Institute of Human Nutrition and Food

College of Human Ecology

University of the Philippines Los Baños
Institute of Human Nutrition and Food
College of Human Ecology
University of the Philippines Los Baños

2nd SEMESTER, A.Y. 2022-2023

MODULE 3.
MILK, EGGS, FATS & OILS

Introduction

Milk and eggs both provide substantial amounts of proteins and B-vitamins to fulfill the
nutritional requirements of our body. Generally, milk and dairy products are produced from
cow’s milk. Other animal sources of milk are from carabao and goat. Aside from protein, milk
contains the disaccharide lactose that is converted to glucose and galactose upon ingestion. Since
not all have the capacity to degrade lactose, specialty milks or those made from plant foods are
gaining popularity such from soy, almonds, and coconut. Dairy products are used for different
applications in the food industry, it gives flavor, texture, mouthfeel, and color to foods. Some
milk products such as flans and custard, contain eggs. Eggs are rich in protein, a good source of
fatty acids, and contain lecithin. Eggs can serve as a binder, stabilizer, thickener, emulsifier, and
clarifying agent. This module discusses the different market forms of milk and eggs and their
functions in several food matrices.

Learning Objectives

After working through this chapter, you should be able to:

1. describe the different types and market forms of milk and eggs;
2. discuss the functional properties of milk and eggs;
3. differentiate products from milk and eggs;
4. apply the techniques of egg freshness determination
5. distinguish the appropriate fats and oil for various food preparation;
6. discuss the difference between temporary and permanent emulsions;
7. identify common types of emulsions and the emulsifying agent; and
8. prepare different types of dressings.

Instructional Procedures:

1. Read about milk, eggs, and their respective products in Module 3.

2. View the infographics and watch the videos provided.
3. Answer Knowledge Self-Assessment 3.

Time Allotted: 2 weeks (March 20 – 31)

Reading Materials/Videos:

Infographics

1. Market Forms of Milk

2. Making Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts
3. Stages of Egg White Foams

Video Links

All Recipes AU | NZ. (2015, October 16). How to Beat Egg Whites [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SjpTYqtSynQ

I. Milk and Milk Products

A. Definition of Milk

Milk is an opaque white liquid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals; used by
humans for food or as a main ingredient of butter, cheese, and yogurt; commonly referred to as
cow’s milk, unless otherwise specified. Properties of milk:

1. Density - denser than water

2. Color - bluish and brownish-yellow color; appears white or milky due to the colloidal
dispersions of fat, caseinate and Ca-phosphate
3. pH - pH 6 to 6.7, thus, milk has a high buffering capacity
4. Flavor - generally bland, slightly sweet due to lactose, saltiness comes from the presence
of chlorides, citrates, and other mineral salts
5. Freezing point is -0.54°C

B. Composition of Milk

1. Proteins
a) Casein - principal protein found in milk; a phosphoprotein containing phosphoric acid;
normal acidity of milk; easily coagulated by the addition of acid or enzyme rennet
b) Whey - fat and casein are removed; proteins found in whey, i.e., albumin and globulin
c) Enzymes - proteins in nature; lipases and phosphatases are found in milk; lipases cause
hydrolytic rancidity; presence of phosphatase indicates improper pasteurization or
contamination after pasteurization

2. Carbohydrate – lactose; chief carbohydrates found in milk and is called milk sugar; a
disaccharide of glucose and galactose
 3. Lipids – fat in milk is called milk fat which exists either as true fat or glycerides or in
association with other substances like lecithin, carotene, and cholesterol. It is also
characterized by the presence of short chain, saturated fatty acids. Fat of milk also
contains the following fatty acids:

a) Saturated fatty acids - myristic, palmitic, stearic

b) Unsaturated fatty acids - oleic, linoleic, linolenic

The more double bonds, the more susceptible it is to oxidative rancidity.

Minerals – chiefly calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, manganese, sulfur, and iodine.
Milk is low in iron and copper.

5. Vitamins – milk contains all vitamins except vitamin C and niacin.

6. Water - milk is fluid with solids dissolved or suspended in water. It is an aqueous solution
of salts, sugar, and other soluble substances. It is also an aqueous emulsion of milk fat in
water and a colloidal solution of milk proteins in water.

7. Pigments – fat-soluble carotene and the water-soluble riboflavin (lactoflavin). Riboflavin

gives the greenish tinge of milk. The yellowish tinge is due to carotene, the precursor of
vitamin A.

Table 3.1 Proximate composition of milk from cow, carabao and goat.
Nutrients Cow Carabao Goat

Water 87.5% 80.1% 85.4%

Carbohydrates 5.0% 4.2% 5.6%
Fat 3.6% 9.5% 4.3%
Protein 3.5% 5.4% 3.9%
Ash 0.7% 0.8% 0.8%

C. Market Forms

1. Raw – untreated; fresh milk that has been cooled but has not been pasteurized or
undergone any treatment other than cooling; coats the tongue; consumption is banned
in some places.

2. Fresh whole milk – composition of which has not been changed (nothing removed or
added) since time of milking. Whole milk may be:
 a) Pasteurized – heated to at least 61 to 65 °C for at least 30 minutes (holding process)
or to 71 to 77 °C (161 °F) for 15 seconds (short-time, high-temperature process), then
cooled to 10 °C or lower as rapidly as possible; free from pathogenic bacteria; needs
refrigeration to maintain safety. Pasteurization destroys pathogenic and non-
pathogenic microorganisms and inactivates the enzyme lipase that causes hydrolytic
rancidity.
b) Sterilized – milk heated to at least 100 °C for a few seconds to kill all microorganisms
without appreciably changing the desirable qualities of fresh milk. The ultra-high
temperature (UHT) treatment kills both pathogenic and nonpathogenic
microorganisms.
c) Homogenized – milk is treated mechanically or under high pressure to reduce the size
of fat globules so that they remain in suspension (not clumped together as in whole
milk).

3. Skimmed – fat is partly or completely removed; may thus be low fat (e.g., 2% fat) or
nonfat.

4. Toned – liquid milk whose composition has been altered, such that its fat and nonfat are
standardized at 3% and 9%, respectively. This is done by mixing high-fat and low-fat milks,
i.e., milk with a high fat content like carabao’s milk (9% fat) can be toned or stretched by
the addition of dry milk solids from cow’s milk.

5. Evaporated – canned, unsweetened, homogenized whole milk from 50–60% of its water
has been removed to reconstitute and combine equal parts of evaporated milk and water

a) Recombined evaporated milk – dried skim milk to which butterfat and water have
been added to conform to the standards for whole milk; has similar composition with
evaporated milk
b) Evaporated filled milk – skimmed milk powder to which vegetable oil and water other
than milk fat has been added to simulate the composition of evaporated whole milk.

6. Sweetened condensed milk – evaporated whole or skim milk to which about 40–45%
sugar has been added; heated until about 60% of the water evaporates

7. Powdered or dried milk – milk in powder form; may be whole or skimmed; to reconstitute,
add enough water to four (4) tablespoons powdered milk to make one (1) cup.

8. Reconstituted milk – skim or whole milk powder or evaporated milk, or any combination
of these, to which vegetable oil has been added to conform to the standard for whole
milk.

9. Fermented milk – obtained by allowing selected bacteria to grow and produce lactic acid
in the milk.
 10. Sour milk – milk made sour by the addition of vinegar, lemon, or calamansi juice or by the
action of lactic acid bacteria

11. Buttermilk – pasteurized skim milk that has been soured by lactic acid-producing bacteria.

12. Flavored milk – milk of varying fat content with added flavoring like strawberry, coffee,
etc. and a sweetener.
a) Chocolate milk – whole milk flavored with chocolate
b) Chocolate drink – skim milk flavored with chocolate

13. Cultured milk – pasteurized whole milk soured by lactic acid bacteria

14. Malted milk – whole milk to which liquid from the mash of ground barley, malt, and wheat
flour has been added

15. Fortified milk – vitamins have been added

16. Certified milk – milk produced under rigid sanitary conditions that the bacterial count
does not exceed 10,000/cc.

17. Yoghurt – soured milk product prepared by adding lactic bacteria to whole or skim milk
or cream. Flavoring extracts and fruits may be added.

