SOCIAL MEDIA

Social media are interactive technologies that facilitate the creation and sharing of

information, ideas, interests, and other forms of expression through virtual

communities and networks. While challenges to the definition of social media arise due

to the variety of stand-alone and built-in social media services currently available, there

are some common features:

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1. Social media are interactive Web 2.0 Internet-based applications.

2. User-generated content—such as text posts or comments, digital photos or videos,

and data generated through all online interactions—is the lifeblood of social media.

3. Users create service-specific profiles for the website or app that are designed and

maintained by the social media organization.

4. Social media helps the development of online social networks by connecting a

user's profile with those of other individuals or groups.

The term social in regard to media suggests that platforms are user-centric and enable

communal activity. As such, social media can be viewed as online facilitators or

enhancers of human networks—webs of individuals who enhance social connectivity.

Users usually access social media services through web-based apps on desktops or

download services that offer social media functionality to their mobile devices (e.g.,

smartphones and tablets). As users engage with these electronic services, they create

highly interactive platforms which individuals, communities, and organizations can share,

co-create, discuss, participate, and modify user-generated or self-curated content posted

online. Additionally, social media are used to document memories, learn about and

explore things, advertise oneself, and form friendships along with the growth of ideas

from the creation of blogs, podcasts, videos, and gaming sites. This changing relationship

between humans and technology is the focus of the emerging field of technological self-

studies. Some of the most popular social media websites, with more than 100 million

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registered users, include Facebook , TikTok, WeChat, Instagram, QZone, Weibo, Twitter,

Tumblr, Baidu Tieba, and LinkedIn. Depending on interpretation, other popular platforms

that are sometimes referred to as social media services include YouTube, QQ, Quora,

Telegram, WhatsApp, Signal, LINE, Snapchat, Pinterest, Viber, Reddit, Discord, VK,

Microsoft Teams, and more. Wikis are examples of collaborative content creation.

Social media outlets differ from traditional media (e.g., print magazines and newspapers,

TV, and radio broadcasting) in many ways, including quality,[11] reach, frequency,

usability, relevancy, and permanence. Additionally, social media outlets operate in a

dialogic transmission system, i.e., many sources to many receivers, while traditional

media outlets operate under a monologic transmission model (i.e., one source to many

receivers). For instance, a newspaper is delivered to many subscribers, and a radio station

broadcasts the same programs to an entire city.

Since the dramatic expansion of the Internet, digital media or digital rhetoric can be used

to represent or identify a culture. Studying how the rhetoric that exists in the digital

environment has become a crucial new process for many scholars.

Observers have noted a wide range of positive and negative impacts when it comes to the

use of social media. Social media can help to improve an individual's sense of

connectedness with real or online communities and can be an effective communication

(or marketing) tool for corporations, entrepreneurs, non-profit organizations, advocacy

groups, political parties, and governments. Observers have also seen that there has been a

rise in social movements using social media as a tool for communicating and organizing

in times of political unrest.

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2.2.2 OVERVIEW OF HATE SPEECH

The nature and characteristics of hate speech is still very much uncertain in the literature.

Hate speech is considered as any speech, gesture, conduct, writing or display, which

could incite people to violence or prejudicial action. The UN Committee on the

Elimination of Racial Discrimination (2013:4) notes that hate speech includes:

(a) all dissemination of ideas based on racial or ethnic superiority or hatred, by whatever

means;

(b) incitement to hatred, contempt or discrimination against members of a group on

grounds of their race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin;

(c) threats or incitement to violence against persons or groups on the grounds in (b)

above;

(d) expression of insults, ridicule or slander of persons or groups or justification of

hatred, contempt or discrimination on the grounds in (b) above, when it clearly amounts

to incitement to hatred or discrimination; and

(e) participation in organizations and activities, which promote and incite racial

discrimination.

According to Neisser (1994:337), hate speech refers to “all communications

(whether verbal, written, symbolic) that insults a racial, ethnic and political group,

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whether by suggesting that they are inferior in some respect or by indicating that they are

despised or not welcome for any other reasons”. On the other hand, Kayambazinthu &

Moyo (2002) refer to hate speech as “war waged on others by means of words”. This

understanding of hate speech is particularly true when it comes to hate speech on social

media networks. Online hate speech is mainly characterized by the use of words and

symbols.

