DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

CS8601 MOBILE COMPUTING

UNIT III MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

Mobile IP – DHCP - AdHoc–- Proactive protocol - DSDV, Reactive Routing Protocols - DSR,
AODV, Hybrid routing - ZRP, Multicast Routing - ODMRP, Vehicular Ad Hoc networks (
VANET) - MANET Vs VANET - Security.

3.1 Mobile IP

 Mobile IP is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard communications

protocol that enhances the existing IP to accommodate mobility.
 Mobile IP allows mobile computers to stay connected to the internet regardless of their
location & without having to continually change their IP address.
 Every mobile user needs continuous network connectivity irrespective of his physical
location. The traditional IP does not support user mobility.
 Mobile IP was created by extending IP to enable users to keep the same IP address while
travelling to different networks.

Advantages of using Mobile IP:

 It allows fast, continuous low‐cost access to corporate networks in remote areas where
there is no public telephone system or cellular coverage.
 It supports a wide range of applications from Internet access and e‐mail to e‐commerce.
 Users can be permanently connected to their Internet provider and charged only for the
data packets that are sent and received
 It can move from one type of medium to another without losing connectivity

Disadvantage of Mobile IP:

 Routing inefficiency problem caused by the “triangle routing” formed by the home
agent, correspondent host, and the foreign agent. 
 Security risks are the most important problem facing Mobile IP.
 Problem in making Mobile IP coexist with the security features within the Internet.

3.1.1 GOALS, ASSUMPTIONS & REQUIREMENTS

 Goal of a mobile IP: Supporting end-system mobility while maintaining scalability,

efficiency, and compatibility in all respects with existing applications and Internet
protocols.

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  Requirements of Mobile IP:
 Compatibility: A new standard cannot require changes for applications or network
protocols already in use.
 Transparency: Mobility should remain “invisible” for many higher layer protocols
and applications.
 Scalability and efficiency: Introducing a new mechanism into the Internet must not
degrade the efficiency of the network.
 Security: All messages used to transmit information to another node about the
location of a mobile node must be authenticated to protect against remote redirection
attacks

3.1.2 MOBILE IP - ENTITIES AND TERMINOLOGIES

Mobile Node (MN):
 Device that moves from home network to Foreign network
 Node that can change the point of connection to the network without changing its IP
address.
Example: laptops with antennas or mobile phones
Home Address:
 Permanent address of the MN in its original network i.e., IP address of MN

Home Network
 Original network the MN was associated with respect to its IP address before moving
to new network. No mobile IP support is needed within the home network.

Home Agent (HA)

 System in the home network of the MN, typically a router.
 Provides several services for the MN :
o Tunnels IP datagrams to the COA.
o Maintains a location registry of MA
 Implementation of an HA:
 Implemented on a router that is responsible for the home network.
 Implemented on an arbitrary node in the subnet.

Disadvantage: "Double crossing of the router" - A packet for the MN comes in via the
router; the HA sends it through the tunnel which again crosses the router.

 The HA could be again on the ‘router’ but this time only acting as a manager for MNs
belonging to a virtual home network.

Foreign Agent (FA)

 System in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router.
 It can have COA

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  Provides several services to MN during its visit to the foreign network:
o Forwards the tunnel datagrams to the MA.
o Provides security services

Foreign Network
 A new network that MN visits and which is not the home network

Correspondent Node (CN)

 Communication partner i.e., Node that wants to communicate with MN
 At least one partner is needed for communication.
 It can be a fixed or mobile node.


Care-of Address (COA)
 A new address of MN in the foreign network.
 Two different possibilities for the location of the COA (Types of COA):
 Foreign Agent COA - The static IP address of a foreign agent(FA) on a visited network
 Co-located COA - Temporary IP address assigned to the MN.
 Represents the current position of the MN on the Foreign network & can be used by
only one MN at a time.
 A co-located care-of address can be obtained by Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP).

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3.1.3 IP PACKET DELIVERY (HOW MOBILE IP WORKS?)

Steps used in the operation of mobile IP:

STEP 1: CN sends the Packet to the IP address(home address) of the MN
STEP 2:
 Internet Routes the Packet to the router of the MN’s home network.
 The HA examines the packet to find whether the MN is present in its current home
network or not.
 If the MN is not present, then the HA encapsulates that datagram in a new packet.
STEP 3:
 The encapsulated packet is tunneled to the FA, which act as the new destination address.
 Then FA performs decapsulation to remove the additional header
 Then forwards the decapsulated packet to the MN.
STEP 4:
 MN after receiving the packet from CN forwards a reply packet to the CN by specifying
its own IP address along with the address of the CN.

3.1.4. KEY MECHANISMS IN MOBILE IP (MOBILE IP OPERATION STAGES)

a) Agent Discovery
b) Registration
c) Tunneling & Encapsulation

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3.1.4.1 AGENT DISCOVERY
A MN uses a discovery procedure to identify prospective home and foreign agents.