18. Milk alternative – soy, rice, almond, and coconut milk are plant-based diary alternatives
for lactose intolerance, protein (casein) allergies, and for vegan diets (Table 3.2).

Table 3.2. Types of plant-based milk (National Restaurant Association, 2011)

Type of milk Fat content Description
(per 8 oz serving)

Soy milk 4g ● Often fortified with calcium, vitamin D,

and riboflavin and offered in low fat forms
● Has a slightly nutty flavor with a rich
texture
● Good source of protein, no cholesterol

Rice milk 3g ● Often fortified with calcium, vitamin D,

and riboflavin
● Usually made with water, brown rice
syrup, starch, and other thickeners
● Has a sweet flavor and a thin texture
● Less protein than milk or soy milk
 Almond milk 2 to 3 grams ● Often fortified with calcium and vitamin D
● Made from ground almonds and water
● Low in calories and saturated fat
● Contains no cholesterol or lactose
● May be sweetened and flavored

Coconut milk Thick 20-22% ● Made from grated coconut and water
Thin 5-7% ● Mild, sweet taste
● Used in baking and cooking

D. Storage and Uses

1. Storage of milk
• Various forms of evaporated milk in unopened cans should be stored in a cool dry
place.
• Opened evaporated milk can should be refrigerated if not used immediately.
• Milk should not be exposed to light because riboflavin is destroyed.
• Milk should not be left uncovered because rancidity or spoilage will set in.

2. Uses of milk
• As beverage
• As a coffee whitener – milk reacts with tannins present in the coffee thus minimizing
its bitter taste.
• As a solvent for desserts – milk serves as an attractive and nutritious solvent of sugar
for iced desserts like halo-halo, mais con yelo, etc.
• As a coloring agent for gulaman and gelatin – gives gel an opaque attractive
appearance.

3. Milk cookery
• A more stiff and permanent foam is attained with higher fat content.
• Evaporated milk whips better than whole milk; chilling increases its viscosity, thus
improving its ability to foam.
• Chilled evaporated filled milk foams even better because the partial solidification of
the coconut oil in filled milk makes it more viscous.
• Powdered milk, if combined with less water than needed to fully reconstitute it, has
sufficient viscosity to retain the air bubbles whipped into it.
• Milk foams can be made more stable by adding gelatin.

a) Changes in milk during cooking

• Digestibility may be slightly improved.
• Heating to a higher temperature causes the milk to curdle.
 • Lactalbumin begins to coagulate at 66 °C forming a flocculent precipitate.
• Heating brings about non-enzymatic browning known as the Maillard reaction (occurs
when sugar and proteins are heated together)
• Heating can cause caramelization in sweetened condensed milk.
• Iodine is lost.
• Film or scum formation is one of the most troublesome reactions when heating milk.
• Flavor of the milk that has been heated to boiling temperature or above is usually flat.
• Fat globules coalesce during heating.
• Milk may be scorched.
• Addition of acid during cooking, curdles the milk or precipitates the casein.

b) Factors influencing cookery of milk

• Heat – protein coagulation starts at 65oC with lactalbumin as the first to be denatured;
casein needs higher temperature to coagulate; inactivation of enzyme lipase, which
causes rancidity; browning due to Maillard reaction may occur.
• Acid, enzymes, salts, and alkaloids hasten coagulation.

c) Problems in milk cookery

(1) Scum formation – when milk is heated, a scum or skin is formed, especially when the
pan is not covered, and over-boiling occurs; formed due to surface evaporation and
proteins (casein) concentrate on the surface; covering the pan reduces scum
formation.

(2) Scorching – caused by overheating the serum proteins (lactalbumin) that precipitate;
stirring once in a double boiler or low heat during cooking minimizes scorching.

(3) Curdling – curds are precipitated protein aggregates and may be caused by either the
presence of acid, salts, or high temperature. Avoid curdling by limiting the amount of
salt used, adding the milk in the form of a white sauce, keeping temperature below
boiling point, and shortening cooking time.

(4) Fat coalescence – heat may disrupt the colloidal system

E. Milk Products

1. Cheese – curd of milk; made from coagulating casein by acid or enzyme rennin becomes
flavorful upon storage in a process called ripening.

a) Classification

1) Based on moisture content

(a) Soft cheese – high moisture content from 55-80%
 (b) Semisoft cheese - has 34–55%
(c) Hard cheese - has 13–34%

2) Based on ripening treatment - ripening refers to a change in physical and chemical

properties such as flavors, texture and composition that takes place between curd
formation and the time when the cheese develops the desired characteristics

(a) Unripened – soft cheese; whey is drained off, and the curds are either allowed to
drain or are pressed into different shapes depending on the variety, e.g., kesong
puti, cottage cheese, cream cheese, ricotta, chevre, and mascarpone.

(1) Kesong puti – semi-soft cheese with 52 % moisture from carabao milk
(2) Cottage cheese – 4% fat from skimmed cow’s milk
(3) Cream cheese – 33% fat from cream of cow’s milk
(4) Mozzarella (Italy) – from whole or skimmed buffalo's milk; semi-soft cheese
with 45 –55 % water; used for pizza pies and lasagna

(b) Ripened – the drained curds are cured, e.g., queso de bola

(1) Brie (France) – made by surface growth of molds

(2) Camembert (France) – from cow’s milk
(3) Limburger (Belgium) – made by use of yeast and bacteria, from cow’s milk;
semi-soft, creamy with a very offensive odor

(c) Semi-soft ripened cheese – 34–55% moisture; ripened by either molds or bacteria

(1) Gorgonzola (Italy) – cured by blue mold, from cow’s milk; off-white, crumbly
and yogurt semi hard cheese that is ripened by Penicillium roqueforti; spicy, tangy,
and peppery flavor
(2) Roquefort (France) - cured by blue mold, from sheep’s milk; blue veins
produced by a blue-green mold Penicillium roqueforti during ripening.
(3) Brick (USA) – from cow’s milk

(d) Firm and hard ripened cheese - cured by bacteria and ripened

(1) Cheddar (England) – from cow’s milk

(2) Edam (Netherlands) – from skimmed cow’s milk; like cheddar cheese; semi-
soft cheese with 34 –45% water; ripened cheese known as queso de bola
(3) Gouda (Netherlands) – from whole or skimmed cow’s milk; firm cheese with
pale yellow and mild nutlike flavor
(4) Swiss, Emmenthal, Gruyere - from cow's milk; holes are due to gas formed by
bacteria as cheese ripens; somewhat soapy taste
(5) Parmesan (Italy) – from skimmed cow’s milk; very hard cheese with 13 – 34%
water; in grated form, salty and has smoky flavor
 (6) Provolone - firm cheese with white, brown, or yellow rind

3) Based on hardness
(a) Soft – neither cooked nor pressed; contain very high moisture content of 55–80%,
e.g., Brie, Pont Leveque
(b) Semisoft – pressed but can either be cooked or uncooked; has soft, sliceable
texture; contain 34–55% moisture, e.g., Gouda, Monterey Jack, Tilsit
(c) Semi-firm – cooked and pressed but not aged as long as the hard cheeses; firm but
not usually crumbly, e.g., Cheddar, Edam, Jarlsberg
(d) Hard – cooked, pressed and aged for long periods until hard and dry; generally
used for grating; contains 13–34% moisture, e.g., Parmesan, Pecorino
(e) Pasta filata – Italian for “spun paste”; curds are stretched and pulled under warm
whey, giving it a plastic texture; may be stored in brine; flavor ranges from mild to
sharp, salty, sweet, and buttery, e.g., mozzarella, provolone, string

b) Cheese-making

• The temperature of the liquid should be hot enough to melt the fat but not so hot as to
curdle the protein. Cheese melts at 300 to 325 °F for baked dishes.
• Overheating causes loss in moisture resulting in toughness; cook in a double boiler to
control temperature; presence of alcohol prevents overheating.
• Cheese with high moisture and fat blends more readily with liquids.
• The more ripened the cheese, the higher temperature it requires in blending.
• Cheese with emulsifier blends with liquid more readily.
• Kesong puti - salt is used as a preservative

There are two ways to prepare native cheese:

(1) Curdling by rennet

• Casein + rennet + milk calcium = gel formation (cheese)
• Rennet is a salt extract from the stomach of calves and contains the enzyme rennin

(2) Coagulation by vinegar - casein precipitates at pH 4.6 upon the addition of any acidifying agent
like vinegar
• Cheddar cheese - ripened cheese by lactic acid bacteria with content of 34 to 45%

(1) Casein + rennin + ripening resulting in curds

(2) Melted to about 71° C (160 ° F)
(3) Emulsifiers are added (sodium citrate or disodium hydrogen phosphate) to make molded
or cheddar cheese
(4) Blended with cream, milk, whey or skim milk, vegetable meats or fruits to make processed
cheese food
(5) Pasteurization to prevent fat separation and for smoothness in texture
 • Cream cheese - soft, unripened cheese; spreadable and has creamy white smooth
appearance

(1) Slightly soured milk (rennet)

(2) Coagulated casein (curd)

2. Cream – the fatty portion of milk that rises to the surface upon standing or when milk is
subjected to centrifugal force; contains at least 18% butter fat. Depending on the amount of fat,
cream may be:

a) Half-and-half – mixture of milk and cream with at least 10–12% fat; used in cereals and
as a substitute for coffee cream
b) Coffee cream, table cream, or light cream – contains 18–30% milk fat, but commonly
contains 20%; used for whitening coffee and as solvent for sugar in breakfast cereals
c) Light whipping cream – contains 30–36% milk fat; sometimes acts as emulsifiers and
stabilizers.
d) Medium cream – 30–36% fat; used as whipped cream
e) Heavy cream – 36–40% fat; used as salad dressing; popularly used in the country
f) “Plastic” cream – 80% fat; used in making butter and spreads when combined with honey,
fruit, or chocolate
g) Sour cream – 18% milk fat; pasteurized cream to which acid-producing bacteria has been
added to produce its characteristic flavor, aroma, and acidity; the acid flavor was obtained
through the growth of a pure or mixed culture of lactic acid bacteria.
h) Coffee whiteners – non-dairy powder or liquid used as substitutes for milk and cream,
e.g., Coffee Mate, N-rich, Krem Top

Pointers in the use of cream in cookery:

• Raw cream is better than pasteurized for whipping.

• Cream should be chilled at least 4 hours at 4oC to attain maximum thickening ability;
chilling makes the cream thicker and the fat globules firmer, thus holding the air
incorporated by whipping better.
• The higher the fat content, the better the whipping quality.
• Any condition that will increase the viscosity will increase the whipping ability of cream.
• Addition of acid up to point three percent (0.3%) has no effect on whipping quality.
• Sugar decreases both volume and stiffness of whipped cream and increases the time
needed to whip if added before whipping; best to add sugar when cream is stiff.
• It is also better to whip cream in small batches – better volume is obtained.
• Whipped cream and products with whipped cream topping (e.g., desserts) should be
refrigerated until use.
 • Adding sugar decreases volume of foam; thus, cream should be whipped until stiff before
sugar is added.

3. Butter – contains a minimum of eighty percent (80%) milk fat; obtained by churning cream;
flavor due to volatile fatty acid, butyric acid.

a) Sweet butter – made from pasteurized fresh cream. It is typically pale yellow and may be
salted or unsalted
b) Cultured butter (European butter) – made from fermented cream and has a higher fat
content and lower salt content than regular butter
c) Clarified butter – butter is heated and the water and milk solids removed; higher smoke
point, which makes it suitable for cooking

4. Buttermilk – the fluid left after cream is churned to make butter; contains protein and
phospholipids but little or no fat.

5. Whey – the liquid that separates from milk curd, as in cheese-making

6. Yogurt (or yoghurt) – cultured buttermilk

7. Frozen desserts

a) Ice cream
• a frozen product that contains milk, cream, sugar, flavoring, and stabilizers (agar or
gelatin). Fruits, nuts, and chocolate are some of the popular flavorings.
• Contains at least 10% butter fat; high-quality ice cream has 14–18% butterfat or more.
• In the home, ice cream is prepared by chilling the mixture of cream and milk, sugar,
flavoring, and stabilizers to freezing temperatures. Preparation of ice cream:
(1) Mixture is placed inside the inner metal freezing container of garapinyera (ice
cream freezer) or ice cream maker.
(2) Garapinyera is submerged in wooden bucket of crushed ice and salt
(3) Agitation of the mixture is made as it freezes with the dasher by rotating the
handle to it. Agitation results in formation of tiny crystals and it also incorporates air
to refine the texture and to increase volume of the ice cream.
• The purpose of salt addition to ice is to lower the temperature as well as to increase
the rate of melting of ice.
• Evaporated milk is better than whole milk in making ice cream because it improves
whipping quality. Sugar should not also be excessive because it would drastically
lower the freezing point thus preventing the ice cream from freezing.
• Overrun - ice cream mixture increases to about 1/3 of its volume due to incorporation
of air and growth of crystals
• Preparation of commercial ice cream:
(1) Mixing of ingredients
 (2) Pasteurization
(3) Homogenization
(4) Freezing
(5) Hardening
• Various ingredients used in the manufacture of commercial ice cream are:
(1) Milk fat – provides flavor and improves body and temperature
(2) Non-Fat Milk Solids (NFMS) – also contributes to the flavor, body and improved
texture
(3) Sugar - provides desirable sweet taste but lowers the freezing point of the mixture so
that the ice cream does not freeze solid hard; sucrose or table sugar
(4) Stabilizers - gelatin, seaweed gums, pectin; improve body and texture by forming gels
with water; prevent formation of large crystals
(5) Emulsifiers - egg yolk; aid in keeping the fat dispersed; improved whipping properties;
aid in keeping ice cream stiff and dry
(6) Flavors - natural fruit or fruit juices, chocolate, vanilla, etc.

b) Sherbet – frozen dessert made from small amount of dairy and flavored with fruit juices
or other flavorings; similar to sorbet; less than 2% fat

c) Popsicle – water, flavoring, and usually containing some milk, ice candies

II. Eggs

A. Definition and Kinds

An egg is an ovoid, hard-shelled reproductive body produced by a bird, consisting

principally of a yolk and albumen. The following are the different kinds of egg:

1. Chicken eggs – most widely used in many types of dishes, both savory and sweet. Market
forms of chicken eggs include:
a) Whole, fresh, raw - can be eaten raw, though is not recommended for people who are
susceptible to salmonella, such as infants, pregnant women, and the elderly
b) Cooked - hard-cooked, soft-cooked, cooked using moist-heat or dry-heat methods
c) Preserved – pickled, salted
d) Frozen - pasteurized and purchased in 3-lb cans or milk carton-style containers. These
take at least two days to thaw at refrigerated temperatures.
e) Dried whole eggs - one (1) pound = 32 whole eggs; 2.5 tbsp + 2.5 tbsp water = 1 whole
egg. Dried eggs are primarily for baking.
f) Organic - from chickens raised without antibiotics, pesticides, or hormones.
g) Omega-3 eggs - from hens fed with special diets.
h) Cage-free or free-range eggs – descriptors that refer to the way chickens were treated
on the farms and are related to how much space and outdoor access they have
 2. Duck eggs

The Philippine duck industry exists primarily for the balut industry. The native ducks (itik), called
Pateros ducks, are raised mainly for their eggs and are sold for their meat only when they have
ceased to be good egg layers. The market forms of duck eggs are:

a) Balut – hard-cooked eighteen- (18) day-old fertilized duck egg

b) Penoy – duck egg found infertile on the fourteenth (14th) day of incubation is cooked
and sold as penoy. Balut may be differentiated from penoy by candling. The embryo
in the balut blocks the light when placed over a bright source opaque. Penoy, on the
other hand, will transmit the light.
c) Salt-cured egg (itlog na maalat) – prepared commercially by packing duck eggs in a
salt-clay mixture (1:4 ratio by volume) for ten (10) to fourteen (14) days, after which
they are hard-cooked; in households is prepared by submerging the eggs in a boiled
supersaturated salt solution for twelve (12) to nineteen (19) days. Customarily, the
shells of itlog na maalat are colored with a dye called grana (fuchsin dye) to
differentiate them from chicken eggs.
d) Century egg – a 100-day-old egg preserved by fermenting the egg in earthenware jar
with a mixture of clay, wood ash, salt, lime, caustic soda, and tea; has a dark gray,
cream-like yolk with a strong odor of sulfur and ammonia and a dark brown,
transparent jelly albumen.
a) Mosaic egg - cooking in browning tea, salt, bay leaves, and other spices for 12 to
15 minutes, eggs are removed then cracked and boiled for the second time until a
deep brown color enters the crack.