As regards motivation of hate speech, many scholars have pointed out several

factors, such as lack of tolerance, political clashes, discrimination, enmity and the

openness of social media as motivating hate speech online. For instance, even before the

emergence of social media, Spiegel (1999 p.375) predicted that the internet will be

another communication tool for racists and “hate-mongers” to spread their messages, and

Nemes (2002 p.193) considered the internet a very important channel for those who want

to spread messages of hatred. Witschge (2008 p.75-92) however, presented a more

balanced understanding of the Web’s potentials within political communication. On the

one hand, he endorses Brant’s (2008) views of a “horizontal, open and userfriendly nature

of the internet”, which affords people with opportunities for greater participation in the

public sphere, on the other hand however, he subscribes to Dalhberg’s (2001) counter

arguments that the Web might facilitate abusive postings and even contribute in silencing

some voices. Finally, Witschge argues that whether the Web enables deliberation or not, it

depends on how people utilize the opportunities provided online.

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 Stating the effects of hate speech, Leets (2002, p.223) says it violates the

individual’s dignity, resulting in humiliation, distress and psychological or emotional

pain. Similarly, Nemes (2002 p.220) avers that hate speech can provoke pain, distress,

fear, embarrassment and isolation to individuals. While hate speech towards groups of

people can bring inequality problems and isolation, it creates the feeling of fear and

discourages them from participating in the community and expressing their opinions.

Adding to the argument, Nielsen, (2002 p.265-280) avers that the degradation and

humiliation brought by hate speech can silence the ‘victims’ and therefore reinforce

existing hierarchies in society; while Parekh, (2006 p.213) says it can also lead victims to

become aggressive and dangerous.

Deducing from the above, it is evident that hate speech is harmful and it needs to

be curtailed, especially on the social media. However, scholars like Cornwell and Orbe

(1999) have pointed out a disturbing view about any attempt to limit hate speech, arguing

that this would result in undue censorship. Brinks (2001) thus, presents this great

dilemma in his work. He maintained that the regulation of hate speech might bring

equality but it would affect liberty. Similarly, Downs & Cowan (2012 p.1354) have

argued that “if speech is restricted, it silences those who may benefit largely from its

expression”. Post et al (2009, p.123) observes that hate speech regulation imagines itself

as simply enforcing the given and natural norms of a decent society but from a

sociological or anthropological point of view, law actually only enforces the mores of the

dominant group that controls its content.

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According to Gagliardone et al (2015 p.13-15) online hate speech is not essentially

different from similar expressions found offline; however, there are some specific

characteristics as well as challenges unique to online content and its regulation. They

summarized these characteristics as permanence, itinerant, anonymity or pseudonym and

transnationality. On permanence, hate speech can remain online for long periods of time

and in different formats across different platforms, and can be repeatedly linked. In this

sense, the architecture of any particular platform influences how long topics ‘stay alive’.

For instance, Twitter is built around the idea of trending topics, which may facilitate

quick and wide dissemination of hateful messages, however, if topics are ignored,

discussion rapidly fades; Facebook on the other hand, provides the opportunity for longer

lasting discussion threads. Notwithstanding, online hate speech content may particularly

be itinerant, which means that even when it is removed from one platform it may find

expression elsewhere, possibly on the same platform under a different name or on

different online spaces. If a website is shut down, it can quickly reopen using a web-

hosting service with less stringent regulations or via reallocation to a country with laws

imposing higher threshold for hate speech. The itinerant nature of hate speech also means

that poorly formulated thoughts that would not have found public expression and support

in the past may now arrive on spaces where they can be visible to large audiences.

Regarding anonymity or pseudonymity (false names), the possibility of

anonymous posting on online social media networks tend to make perpetrators of hate

speech more comfortable to express their feelings, because their hidden identities

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dissipate their fears of having to deal with any consequences of their action. Anonymity

especially on social media may also be an obstacle to prosecution. Citron & Norton

(2011) added that the internet itself facilitates anonymous and pseudonymous discourse,

which can just as easily accelerate destructive behaviour as it can fuel public discourse.