 Task of MN to determine its FA & HA:

i) Both HA & FA periodically broadcast Agent Advertisement message.
ii) A MN must discover a HA before it leaves to a home network.
iii) A MN must also discover a FA after it moved to a foreign network

 Uses ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP).

ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP) - Enables host to broadcast or multicast to
discover the IP address (i.e., COA) of their neighbouring routers (i.e., FA)

Agent Discovery methods:

(i) Agent Advertisement
(ii) Agent Solicitation.

a) Agent advertisement

Functions:
1. It allows the MN to find whether an agent is its HA or a FA.
2. If it is FA then get the COA.
3. It allows the MN to know the type of services provided by the FA.
4. It allows the MN to know about the allowed registration lifetime or roaming period for visiting
foreign network.

NOTE: Upper part represents ICMP while lower part represents extension needed for mobility.

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b) Agent solicitation:
 Rather than waiting for agent advertisements a MN can sen out an agent solicitation.
 This solicitation forces any agents on the link to immediately send an agent
advertisement.
 If MN determines that it is connected to a foreign network, then it obtains a COA.
 Types of COA:
(i) Foreign Agent COA - The static IP address of a foreign agent (FA) on a visited
network
(ii) Co-located COA - Temporary IP address assigned to the MN.
 Represents the current position of the MN on the Foreign network & can be used by
only one MN at a time.
 A co-located care-of address can be obtained by Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP).
Steps:
1. MA (HA, FA) broadcast agent advertisement message at regular intervals.
2. The MN receiving the agent advertisement message observes whether the message is from its
own HA & determine whether it is on the home network or on the foreign network.
3. If the MN does not wish to wait for the periodic advertisement, it can send out agent
solicitation message that will be responded to by a MA.

After these steps of advertisements or solicitations the MN can now receive a COA, either one
for an FA or a co-located COA. The MN knows its location (home network or foreign network)
and the capabilities of the agent.
The next step for the MN is the registration with the HA if the MN is in a foreign network

3.1.4.2 REGISTRATION
 If the MN discovers that it is on the home network, then it operates normally without Mobile
IP
 If the MN has moved to a new network & obtain the COA from a FA, then this address
should be registered with the HA.
 Registration – A MN uses an authenticated registration procedure to inform the HA of its
COA.
o Registration messages uses UDP Protocol.
o Registration can be done in two different ways:

(i) Registration of the MN through FA

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 If the COA is at the FA;
 MN sends its registration request containing the COA to the FA which then forward
the request to the HA.
 Now HA will do the mobility binding containing the mobile node’s home IP address
and the current COA.
 Then finally the HA Acknowledges via FA to MN.

ii) Directly with HA

If the COA is co-located;

 MN sends the request directly to the HA and vice versa.
 Also, a registration procedure for MNs returning to their home network.

REGISTRATION PROCESS:
 The registration process involves the exchange of registration requests and registration
reply messages.
 When the mobile node registers by using a foreign agent, the registration process takes
the following steps, which is shown in the figure.

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1. If MN travels to foreign network, it registers with the FA by sending a registration request
message, which includes permanent IP address of the MN & IP address of HA.
2. The FA in turn performs the registration process on behalf of the MN by sending the
registration request message to HA, which includes permanent IP address of the MN & IP
address of FA(i.e., COA)
3. When the HA receives the registration request, it updates the “mobility Binding Table”.
4. Then HA sends an acknowledgement (registration reply) to the FA.
5-6. The FA in turn updates its “Visitor list” & relays the reply to the MN.

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Mobility Binding Table:
 Maintained on HA of MN.
 Maps MN’s home address with its current COA

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Visitor List:
 Maintained on FA.
 Maps MN’s home address with its MAC address (address of NIC) & HA’s address.

3.1.4.3 TUNNELLING AND ENCAPSULATION

 Tunneling (data transfer) – Mechanism used to forward IP datagrams from a home
address to a care-of address i.e., sending a packet through a tunnel
 A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data packets between a tunnel entry and a tunnel
endpoint.
Two primary functions:
 Encapsulations – Mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet header and data and
putting it into the data part of a new packet.
HA encapsulates all the packets addressed to MN & forward them to FA.
 Decapsulation - The reverse operation, taking a packet out of the data part of another
packet

FA dencapsulates all the packets addressed to MN & forward them.

Fig. IP encapsulation

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Steps in Encapsulation:
1. When a HA receives a packet addressed to a MN, it forwards the packet to the COA using IP -
within -IP encapsulation
2. Using IP -within -IP , the HA inserts a new IP header in front of the IP header of any
datagram.
3. Destination address is set to the COA.
4. Source address is set to the HA’s address.
5. After stripping out the 1st header, IP processes the packet again.
There are different ways of performing the encapsulation. They are:
1. IP-in-IP Encapsulation
2. Minimal Encapsulation
3. Generic Routing Encapsulation

(1) IP-in-IP Encapsulation:

 This is the mandatory method for Mobile IP.
 Full IP header added to the original IP packet.