3. Quail eggs - much smaller than chicken eggs and have many brown spots; usually
marketed as hard cooked to minimize breakage, or as pickled egg; considered a delicacy
in many countries.

4. Turtle egg - this is called tortoise egg or itlog ng pawikan that abounds in Turtle Island
near Borneo. The eggs are round and white, resembling pingpong balls; are highly salty
and, when boiled, remain soft and pliable; can be served scrambled or made into an
omelet.

5. Tabon eggs - eggs of a wild bird found in Palawan; larger than duck egg; the eggshell is
brownish in color.

6. Itlog ng bayawak - it has a covering that makes it look like a deflated round balloon filled
with water; a delicacy in Pampanga. Soft; egg is larger than duck eggs with a brown shell
 7. Other egg products - pidan eggs, pickled eggs, edible bird’s nest - made from the nest of
the bird balinsasayaw, believed to be made from saliva, contains 57.4% protein

B. Structure and Composition of the Egg

1. Structure of the Egg (Figure 3.1)

Figure 3.1. Parts of an egg (McWilliams, 2001).

a) Shell
● Made up mainly of calcium carbonate
● It is brittle and rigid but porous that allows exchange of gases and flow of moisture
from the eggs.
● It is surrounded by a protective dull coat called cuticle or bloom.

b) Shell membrane
● There are two membranes, outer and inner; the inner membrane adheres
tenaciously to the shell
● Composed of keratin together with mucin
● After the egg is laid, the content shrinks more than the shell and the two
membranes are separated by air cell which appears at the large end of the egg

c) Air sac or air cell – space between the inner and the outer membranes at the large
end of the egg

d) White or albumen
● Also called the “white”
● Constitute 58% of the egg weight
● Serves as the protective barrier for the young hen or bird
 ● It is composed of three layers, an outermost layer of thin white, layer of the thick
white and another layer of thin white which lies adjacent to the yolk
(1) Inner thin albumen – fairly fluid in the innermost part of the albumen
(2) Thin albumen – rather fluid egg white adjacent to the yolk and to the inner
membrane
(3) Thick white – viscous white forming the middle layer albumen

e) Yolk
● Yellow or orange portion found in the center of the eggs
● Constitutes 31% of the weight of the egg
● It is separated from the egg white by the yolksac or vitelline membrane, which
encloses the yolk.
● Attached to the yolk are fibers which terminate at either end and twisted rope-
like projections known as chalazae (the yolk cord or cord anchor that aid in
centering the yolk); the chalazae serve to anchor the yolk, keep the yolk centered
but permit it to rotate
● Egg yolk consists of small sphere of white yolk is attached to the white yolk
surrounded by the yellow yolk
● The term spot on the surface of the yolk is attached to the white yolk (light-colored
structure at the center) in the center by the tube-like latebra (connecting tube
from the white yolk to the germinal disk or blastoderm).

f) Bloom – natural protective cover sealing the shell pores when the egg is laid

2. Composition of the egg

Eggs contain about 65% water, 12% protein, and 11% fat but the compositions of the egg white
and the yolk differ considerably (Potter & Hotchkiss, 1998). Eggs are a good source of fat, protein,
vitamins, and minerals, especially iron. The solids of egg white are primarily protein.

Table 3.2 presents the proximate composition of chicken egg per 100 grams.

Table 3.3. Proximate composition of chicken egg in grams per 100 grams (FCT, 1997).
Moisture Protein Fat Total CHO Ash Crude Energy
Fiber (kcal)
Whole egg 72.8 12.4 11 2.8 1.0 - 164
White 84.6 12.7 0.2 2.0 0.5 - 62
Yolk 53.4 14.3 27 3.9 1.4 - 320

a) Whole Egg
● important protein food comparable to red meats, fish, and poultry
● contains all important vitamins except C
● important source of Fe, P, and trace minerals but low in calcium
● rich source of vitamin D
 b) Egg White
● contains significant amount of riboflavin
● chief constituents are protein
● main protein is ovalbumin which is 2/3 of the egg white, and easily denatured by
heat
● other proteins and conalbumin and ovomucoid (a glycoprotein) and are not
coagulated by heat; also contains ovoglobulin which is capable of dissolving the
cell walls of bacteria; it contains ovomucin which is responsible for the thickness
of the thick white; contains avidin, a protein which binds with biotin

Egg White Proteins

The albumen proteins contribute various characteristics to eggs in food preparation:

(1) Albumin – accounts for two thirds (2/3) of total

(2) Conalbumin and ovomucoid – accounts for 10%
(3) Ovomucin – accounts for 2%; responsible for thickness of egg white
(4) Ovoglobulin, lysozyme, and avidin. Avidin binds biotin but is denatured by heat.

c) Egg Yolk
● possesses higher nutritive value than the white
● important source of Fe, P and Ca
● better source of vitamin A, good source of thiamine and riboflavin, fair source of
vitamin D
● main protein is vitellin that exists as a lipoprotein complex and is referred to as
lipovitellin
● Egg yolk consists of yolk spheres, granules, low-density lipoproteins, and myelin
figures dispersed in livetin.
● The proteins in egg yolk include lipovitellin, phosvitin, and livetin. Phosvitin is
unique because of its high serine content and its function of binding iron and
incorporating it into the yolk. Phosvitin is a protein high in phosphorus. Livetin is
high in sulfur.
● While lipids are composed of triglycerides, phospholipids (including lecithin), and
lipoproteins, and cholesterol (about 240 mg). The yolk is also rich in fat-soluble
vitamins. Lecithin is the main phospholipid in it

C. Changes During Storage

An egg is considered fresh if it is newly laid and starts to lose freshness soon after. Eggs that are
two weeks old held at refrigeration temperature can be fresher than a 2-day old egg left in a
warm, humid room (Claudio et al., 2006).

1. Characteristics of fresh eggs

 ● Porous, uncracked shell
● Good size and shape
● Firm, defined albumen
● Conical, well-concentrated yolk
● Small air cell
● No germ spot

2. Grading of eggs - grading refers to the process of sorting eggs having the same quality
and weight into lots. The Philippine Bureau of Standards grades chicken eggs according
to:

a) Eggshell color – has no effect on quality, flavor, and nutrients.

b) Weight (Table 3.3)

Table 3.4. Weight of chicken egg based on size.

Size Weight

Jumbo 71 grams or more

Extra large 62 to 70 grams

Large 55 to 61 grams

Medium 48 to 54 grams

Small 41 to 47 grams

Peewee or very small less than 41 grams

c) Quality - after classifying eggs according to color and weight, each lot is further sorted
into four (4) standards of quality, designated A, B, C, and D, depending on:

(1) Exterior quality – condition of shell

(2) Interior quality – clarity and thickness of white, condition of yolk, and size of air
cell. The position and mobility of the yolk is an indication of the interior quality of
the eggs.
1. The interior quality is checked through a process called candling, where
eggs are held up to an opening behind which is a source of strong light. As
the light passes through the egg, it shows the size of the air cell, position
and mobility of the yolk, blood spots, molds and developing embryo.
2. Egg quality can also be determined by breaking the egg out of the shell. A
micrometer measures the height of the albumen in Haugh units. Other
measures of quality include albumen index and yolk index.
During egg formation, various defects may develop. Here are some examples of egg
abnormalities that can affect the quality of the egg:

● Double yolked egg - involves the release of two yolks simultaneously or when the
oviduct fails to receive the released yolk but is picked up the next day with another
yolk.
● Yolkless eggs - caused by a bit of tissue broken off from the ovary or oviduct which
stimulates the secretion of the albumen, shell membranes, shells, and yolk itself.
● Egg within an egg - due to abnormality in the peristaltic movement of the oviduct
and the egg is not laid. It stays in the oviduct until the egg is formed and a common
shell formed around them.
● Bloodspot - formed by a rapture of one or more shell blood vessels in the egg yolk
sac when the yolk is released.
● Meat spots - bloodspot that have undergone a chemical color change or tissues
torn off from the ovary or oviduct.
● Soft shelled eggs - prematurely laid eggs so that the shell is still incomplete.
● Thin shelled eggs - cause dietary deficiencies, hereditary or disease.
● Classy-and chalky-shelled eggs - caused by the abnormality in the uterus.
● Off-colored - caused by certain pigments in the diet like capsanthin of pimiento
causes red yolk.
● Off- flavored yolks

3. Deteriorative changes during storage

Eggs can last only for 7 days at room temperature and about 2 weeks in a refrigerator. Never
wash eggs in water because it removes the cuticle or bloom. Wipe only with clean damp cloth.
Store with the broad or rounded end up. Left-over egg yolks and egg whites should be kept in
containers that will prevent drying when kept under refrigeration. As egg ages the yolk becomes
larger, flatter, and breaks more easily, the albumen (white) becomes thin and watery; and the air
cell becomes larger. Most of the chemical and physical changes that occur in the egg during
storage evolve from the reaction of the carbonic acid and bicarbonates present as buffer in the
white:

2 NaHCO3 + H2CO3 Na2CO3 + 2H2O + 2CO2

a) Chemical changes
● Increase in pH - loss of carbon dioxide, particularly in the albumen, until it is in
equilibrium with the atmosphere; the pH rises as a result of the loss of carbon dioxide,
i.e., from pH 7.9 to 9.3 in egg white
● Increase in organic P and ammonia

b) Physical changes
 ● Increased amount of water in the white dilutes the white, causing egg white thinning
(spreading), and white becomes less viscous. Ovomucin which is responsible for high
viscosity of the thick white decreases.
● Chalazae that are water-soluble dissolve, and yolk becomes off-centered and moves
toward the shell.
● When the moisture from the white penetrates the yolk membrane, it weakens, and
the egg yolk flattens.
● Vitellin is softened due to entry of water and yolk breaks when opened.
● Loss of CO2 through the permeable shell membrane and porous shell result in loss in
weight. Moisture escapes through the porous shell→decreased contents→enlarged
air cell.
● Size of the air cell increases as a result of CO2 and H2O loss and the egg readily absorbs
off-odor.
● Molting in the surface of the shell occurs due to uneven moisture distribution.

D. Chicken and Duck Eggs

According to Claudio et al. (2006), ducks have been raised in the Philippines primarily for eggs.
Duck egg is preferred as it imparts a darker yellow color to the finished product compared to
chicken eggs. Traditional recipes of pancit canton, miki, ensaymada, uraro, and lumpia wrapper
make use of duck eggs but major products are still balut, penoy, and itlog na maalat. Duck eggs,
however, are not good for baking because of its intense flavor. Table 3.4 shows a comparison of
chicken and duck eggs.

Table 3.5. Comparison of chicken and duck eggs.

Component Chicken Duck

Shell thin thick

Yolk color yellow due to xanthophyll; high red to orange due to canthaxanthin and
incidence of yolk darkening echinone; low incidence of yolk
darkening

Albumen greenish tinge clear white, low in riboflavin

Egg Cookery appropriate for frying but not gives intense odor and taste when fried
suitable for balut-making because or baked; suitable for balut-making
of the thin shell because of the thick shell

Nutrition higher amounts of ovalbumin, higher amounts of folate, iron, and

conalbumin, and lysozyme vitamin B12
(antimicrobial, antioxidant, and
cancer-inhibiting protein)
 E. Egg Cookery and Uses

1. Effect of heat

a) Coagulation of proteins: White at 60-65 °C; yolk at 65-70 °C. Beyond this
temperature, over-coagulation occurs, and water is squeezed out, causing shrinkage,
resulting in a tough product.
b) Formation of greenish discoloration at the interface of the yolk and white when egg
is overcooked:
● Due to the reaction between the iron in the yolk and the hydrogen sulfide
liberated from the sulfur-containing proteins ferrous sulfide.
● Reaction is favored by high cooking temperature and prolonged cooking.
● Reaction is prevented by immediate cooling of the egg (e.g., immersing in cold
water) after cooking.

2. Egg cookery

a) Moist-heat cooking methods

(1) Simmering or boiling. Have eggs at room temperature to avoid cracking. Water
temperature and cooking time are important.

Table 3.6. Time and temperature requirement for boiling egg.

Temperature Soft-cooked Hard-cooked
o
190–195 F 6 minutes 20–25 minutes
212oF 3 minutes 12–15 minutes

Good quality hard-cooked egg is tender, especially the albumen, completely coagulated, the yolk
does not show darkening, and it is easy to peel. Overcooking makes the egg white tough or
rubbery and causes the yolk to darken, thus, eggs must be immediately cooled by soaking in tap
water to stop the cooking process. To cook shell eggs in quantity, place them in a wire basket and
dip in the cooking water. After cooking, plunge eggs immediately into cold water.

(2) Coddling eggs. Pour boiling water over the eggs. Cover and allow to stand until
desired doneness.
(3) Poaching eggs. Crack eggs onto platters and slide them into the pan of about two-
(2) to 2- ½) inch deep of gently boiling water, or crack and carefully drop into the
boiling water. Cook for three (3) to five (5) minutes. One (1) tablespoon of salt
and two (2) tablespoons of vinegar are added per gallon of water to retard spread
of the egg protein.
 b) Dry-heat cooking methods

(1) Frying. Use hot fat; crack/place egg and pan-fry in small amount of cooking oil
without breaking the yolk keeping low-to-moderate temperature
(a) Country style (cooked with the help of steam). Cover the pan tightly as the
eggs cook; the steam coats the top of the egg with coagulated white.
(b) Over-easy (one side is slightly cooked). Turn the egg over and cook it slightly.
(c) Sunny-side-up. Egg is basted with hot fat while cooking. To fry in quantity,
break the eggs onto platters and slide into two- (2) to two and a half- (2 1/2)
deep fat at two hundred sixty-five to two hundred eighty (265-280) °F. Drain
well before serving.
(d) Scrambled eggs. Whip the cracked whole egg then pan-fry; addition of sugar
delays coagulation, while addition of liquids and acids decreases coagulation;
usually 4 oz of cream milk or some other liquid is added per pound of whole
eggs.
(e) Omelet. Eggs are beaten, fried with butter or oil in a frying pan. The beaten
egg can be filled with a combination of cheese, vegetables, and meat,
seasoned with salt and pepper, and then folded.

(2) Baking.
(a) Shirred eggs. A variety of baked eggs that have been baked in a flat-bottomed
dish, such as a ramekin. Cheese, butter, vegetables, meats, and sauces are
added to this baked egg dish.
(b) Souffle. Any baked light food made from a mixture of beaten egg whites and
other sweet or savory ingredients.
(c) Timbale. French for “kettledrum”; a baked egg dish likened to a quiche,
custard, or souffle. Herbs are usually added to this dish.
(d) Egg fondue

c) Egg preservation can be done by salt curing, pickling, and by oil coating.

3. Uses
a) Eggs as emulsifiers - lecithin (Figure 5.2) and lysolecithin are responsible for the
remarkable ability of egg yolk to act as an emulsifying agent.
Figure 3.2. Chemical structure of lecithin (Adopted and redrawn from McWilliams, 2001).

Both are phosphoproteins containing polar and nonpolar ends such that the polar end holds
water while the non-polar end holds the fat, thus preventing oil droplets in suspension from
coalescing (Figure 5.3).