Lastly, the transnational reach of the internet enhances the effect of hate speech and poses

complications regarding legal mechanisms for combating online hate speech. In addition,

Kind and Sutton (2013) have added that the climate of online hatred is characterised by

targeted discrimination, prejudice and violent attacks, which tends to cluster in time and

space and drastically increase after so called ‘trigger events’.

2.2.3 REGULATIONS OF HATE SPEECH

INTERNET

On 31 May 2016, Facebook, Google, Microsoft, and Twitter, jointly agreed to

a European Union code of conduct obligating them to review "[the] majority of valid

notifications for removal of illegal hate speech" posted on their services within 24 hours.

Prior to this in 2013, Facebook, with pressure from over 100 advocacy groups including

the Everyday Sexism Project, agreed to change their hate speech policies after data

released regarding content that promoted domestic and sexual violence against women

led to the withdrawal of advertising by 15 large companies.

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Companies that have hate speech policies include Facebook and YouTube. In 2018 a post

containing a section of the United States Declaration of Independence that labels Native

Americans "merciless Indian savages" was labeled hate speech by Facebook and

removed from its site. In 2019, video-sharing platform YouTube demonetized channels,

such as U.S. radio host Jesse Lee Peterson, under their hate speech policy.

COMMENTARY

Several activists and scholars have criticized the practice of limiting hate speech.

Civil liberties activist Nadine Strossen says that, while efforts to censor hate speech have

the goal of protecting the most vulnerable, they are ineffective and may have the

opposite effect: disadvantaged and ethnic minorities being charged with violating laws

against hate speech. Kim Holmes, Vice President of the conservative Heritage

Foundation and a critic of hate speech theory, has argued that it "assumes bad faith on

the part of people regardless of their stated intentions" and that it "obliterates the

ethical responsibility of the individual". Rebecca Ruth Gould, a professor of Islamic and

Comparative Literature at the University of Birmingham, argues that laws against hate

speech constitute viewpoint discrimination (prohibited by First

Amendment jurisprudence in the United States) as the legal system punishes some

viewpoints but not others, however other scholars such as Gideon Elford argue instead

that "insofar as hate speech regulation targets the consequences of speech that are

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contingently connected with the substance of what is expressed then it is viewpoint

discriminatory in only an indirect sense." John Bennett argues that restricting hate

speech relies on questionable conceptual and empirical foundations and is reminiscent

of efforts by totalitarian regimes to control the thoughts of their citizens.

Michael Conklin argues that there are positive benefits to hate speech that are often

overlooked. He contends that allowing hate speech provides a more accurate view of the

human condition, provides opportunities to change people's minds, and identifies

certain people that may need to be avoided in certain circumstances. According to one

psychological research study, a high degree of psychopathy is "a significant predictor" for

involvement in online hate activity, while none of the other 7 criteria examined were

found to have statistical significance.

Political philosopher Jeffrey W. Howard considers the popular framing of hate speech as

"free speech vs. other political values" as a mischaracterization. He refers to this as the

"balancing model", and says it seeks to weigh the benefit of free speech against other

values such as dignity and equality for historically marginalized groups. Instead, he

believes that the crux of debate should be whether or not freedom of expression is

inclusive of hate speech. Research indicates that when people support censoring hate

speech, they are motivated more by concerns about the effects the speech has on

others than they are about its effects on themselves. Women are somewhat more likely

than men to support censoring hate speech due to greater perceived harm of hate

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speech, which some researchers believe may be due to gender differences in empathy

towards targets of hate speech.

2.2.4 HATE SPEECH LAWS

International human rights laws from the United Nations Humans Rights

Committee have been protecting freedom of expression, and one of the most fundamental

documents is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) drafted by the U.N.

General Assembly in 1948. In Article 19 of the UDHR, it states that "Everyone has the

right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions

without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any

media and regardless of frontiers."

Even though there are fundamental laws protecting freedom of expression, there are

multiple international laws that expand on the UDHR and pose limitations and

restrictions, specifically concerning the safety and protection of individuals.

1. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) was the first

to address hate speech and the need to establish legislation prohibiting inflammatory

types of language.

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o The CERD addresses hate speech through the International Convention on

the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) and monitors its

implementation by State parties.

2. Article 19(3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

permits restrictions on the human right of freedom of expression when speech is provided

by law, for the protection of legitimate interest, and necessary to protect that interest.

3. Article 20(2) of the ICCPR prohibits national, religious, or racial hatred that

incites violence, discrimination, or hostility.

A majority of developed democracies have laws that restrict hate speech, including

Australia, Denmark, France, Germany, India, South Africa, Sweden, New Zealand, and

the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom, Article 10 of the Human Rights Act 1998

expands on the UDHR, stating that restrictions on freedom of expression would be

permitted when it threatens national security, incites racial or religious hatred, causes

individual harm on health or morals, or threatens the rights and reputations on

individuals. The United States does not have hate speech laws, since the U.S. Supreme

Court has repeatedly ruled that laws criminalizing hate speech violate the guarantee

to freedom of speech contained in the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

Laws against hate speech can be divided into two types: those intended to preserve public

order and those intended to protect human dignity. The laws designed to protect public

order require that a higher threshold be violated, so they are not often enforced. For

example, a 1992 study found that only one person was prosecuted in Northern Ireland in

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the preceding 21 years for violating a law against incitement to religious violence. The

laws meant to protect human dignity have a much lower threshold for violation, so those

in Canada, Denmark, France, Germany and the Netherlands tend to be more frequently

enforced.

2.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theorectical aspect of this paper can be best understood and analyzed from

two theoretical perspectives:

1. Mediamorphosis Theory and

2. Public Sphere Theory.

2.3.1 MEDIAMORPHOSIS THEORY

Concerning the former, Fildler (1997) argues that media do not arise

spontaneously and independently; rather, they emerge gradually from the metamorphosis

of older media. This emergence results from the perceived deficiencies of the older media

and denials of opportunities to citizens and their pressing need for participation in the

communication process. Thus, the new media become a solace for satisfy of the citizens’

need for information and communication. This theory is relevant in this paper in the sense

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that the inability of the traditional media (print and electronic media) to satisfy the

pressing need of Nigerians to participate in the communication process has given rise to

the adaption of social media in Nigeria by people of diverse backgrounds to

communication nationally and globally. For instance, the anonymous or pseudonymous

character of the social media allows participants to assume fictitious personalities and

names to enable them communicate freely (including use of hate speech and foul

language) without exposure to any social, political and legal consequences.

2.3.2 PUBLIC SPHERE THEORY

Jurgen Habermas proposed the theory in response to what he considered as the

massification and atomization of the public by the media. Habermas (1989) conceived the

public sphere as an arena where citizens have unrestricted access about matters of general

interest, based on freedoms of assembly, association, expression and publication of

opinions without undue economic and political control. In support of Habermas’ concept,

Flichy (2010) argues that the Web 2.0 provides amateurs with opportunity to contribute to

their themes of interest, confront different opinions and find an audience. In that sense,

amateurs acquire an influence that not so long ago, was the exclusive privilege of

professionals and experts. According to Flichy (2010), this social recognition of amateurs

is particularly significant in the field of arts, popular culture, science and politics. In the

case of politics, this democratization of ‘debate’ affects the fundamental parameters of the

‘public sphere’, because bloggers and internet users are not subjected to any form of

control or gatekeeping. In Nigeria, the social media platform has emerged as the new

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public sphere having undefined boundaries with respect to freedoms of assembly,

association and expression, without adequate regulation.

2.4 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Existing studies suggest that attempts have been made at obtaining a bigger picture

of the problem of hate speech. According to Olga & Roiha (2016) the study by the French

organisation MRAP which in 2008-2009 analyzed over 2000 Uniform Resource Locators

(URLs), from presumed hate sites, links to and from the sites leading to forums, blogs,

social networking sites and videos, revealed a series of highly interconnected ‘hate

networks, illustrating the sophistication of many hate groups in spreading their ideology.

Another study, conducted in the UK, has focused on the perpetrators of Islamophobia on

Twitter, following the Woolwich attack in May 2013 (Awan, 2013). The study examined

500 tweets from 100 Twitter users, looking at the hashtags #Woolwich, #Muslim and

#Islam, to analyze how Muslims are viewed by perpetrators of online abuse, aiming to

provide a typology of offender characteristics. The majority (72%) of the tweets analyzed

was posted by men living in the UK, and over 75% of the tweets showed a strong

islamophobic sentiment. The study is yet another piece of evidence of the growing issue

of online Islamophobia, as well as of the role of so called trigger events in unleashing

waves of hate crimes, including online hate speech against certain collectives.

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 A possible response to online hate speech, suggested by some scholars (e.g. Keats

& Norton, 2011), is to give a stronger responsibility to intermediaries such as Google or

Facebook, in fostering a digital citizenship, by transmitting norms of respectful

engagement, as the silence of intermediaries “can send a powerful message that targeted

group members are second-class citizens” (Keats & Norton, 2011). Keats and Norton

specifically suggest for intermediaries to advance the fight against hate speech through

increased transparency and engagement in conversations with stakeholders to identify the

potential harms of hate speech and understand how a particular policy may regulate it.

In 2012 the Council of Europe in preparation of its campaign against online hate

speech, conducted a mapping of existing initiatives addressing cyber hate. They focused

on projects or organizations addressing the specific issue of online hate speech to

conclude that relatively few organizations work specifically on this issue. In this regard,

the recent study by UNESCO (2015) further provides an overview of responses to online

hate speech. Among the responses described in the study, campaigns alerting companies

advertising on social media of hate content serve as a tool making social media platforms

react and withdraw hate content through reactions from advertisers. For example, in 2013

the group “Women, Action and the Media and the Everyday Sexism Project” in the UK

launched a campaign showing page advertisements of prominent companies on Facebook

pages that disseminated graphic sexist content. In response to the campaign, “Nissan and

the insurance company Nationwide” withdrew their ads from Facebook. Having achieved

this, the organizers together with online supporters began sending written complaints and

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photos of different adverts on hateful pages to other major companies on their social

media platforms, urging them to follow suit. As a result of this campaign, 15 major

companies decided to remove their adverts from Facebook. Shortly after, Facebook

removed the content, and issued a statement expressing the need to clarify their content

regulation policies and promote collaboration with organizations preventing online hate

speech (UNESCO, 2015).

It is also presumed that Monitoring hate speech is key to understanding the

phenomenon of online hate speech, and this monitoring tends to be conducted exclusively

through collecting user complaints, which does not give a complete picture of the scale of

the problem (Olga & Roiha, 2016). This few existing studies demonstrate that hate

speech is quite prevalent, causes violence and a series of other related problems,

intrapersonally, interpersonally and massively in the society which could also make

business owners or online intermediaries loose customers or clients.

2.5 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

This research has been able to explore the nexus between the social media, hate

speech and conflict arousal to ascertain whether and how the social media enhance or

debunk the spread of hate speech, given that the fight against perceived online hate

speech is beginning to reach a number of concerned parties, from governments to private

companies and to a growing number of active organizations and affected individuals

(Leandro, Mainack, Denzil, Fabr´ıcio & Ingmar, 2016). Based on the findings of their

empirical investigations, Alakali, Faga & Mbursa (2016) concluded that hate speech and

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foul language is prevalent on social media platforms in Nigeria, with both moral and

legal consequences in the society and the journalism profession.

This work further concludes that the apart from the user generated content on the

social media, the social media shares and comments on the hate contents reported by the

mainstream media even after several months the news was released. In view of these, we

also concur with the submission of Adesina (2018), that government, and concerned

bodies should integrate education and public sensitizations so as to curtail hate speech

and ensure sustainability of the nation’s democracy; owners of online media should

uphold credibility and integrity and all process leading to news gathering, and

dissemination must be made credible, accurate and truthful.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter discussed the source of data method employed by the researcher in

obtaining adequate information. The researcher used various types of techniques all in the

bid to get the right information. This also went further to describe the method used by the

researcher in analyzing the data collected.

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design describe how to collect and analyse the relevant data for the study.