Figure 3.3. Chemical structure of phosphatidyl ethanolamine (Adopted and redrawn from
McWilliams, 2001).

b) Eggs as binding, thickening agent, and gelling agents

● Eggs are useful as binding, thickening, and gelling agents because they contain
proteins that are easily denatured by heat. Egg whites thicken at 60°C (140°F) and
will not flow at 65°C (140°F)
● Using the whole egg requires lower coagulation temperature resulting in a stiffer
gel.
● Addition of sugar raises coagulation temperature, producing softer, weaker gel.
● Softer gel is produced with the addition of scalded milk and acid.
 ● In cooking custards, Baine Marie, double boiler, or steamer is used to avoid boiling
that can produce a porous custard.
● Soft custards are produced by constant stirring.
● The higher the proportion of egg, the lower the coagulation temperature.

c) Eggs for color and flavor

d) Eggs as leavening agent

● When egg is beaten, albumen is denatured; air is incorporated as white is

stretched into thin films.
● With continued beating, the air cells are subdivided, and volume is increased. If
only egg whites are used, the color turns white, and soft peaks are formed. The
egg proteins collect at the air/liquid interface of the air bubble and undergo
surface denaturation. If whole eggs or only egg yolks are used, the color becomes
pale yellow with continued beating; volume is increased (but not as much as when
only whites are used), and no surface denaturation occurs.
● Then, protein networks dry up and stabilize the gas or air foams.
● With further beating of egg whites, liquid drains out, air bubbles coalesce, and
foam breaks.
● The same changes occur when the foam is allowed to stand too long.
● Maximum stability is reached at soft stage while maximum volume at stiff stage.

(1) Stages in foam formation

(a) Coarse – very few bubbles, mostly liquid

(b) Foamy – large air bubbles that flow easily
(c) Soft peak– air cells are smaller and more numerous; foams become whiter; soft peaks are
formed when beaters are lifted.
(d) Stiff peak – peaks hold their shape; when the bowl is tipped, it holds, and is moist and
glossy.
(e) Dry – moistness and glossiness disappear; specks of egg white are seen as flakes or curds

(2) Factors to be considered in foam formation

(a) Beating time and temperature:

● As the time of beating increases, both volume and stability of the foam increase initially,
then decrease.
● White can be beaten/whipped more readily at room temperature than at refrigerator
temperature because refrigerated eggs are more viscous, thus harder to beat/whip.
● Eggs beaten at room temperature whip better, resulting in bigger volume and finer
texture
 ● Whole eggs or egg yolk require more beating to produce a good foam. Stored eggs
foam faster but produce smaller volume than fresh eggs.

(b) Fat - interferes with foaming, producing smaller volume; whole eggs, which
contain fat in the yolk produce smaller volume.

(c) Acids (e.g., cream of tartar, 1t per cup) - increase the stability of foams, but when
added too early, delay foam formation (reduced volume), thus increasing the
time necessary for beating.

(d) Sugar - also increases the stability of foams but delays foam formation (reduced
volume), thus, it should be added after foaming has started and soft peaks have
formed; sugar retards the denaturation of egg white.

(e) Baking powder - increases stability and volume.

(f) Salt - lowers the quality of the foam.

(g) Water - dilution of egg whites produce bigger volume but lesser stability. This
produces more tender cakes, but in meringues, syneresis occurs.

(h) Type of egg - duck eggs do not foam well because they lack ovomucin.

(3) Applications of foams in cookery

(a) As leavening, e.g., in angel cake, sponge cake, chiffon cakes

(b) As meringue:
● Soft meringue for topping of cream, chocolate or lemon pie requires a
proportion of two (2) tablespoons sugar per egg white.
● Hard meringue for confections, base of fruit pies, or Sans Rival Cake;
requires a proportion of one fourth (1/4) cup of sugar per egg white.

(c) Structural and textural agent – tenderness and fluffiness to products, e.g., fluffy
or foamy omelet, soufflé, divinity, foam cakes, and popovers.
References:

1. Brown, A. (2011). Understanding food preparation and principles. Cengage Learning Asia
Pte. Ltd.
2. Claudio, V.S., de Leon, S.Y., & Chavez, L.L. (2006). Basic foods for Filipinos (4th edition).
Merriam & Webster Bookstore, Inc.
3. Institute of Human Nutrition and Food. Fundamentals in Food and Nutrition. Vol.1: Foods
and Institutional Management.
4. McWilliams, M. (2012). Foods: Experimental perspectives (7th edition). Prentice Hall.
5. National Restaurant Association. (2011). Foundations of restaurant management &
culinary arts (Level One). Prentice Hall.
6. Penfield, M.P. & Campbell, A.M. (1990). Experimental food science (3rd edition). Academic
Press. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-157920-3.50008-9
7. Potter, N.N. & Hotchkiss, J.H. (1998). Food science (5th edition). Aspen Publishers, Inc.
8. Vaclavik, V.A. & Christian, E.W. (2007). Essentials of food science. Springer.
9. Vaclavik, V.A., Pimentel, M.H., & Devine, M.M. (2010). Dimensions of food (7th edition).
Taylor & Francis Group.
II. FATS AND OILS

DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

1. Fats and oils are triglycerides are organic compounds composed of three fatty acids and
glycerol. Fats refers to lipids that are solid at room temperature whereas oil refers to lipids
that remain at room temperature. Lipids are non-polar, water insoluble compounds that
provide nine (9) calories per gram. Glycerol is a polyhydric alcohol that contain three carbon
atoms joined to a hydroxyl group. In lipids, these hydroxyl groups will each be esterified with
a fatty acid. Fatty acids are organic acids that contain 4 to 24 carbon atoms (McWilliams,
2017; Brown, 2011).

Figure 2.5. Reaction of glycerol and three fatty acids to produce triglyceride

COMPOSITION OF FATS AND OILS

1. Monounsaturated fats

Liquid at room temperature, also found in plants. Fatty acids that contains one double bond.
Oleic acid is the most abundant monounsaturated fatty acid. Peanuts and olives are
sources of monounsaturated fats.
2. Polyunsaturated fats

Lipids that are liquid at room temperature, primarily found in plants. Fatty acids with two
or more double bonds. There are some health benefits associated with polyunsaturated
fatty acid, these are the essential fatty acids –omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. The
configuration of the naturally occurring double bonds of polyunsaturated fatty acids are
in the cis form. The melting point of fatty acids in their cis form have lower melting point
than its trans form counterpart. This higher melting point is attributed by the ability of
trans fatty acids to form a van der Waals forces with other molecules due to their linearity
thus allowing molecules to be packed closely forming a semi-solid to solid phase. Trans
fatty acids are more stable, less likely to undergo oxidation than its cis fatty acids. Trans
fatty acids however, is found to increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases upon
consumption. Primary sources are corn, soybean, canola and sunflower so as fish.

Monounsaturated: Oleic acid (C18)

Polyunsaturated: Linoleic acid (C18)

Polyunsaturated: Alpha-linolenic acid (C18)

Figure 2.6. Structure of unsaturated fatty acids

3. Saturated fats

Triglycerides that are solid at room temperature and found mostly in animals. These are
fatty acids that contain no double bond, chain length influences their melting point. Short
chain fatty acids have low melting point while long chain tends to easily solidify and have
high melting point. Saturated fatty acids are found in meat, poultry, milk, butter, cheese,
lard, and some plant sources such as chocolate and coconut.
 Lauric acid
(C12)

Myristic acid (C14)

Palmitic acid (C16)

Figure 2.7. Structure of saturated fatty acids

4. Sterols – sterols are group of steroids that unlike phospholipids and triglycerides, are
round in structure. Cholesterol is the most common sterol found in animals.

5. Tocopherols – antioxidants that aid in preventing oxidative rancidity and are sources of
vitamin E.

6. Phospholipids – similar to triglycerides but have only two fatty acids esterified to
glycerol, instead of the third fatty acid is a polar group containing phosphoric acid and
nitrogen. This dual polarity nature of phospholipids allows them to bind to both lipids
and water, making this molecule a very effective emulsifier. Lecithin is the most
common phospholipid that is found in egg yolks.

7. Vitamins – fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K are found in significant levels in fatty
foods. More so, fat promote the absorption of these vitamins.

Table 2.21. Vitamin and mineral contents of some fats and oils (Serraon-Claudio et al, 2014)
Vitamin Mineral
Lipids
E (mg) K(µg) Na(mg) Fe(mg)
8. Cocon 0.09 0.5 - -
ut
9. Palm 15.94 8.0 - 0.01
oil
Olive oil 14.35 60.2 3.0 -
Soybean oil 9.21 197.6 - -
 Canola oil 17.1 122.0 - -

8. Pigments – fat soluble pigments such as carotenoids and chlorophylls are present in fats
and they impart a characteristic color to fats.