As to this, the percentage technique was employed in carrying out this research work

because it makes it possible for a large population to be reached and represented than any

other design technique and it was found to be less expensive to conduct and consumed

less time than may other design.

3.2 POPULATION OF THE STUDY

The population of this research work comprise of students of ND2 morning of

Computer science, Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri, Imo state. The reason for the

choice of this population is because computer science students are more conversant with

the use of diverse social media platforms as it pertains to their field of study.

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 The department had a total population of one hundred and thirty three (134)

students.

3.3 SAMPLE SIZE

For the purpose of this research work, Yaro Yamen sampling technique will be

used to determine the sample size of this study.

The respondents were selected on the basis of judgment sampling from list of

staff..

A total of one hundred (100) questionnaires was distributed to cover the research sample.

The sample is determined thus:

n= __N_____

1 + N (e)2

Where

N = population

n = sample size

I = constant

e = error gap drawn as 5% or 0.05

n= ____134_____

1 + 134 (0.05)2

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n= ____134_____

1 + 134 (0.0025)

n= ____134_____

1 + 0.34

n= ____134_____

1.34

n = 100

3.4 SAMPLING PROCEDURE

The sampling technique used in selecting the sample for the study is simple random

sampling. A random is a sample selected in such a way that every item in the population

has an equal chance of being selected. Ezinwa Abuka (2002), state that in simple random,

each combination of cases from the population has an equal opportunity of appearing in

the final stage.

The technique encourages high degree of representativeness, thereby reducing the

sampling error.

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3.5 SOURCES OF DATA

In an attempt to resort to a successful project, the researcher took time to

streamline the sources through which relevant data is sourced and processed to

information. The following served as the source of data for the survey of this research

work:

1. Personal Interviews

2. Observations

3. Sampled questionnaires

4. Survey

3.6. INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

The researcher made use of the following instruments or method to collect data.

1. Questionnaire

The questionnaire was represented in such a pattern that it had

a. Multiple choice questions

b. Dichotomous question that requires the provision of mutedly exclusive

monosyllable answers

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 c. Open ended questions which the respondent are required to expose their aim was

to ensure the choice of answers

Generally the aim was to ensure means of analyzing data collected.

2. Personal interview

Daver (1973) went to give the following advantage of the personal interview

a. There will be high level of completed returns

b. Result is more accurate as to interview control

c. Supplementary data are easier to obtain

d. Delicate questions are better asked in person

1. Misunderstanding and misrepresentations are tested likely

3.7 VALIDITY OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT

The measuring instrument used was reliable and valid.

Reliability is the capacity of a measuring instrument to yield similar and content result

when applied to the same situation at diverse period.

To validate, the questionnaires were forwarded to the supervision popular before been

administered to respondents. The questionnaire was properly constructed for clean

understanding of the various question and content.

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3.8 ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTRUMENT

The questionnaire prepared for this study was administered to the students of

Computer Science, Federal Polytechnic, Nekede, Owerri, 100 questionnaire were

administered. The questionnaire was administered to the available students on

the day of visitation.

3.9 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

The researcher and analysis data collected for this research study in different forms and

no method was been claimed the best. The guide to all research work is that whatever

method employed must be capable of bringing out clearly the required information.

The simple percentage (%) method was used in analyzing data. Table and illustration

were also used in carrying out this research work.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Here we are going to take a critical look at the outcome of the research. A satisfactory

analysis of the study will be made through the answers supplied by the respondents from

the questionnaire and interviews conducted.

4.2 PRESENTATION OF DATA

Here the primary data collected through personal interview and structure questionnaire

are presentment and analysis by the use of frequency and percentage. No hypothesis has

been formulated since the work is a case study requiring direct investigation.

4.3 ANALYSIS OF DATA

In all 133 questionnaire distributed to some selected Owerri residents, 100 were returned

and 34 were not returned. Therefore the researcher will base the analysis on 100

questionnaire. To the best of the research this is high return rate and would go along way

to be representative of the sample group being investigated.

QUESTION 1:

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 Do you understand the concept of foul language?

TABLE 1

OPTIONS RESPONSES PERCENTAGE

Yes 100 100

No - -

Total 100 100

Source: Field survey 2022 .