MARKET FORMS

Fats may be classified according to culinary use:

1. Table fats – fats used in spreads such as butter and margarine;

2. Cooking oil – used in cooking such as frying and sautéing, like peanut oil, palm oil, coconut
oil;
3. Shortening – plastic fats used for baking;
4. Salad oils – used for salad dressing such as corn oil and soybean oil.

Animal fats

1. Suet – clear, white, solid fat from beef;

2. Beef tallow – hard fat rendered from fatty tissues of beef;
3. Lard – rendered pork fat
4. Butter – solid fat of cream that separates during churning, contains 80% fast;
5. Compound butter – butter substitute having 40% milk fat and mixed with vegetable oil;
6. Oleo stock tallow – fat from rendered internal fatty tissues of cattle;
7. Oleo oil – pressed from oleo stock;
8. Oleo stearin – crystalline product from oleo stock.

Vegetable fats

1. Hydrogenated fats or vegetable shortenings – refined, bleached vegetable oils made

saturated and hydrogenated;
2. Margarine – butter substitute from vegetable oils containing butter/butter milk, salt,
coloring, emulsifiers, and preservative; contains 80% fat and 16% water;
3. Vegetable oils – oils from plant sources which include olive, peanut, sesame, sunflower,
soybean, and coconut;
Table 2.22. Different types of vegetable oils and their sources (Brown, 2011; Serraon-
Claudio et al, 2014)

Name Source Description Smoke point

Coconut oil coconut high in saturated fat, 232°C

light amber, mild
flavor

Corn oil corn kernel mild, buttery flavor, 227°C

high in
polyunsaturated
fatty acids

Palm kernel kernel of palms semi-solid at room 232°C

oil temperature, high in
saturated fat

Palm oil fleshy mesocarp high in saturated fat, 235°C

of fruit of palm amber in color,
trees more carotene

Soybean oil soybean kernel very mild flavor, 256°C

versatile, m

Peanut oil peanut kernel bland flavor 232°C

Olive oil fruits of olive tree monounsaturated unrefined:

oil, light amber to 160°C
green, bland to 9. extra
extremely strong virgin:208°
flavor C
virgin: 216°C
extra light:
242°C

Canola oil seeds from high in 204°C

genetically monounsaturated
modified rape fat, mild flavor
plants
 Sesame oil sesame seeds nutty flavor, sesame 210°C
aroma

Safflower oil seeds of the pale yellow and 232°C

safflower plant bland flavor
(wild variety of
saffron)

Avocado oil avocado fruit light, slightly nutty 271°C

tasting

4. Salad oils – deodorized and bleached vegetable oils, since it is used in salads, it must have
the ability to remain clear and liquid at room temperature. Winterization is the process
by which vegetable oils are subjected to low temperatures to separate solidified fats,
waxes, and other lipids, producing a oils that a clear and does not solidify in room
temperature.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Properties of fat

1. Melting point – a temperature index that measures the force of attraction between
molecules—more attractive forces the more ease of crystallization/solidification and
more energy is required for separation. Since fats or oils are composed of several fatty
acids, melting point is not a single point but a temperature range. Factors affecting
melting point are:

a. Chain length – longer chain fatty acids have higher melting point than short-
chain fatty acids this is due to the fact that longer chains have more attractive
forces than shorter chain.

b. Degree of saturation – remembering the structure of double bonds—double

bonds provide kinks to the chain; this kink makes it harder for fatty acid
molecules to organize together and form crystals making the attractive forces
weaker. This explains why lard and most of the animal fat are solid at room
temperature, as they contain more saturated fatty acids.

c. Configuration – cis/trans configuration also dictates how the molecules come

together to form a solid mass. Cis isomers have lower melting point than its
trans isomer as cis configuration introduces kink to the fatty acid molecule, it
does not organize properly together.
(a) cis-oleic acid (b) trans-oleic acid

Figure 2.8. cis- and trans-configuration of oleic acid

2. Smoke point – temperature at which fat is heated before it produces blue smoke. This
smoke is an indicator that the free glycerol is hydrolyzed to produce acrolein. Acrolein
is a mucous irritant and lends an undesirable odor (acrid smell). Flash point is the Frying
temperatures are high that is why it is recommended to use high smoke point oils for
frying. Factors that lower smoke point are:

a. Repeated heating of fats;

b. Using a wide diameter pan; and
c. Presence of food particles in fat.

Figure 2.9. Conversion of glycerol to acrolein

3. Plasticity – the ability of fat to hold its shape but can be molded or shaped under light
pressure. Plasticity determines spreadability. The degree of saturation influences the
plasticity of fat—more unsaturated a fat is, the more moldable the fat will be.
Hydrogenated fats are examples of fats with a wide plastic range. This type of fat is
mostly composed of fatty acids with low melting point and a few high melting point fatty
acids, it is suitable for creaming. Butter on the other hand is an example of fat with a
narrow plastic range.
4. Shortening power – shortening is the fat that shortens the texture of baked products by
hampering gluten development, making the product softer and more tender. Highly
saturated fats have greater shortening power. The mechanism of shortening is as fat is
mixed into the flour, it separates flour and protein then as it melts during heating, it
creates air spaces that give the product a soft, fine texture.

5. Emulsifying power – fat on its own is not an emulsifier. As stated in Chapter 1, emulsifiers
are substances that can bind two immiscible liquids. The mixture of fat and water are
examples of two immiscible liquids together, andin order to combine these two liquids,
a substance having a dual-polarity nature or that having both polar and non-polar ends
must be introduced. The product is then called an emulsion. All foods contain water and
most have fat, this makes emulsifiers vital in food matrices. There are two types of lipid
emulsions:

a. Oil-in-water – these are mixtures where oil droplets are scattered in water
examples are mayonnaise, cream, gravies, and most salad dressings.
b. Water-in-oil – emulsions in which water droplets are diffused throughout the
oil, examples are butter and margarine.

There are three parts of an emulsion—dispersed phase, continuous phase, and an

emulsifier. The phases of emulsion are naturally apart caused by the surface tension as
their molecules are not capable of binding on its own. The surface between them is
called the interface. The action of the emulsifier happens in the interface, it serves as a
surfactant and lowers the surface tension between these two phases. Simply put,
emulsifiers act as a bridge with its hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends. Most emulsifiers
present are mono- and diglycerides but proteins and phospholipids are also commonly
used. Examples of emulsifiers are:

● lecithin (phospholipid found in egg yolk)

● milk proteins
● soy proteins
● gelatin
● gluten
● starches
● spices

Use of these different emulsifiers result in varying stability of emulsions. Emulsions can
be classified according to the degree of their stability or the ability of the phases to stay
in an emulsion even in extreme temperatures, agitation, gravity, long storage, and other
factors. The types of emulsions are:
 a. Temporary emulsions – less viscous and less stable type of emulsions, it must
be shaken every before use to reform the emulsion. Best example is a
vinaigrette, a salad dressing composed of oil and vinegar.

b. Permanent emulsions – very viscous and stable due to the presence of a

strong emulsifier. This type of emulsion does not easy separate, such as the
case of mayonnaise. Mayonnaise is made from oil, an acid (usually vinegar),
and egg yolk. Egg yolk contains a phospholipid called lecithin, which acts as
the emulsifier ensuring that the oil is dispersed in the vinegar.

6. Solubility – due to the structure of fat, it is generally insoluble in water. Fats are
carriers of unique flavors, and pigments which are fat soluble.

7. Satiety – fats tend to make the person feel full longer as it delays the emptying of food
in the stomach as well it takes longer to digest than carbohydrates and proteins.

RANCIDITY

Hydrolytic rancidity

Hydrolytic rancidity that refers to the decomposition of fats into free fatty acids and glycerol
due to the enzyme lipase. High levels of free fatty acids and soaps (salts of free fatty acids)
impart an objectionable soapy flavor. This may be prevented by heating fat to destroy lipase
or storing fat at low temperature (0-10°C) to inactivate enzymes.