From the table above , all the respondents which were 100 representing 100% agreed or

were on the opinion that they understand the concept of foul language.

QUESTION 2:

Do you think that foul language discourages users of mass media?

TABLE 2

Options Responses Percentage %

Yes 60 60

No 40 40

total 100 100

Source: Field survey 2022 .

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 From the table above, 60 respondents representing 60% opined that they think that foul

language discourages users of mass media while 40 respondents representing 40%

indicated otherwise.

QUESTION 3:

Have you been a victim of foul language on social network?

TABLE 3

Options Responses Percentage %

Yes 52 52

No 48 48

total 100 100

Source: Field survey 2022 .

From the above table, 52 respondents representing 52% were of the opinion that they

have been a victim of foul language on social network while 48 respondents representing

48% indicated that they have not been a victim of foul language on social network

QUESTION 4

If yes, what was your reaction?

TABLE 4

Option Responses Percentage

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Felt attacked 33 33

Reacted back 38 38

Deleted post 23 23

Others 6 6

Total 100 100

Source: Field survey 2022 .

From the response above, 33 respondents representing 33% indicated that they felt

attacked when foul language was used on them on social network, 38 respondents

representing 38% indicated that they reacted back when foul language was used on them

on social network, 23 respondents representing 23% indicated that they deleted their post

when foul language was used on them on social network while 23 respondents

representing 23% indicated others.

QUESTION 5

Do you think enough measures have been put in place to curb the usage of foul language

in social media platforms?

TABLE 5

Option Responses Percentage %

Yes 87 87

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No 13 13

Total 100 100

Source: Field survey 2022 .

From the above table, it was seen that 87 respondents representing 87% indicated that

enough measures have been put in place to curb the usage of foul language in social

media platforms while 13 respondents representing 13% were of the opinion that enough

measures have not been put in place to curb the usage of foul language in social media

platforms.

QUESTION 6

Have you been a victim of foul language sanction on any social media platform?

TABLE 6

Option Responses Percentage

Yes 51 51

No 49 49

Total 100 100

Source: Field survey 2022 .

From the table above, 51 respondent representing 51% of the total respondents were of

the opinion that they have you been a victim of foul language sanction on any social

media platform while 49 respondent representing 49% responded negatively.

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 QUESTION 7

Are these measures too harsh?

TABLE 7

Option Responses Percentage %

Yes 54 54

No 46 46

total 100 100

Source: Field survey 2022 .

From the above table, 54 respondents representing 54% were of the opinion that the

measures put in place to curb the use of hate speech and foul language on social networks

is too harsh while 46% respondents representing 46% was of the opinion that the

measures is not harsh.

QUESTION 8

Do you think underage children should be stopped from viewing media contents?

TABLE 8

Option Response Percentage %

Yes 57 55

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No 43 45

Total 100 100

Source: Field survey 2022 .

From the above table, it was seen that 57 respondents representing 57% thinks underage

children should be stopped from viewing media contents while 43 respondents

representing 43% were of the opinion that they should not be stopped.

QUESTION 9

Exposing children to foul language on mass media makes them prone to juvenile

delinquency

TABLE 9

Option Responses Percentage %

Agree 64 64

Disagree 36 36

Total 100 100

Source: Field survey 2022 .

From the table above 64 respondents representing 64% agreed with the researcher that

exposing children to foul language on mass media makes them prone to juvenile

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delinquency while 36 respondent representing 36% were of the opinion that it does not

expose them to be juvenile.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

Based on the findings of the empirical investigations in this paper, we conclude

that hate speech and foul language is prevalent on social media platforms in Nigeria, and

that it has both moral and legal consequences in the society and the journalism

profession. We also conclude that although, hate speech has negative implications on the

social media in Nigeria, perpetrators cannot be constricted to conform to ethical standards

of journalism because of the wide spread usage of the social media by the citizenry who

are not members of the journalism profession. It is therefore, the general duty of the law

to prohibit hate speech in Nigeria, especially on the emerging new media. The paper thus,

discussed the law applicable to hate speech and foul language in Nigeria particularly, on

the social media, and examined the legal consequences of perpetrating the practice on the

social media in Nigeria.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

Based on the findings above, we recommend that the Nigerian government and

NGOs should sponsor monitoring projects to better understand the use of hate speech and

foul language online by monitoring particular social media networking sites, blogs and