Oxidative rancidity

Oxidation of lipids brought about by the removal of hydrogen atom followed by the addition
of oxygen to carbon atom next to the double bond forming hydroperoxide which are volatile
and breaks into short-chain fatty acids. These short chain fatty acids are responsible for the
objectionable odors in rancid oils. This may be reduced by adding antioxidants such as
vitamin A and E, butylated hyrdoxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA),
storage at low temperature and away from light and elimination from any contact with
metal. Factors that affect the rate of lipid oxidation are:

1. initial quality of fats and oils;

2. presence of light, heat, and integrity of packaging during storage;
3. exposure to oxygen;
4. presence of metals;
5. concentration of active lipoxidase; and
6. application of synthetic or natural preservatives;
FAT QUALITY DETERMINATION

1. Iodine number – weight of I2 indicates the degree of unsaturation;

2. Peroxide value – measures the degree of oxidative rancidity, determines the
concentration of peroxides and hydroperoxides. High peroxide value indicates that the
fat is rancid;
3. Free fatty acid content – measures the degree of hydrolytic rancidity;
4. Sensory methods – strong acetaldehyde odor indicates rancidity.

PROCESSING, USES, AND STORAGE

Processing of fats

1. Rendering – process of extracting fats and oils from animal tissues.

2. Refining – removal of free fatty acids by adding alkali;
3. Hydrogenation – process of transforming oils to a more solid form, this increases the
smoke point and shelf life of oils. Hydrogenation increases the amount of trans
configuration that makes the fat more solid. However, the presence of trans fat is said
to increase the risk of heart disease.
4. Winterizing – process of removing fatty acids that solidify at lower temperatures;
5. Deodorization – removal of naturally occurring odor and flavor;
6. Bleaching – process of removal of pigments present in fats.

Uses and functions of fats

1. Cooking medium – medium for heat transfer during sautéing, pan-frying, and deep
frying;
2. Shortening – fat is used to tenderize baked products;
3. Grease – used to prevent food from sticking to the pan;
4. Flavor and mouthfeel – fat acts as a lubricant that gives a characteristic texture and
mouthfeel to foods; fat also imparts flavor such as butter, bacon, and some fried foods.
Fat-soluble flavor compounds are released if fats are present, this is the reason why
sautéing is done, particularly to garlic and onion—to release their flavor and aromatic
compounds that contribute to the wholeness of the dish.
5. Texture – fats are responsible for the creaminess, flakiness, and tenderness textures. Fat
hinders gelatinization, it also affects the smoothness of ice cream by retarding
crystallization in starch-thickened mixtures.
6. Appearance/Color – as carriers of fat-soluble pigments, fats plays a vital role in the color
of foods. Presence of adequate amounts of fats impart shine, glisten, and gloss to the
surface of foods.
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF FATS AND OILS

The goal in storing fats and oils is to delay rancidity, both oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity.
Water is essential for hydrolytic rancidity to occur, whereas oxygen for oxidative rancidity.
Therefore, it is best to avoid water and oxygen during storage. Below some points to consider
in storing fats and oils:

1. Place in a covered container at all times;

2. Keep away from air (oxygen), light, and heat;
3. When storing used oil,
a. cool heated oil before transferring to containers;
b. it should be strained to remove particles from fried food.

Decomposition of oil during heating:

● Pyrolysis – known as the thermal breakdown, heat breaks down the molecular
bond with or without contact with food;
● Oxidation – as heat breaks down the molecular structure of fat and allows
development of rancidity;
● Hydrolysis – water from the food reacts with oil and splits the fat to fatty acid
and glycerol;
● Reaction with food residue –particles from fried foods reacts with fat and
causes rancidity.

SALADS AND SALAD DRESSINGS

Salads are dishes made from plants or greens, alone or in combination with other food with
dressing. Salads can be served as an appetizer, main course, side-dish, or dessert. Salads
may be classified according to its role in the menu:

1. appetizer salad – light salad, stimulates the appetite as to get ready for the main
course; examples are dinner salad and shrimp cocktail;

2. side salad – also known as accompaniment salad, light salad the complements the main
dish; examples are Chef’s salad, Taco salad, and Chinese Chicken Salad;

3. main course salad – a separate course salad, it is usually heavy to satisfy hunger;
examples are coleslaws, pineapple-carrot salad, and potato salad;

4. dessert salad – sweet salads that usually contain fruits, gelatin, and/or whipped cream;
examples are fruit cocktail and Waldorf salad.
Kinds of salads

1. Green salad – primarily made of leafy vegetables such as green or red lettuce, spinach,
or arugula;
2. Vegetable salad – made from raw or cooked vegetables which include carrots,
cucumbers, onions, peppers, mushrooms, celery, tomatoes, and turnips. Other
ingredients are added that contributes to the flavor and texture of the salad, examples
are olives, croutons, bacon, chicken, tuna, shrimp, and hard-boiled eggs;
3. Potato salad – made from potatoes;
4. Pasta and grain salad –based on pasta or cooked grain such as rice, corn, or couscous;
5. Legume salad – made with cooked beans, lentils, and peas;
6. Bound salad – type of salad that can be scooped as a side dish or sandwich spread such
as chicken salad, tuna salad, and egg salad;
7. Fruit salad – made of canned, raw, or blanched fruits;
8. Composed salad – carefully arranged salad;
9. Entrée salad – salad that can stand as a meal containing vegetables, grains, protein, and
dairy.
10. Side salad – served to enhance the main dish.

Components of a salad

1. Base – also called an underliner, serves as the foundation of the salad. This is usually
composed of lettuce or greens but can also be pasta, rice, or gelatin;
2. Body – the main part of the salad;
3. Garnish – toppings that add color, texture, or flavor to enhance the palatability of the
salad;
4. Dressing – act as a lubricant, adds flavor and moisture. Greens, vegetable, protein-based
salads use tart dressings while sweet dressings for fruit salads.

a. Vinaigrette – a temporary emulsion of oil and vinegar with added seasonings

often with herbs, pepper, sugar, spices, and salt; simple vinaigrette is called
French dressing with basic ingredients are 1 cup vinegar, 3 cups oil, salt, and
pepper;

b. Emulsified/Creamy dressing – usually mayonnaise-based; semi-solid prepared

from oil, an acid (vinegar or lemon juice), egg yolk or whole egg, and other
ingredients to add flavor such as paprika, mustard, and sugar; sometimes,
mayonnaise separates, this may be due to high temperature, agitation during
transport, microbial growth due to insufficient acid, and freezing. Mayonnaise
must have a fat/oil content of 65%, below are some guidelines on how to prepare
a good mayonnaise:

● Ingredients must be at room temperature to easily form an emulsion;

 ● Use fresh eggs. Egg yolk is a better emulsifying agent than whole eggs;
● Use a bowl with narrow diameter and sloping sides, give ample space for
mixing;
● Follow proper proportion and amount of ingredients, suggested
proportion is ¾ cup oil to two tablespoons of acid for every egg yolk;
● To create a more stable emulsion, seasonings may be beaten with egg yolk;
● Add acid first to break the oil into globules;
● Vigorous stirring creates small oil globules making a more stable emulsion;
and
● Refrigerate mayonnaise for stability.

c. Cooked dressing – resembles the consistency and thickness of mayonnaise; this

type of dressing uses cooked starch instead of egg yolk.

PRINCIPLES OF PREPARING SALADS

1. Use fresh and crisp ingredients.

2. Wash the ingredients thoroughly.
3. Choose proper combinations of ingredients, consider complementing flavors, colors, and
textures. Flavor variety is important.
4. Use proper type and amount of dressing.
5. Assemble ingredients with suitable balance of color, texture, and even shape.

REFERENCES

Brown A. (2011). Understanding foods: Principles and preparation. 4th ed. Wadsworth Cengage
Learning, Belmont, CA.

Gisslen W. (2005). Professional Cooking. 4th ed. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New Jersey.

Institute of Human Nutrition and Food. Fundamentals in Food and Nutrition. Vol 1: Foods and
Institutional Management.

McWilliams M. (2017). Foods: Experimental Perspectives. 8th ed. Pearson Education, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey.

Serraon-Claudio V, Jamorabo-Ruiz A, de Leon-Yuson S, de Lima-Chavez L. (2014). Basic Foods for

Filipinos. 5th ed. Merriam and Web ster Bookstore, Metro Manila, Philippines.

Vaclavik VA and Christian EW. (2014). Essentials of food science. 4th ed. Springer, New York.