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online newspapers. We also recommend that media organizations and journalist who are

morally inclined to ethical journalism should mobilize and conscientize the public

through citizenship education to shun and confront hate speech and foul language online

as part of their civic responsibility. On the other hand, we recommend a purposeful

enforcement of the crime of hate speech by law enforcement agencies in Nigeria, to

implement the provisions of the Electoral Act and the Cybercrime (Prohibition,

Prevention etc) Act discussed above. Finally, in order to effectively regulate the use of

social media to propagate hate speech and foul language, we recommend that both

internet providers and the various social media management teams develop a program of

moderation and censorship of content on their platforms to remove unwanted content

relating to hate speech. We also recommend that the various specialized government

agencies for censorship created under the Cybercrime Act begin to collaborate with

internet providers and managers of social media platforms to censor content relating to

hate speech, and considered inimical to national security in Nigeria.

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 REFERENCES

Downs, D.M. & Cowan, G. (2012). Predicting the Importance of Freedom of Speech and

the Perceived Harm of Hate Speech, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 42, No.6.

Elischer, Sebastian. (2008). Do African Parties Contribute to Democracy? Some Findings

from Kenya, Ghana and Nigeria. Afrika Spectrum, 43.

Fildler R. (1997). Mediamorphosis: Understanding New Media. California. Pine Forge

Press.

Flichy, Patrice. 2010. The Internet Imaginaire. USA: MIT Press.

Gagliardone, I., Danit G., Thiago A. & Gabriela M. (2015). Countering Online Hate

Speech. France. UNESCO publishers.

Habermas, J. (1989). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere. Boston. MIT

Press.

Hylton K. N. (1996). Implications of Mill’s theory of liberty for the regulation of hate

speech and hate crimes. Chicago. University of Chicago Law School Roundtable 35.

Musaraj, A., & Gerxhi, J. (2010). Communication and Ethical Behavior in the Public

Service. Academicus International Scientific Journal, (1), 11-21.

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APPENDIX

Department Mass Communication

REQUEST FOR COMPLETION OF QUESTIONNAIRE

I am a National Diploma student of the above mentioned institution.

I am conducting a research on “audience perception of hate speech and foul

language on social media in Nigeria (a case study Owerri Residents)”.

I am soliciting your assistance by requesting you to help in completing the entire

questionnaire. All questions asked are for research purpose only, and any information

given will be kept strictly confidential.

Thanks for your anticipated co-operation.

Yours faithfully,

20E/0114/MC

Mekomam Treasure Chidinma

25
 QUESTIONNAIRE

INSTRUCTION: Please tick [√] in the box provided against the correct answer unless

instructed otherwise.

SECTION A: Personal Information

1. Sex

a. Male [ ]

b. Female [ ]

2. Age bracket

a. 26-35 years [ ]

b. 36-45 years [ ]

c. 46 & above [ ]

3. Marital status

a. Single [ ]

25
b. Married [ ]

4. Level of education

a. SSCE [ ]

b. OND [ ]

c. HND [ ]

d. BSC [ ]

e. BA [ ]

f. Others [ ]

SECTION B: SURVEY QUESTIONS

1. Do you understand the concept of foul language?

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

2. Do you think that foul language discourages users of mass media?

a. Yes [ ]

25
 b. No [ ]

3. Have you been a victim of foul language on social network?

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

4. If yes, what was your reaction?

a. Felt attacked [ ]

b. Reacted back [ ]

c. Deleted post [ ]

d. Others []

5. Do you think enough measures have been put in place to curb the usage of foul

language in social media platforms?

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

6. Have you been a victim of foul language sanction on any social media platform?

25
 a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

7. Are these measures too harsh?

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

8. Do you think underage children should be stopped from viewing media contents?

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

9. Exposing children to foul language on mass media makes them prone to juvenile

delinquency

a. Agree []

b. Disagree [ ]

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