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 The inner IP header source and destination address identify the original sender and the
receiver.
 The new(outer) header contains HA address as source & COA as destination.

(2) Minimal Encapsulation :

 It is an optional method for mobile IP
 In IP-in-IP several fields are redundant.
 Minimal Encapsulation will remove these redundancy.

(3) Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE):

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 Minimal Encapsulation & IP-in-IP only works for IP while GRE also supports other
network layer protocols.
 Allows the encapsulation of packets of one protocol suite into the payload portion of
a packet of another protocol suite.
 The packet of one protocol suite with the original packet header and data is taken and
a new GRE header is prepended.
 Together this forms the new data part of the new packet.
 Finally, the header of the second protocol suite is put in front.
 The outer header is the standard IP header with HA as source address and COA as
destination address.

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  key – used for authentication.
 K bit - if set indicates if authentication key is present.
 S bit - if set indicates if the Sequence number field is present.
 rec – recursion control field. This field represents a counter that shows the number of
allowed recursive encapsulations.
 rsv – reserved for future use. Must be zero.
 ver = 0 for GRE version.
 Lay 4 protocol specifies the protocol of the packet following the GRE header.

3.1.5 OPTIMIZATIONS (ROUTE OPTIMIZATION)

 One of the problem with the mobile IP - "Triangular Routing"
 Triangular Routing:
o An inefficient behavior of a non- optimized mobile IP

o The triangle is made of the three segments,

 CN to HA
 HA to COA/MN
 MN back to CN.
o Involves two IP routes - Causes unnecessary network traffic overhead & higher
latency

To optimize the route ;

 Enable direct notification of the CN.HA informs a sender about the location of MN
 Direct Tunnelling from the CN to MN.
 Binding cache maintained at the CN. Binding cache which is a part of the local routing
table for the CN
The optimized mobile IP protocol needs four additional messages:
1. Binding request:
 Any node that wants to know the current location of an MN can send a binding request to
the HA.

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  The HA can check if the MN has allowed broadcasting of its current location.
 If the HA is allowed to reveal the location it sends back a binding update.
2. Binding update:
 This message sent by the HA to CNs reveals the current location of an MN.
 The message contains the fixed IP address of the MN and the COA.
 The binding update can request an acknowledgement.

3. Binding acknowledgement: If requested, a node returns this acknowledgement after

receiving a binding update message.
4. Binding warning: If a node decapsulates a packet for an MN, but it is not the current FA for
this MN, this node sends a binding warning to the HA of the MN.

Reverse tunneling is a tunneling from mobile host to home agent, and makes it possible for the
mobile host from foreign network to communication in the network

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3.2 DHCP - DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL
 DHCP is used to merge the world of mobile phones with the internet and to support
mobility.
 Automatically assigns a unique IP address to each device that connects to a network.
 Used to simplify the installation and maintenance of networked computers.
o If a new computer is connected to a network, DHCP can provide it with all the
necessary information for full system integration into the network, e.g., addresses
of a DNS server and the default router, the subnet mask, the domain name, and an
IP address.
 DHCP is based on a client/server model.

1. DHCP clients send a request to a server (DHCPDISCOVER) to which the server responds.
2. A client sends requests using MAC broadcasts to reach all devices in the LAN.
3. A DHCP relay might be needed to forward requests across inter-working units to a DHCP
server.

Fig. Client initialization via DHCP

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The above figure shows one client and two servers.
1. The client broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER into the subnet.
2. Two servers receive this broadcast and find the configuration they can offer to the client.
3. Servers reply to the client’s request with DHCPOFFER and offer a list of configuration
parameters.
4. Then the client can choose one of the configurations offered.
5. Then the client in turn replies to the servers, accepting one of the configurations and rejecting
the others using DHCP REQUEST.
6. If a server receives a DHCP REQUEST with a rejection, it can free the reserved
configuration for other possible clients.
7. The server with the configuration accepted by the client now confirms the configuration with
DHCP ACK. This completes the initialization phase.
8. If a client leaves a subnet, it should release the configuration received by the server using
DHCP RELEASE.
9. The configuration a client gets from a server is only leased for a certain amount of time, it has
to be reconfirmed from time to time.

3.3.1 MOBILE AD-HOC (MANET)

Types of wireless network:
Infrastructured:
 The MN can move while communicating
 The BSs are fixed
 As the node goes out of the range of a BS, it gets into the range of another BS.

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Infrastructureless or Mobile ad-hoc (MANET):
 The MN can move while communicating
 There are no fixed BSs.
 All the nodes in the network need to act as routers.
 Used to simplify the installation and maintenance of networked computers.
 MANET are formed dynamically by an autonomous system of mobile nodes that are
connected via wireless links.
 No existing fixed infrastructure or centralized administration
 Mobile nodes are free to move randomly i.e., network topology changes frequently.
 Each node work as a router.

3.3.2 FEATURES OF MANET

 MANET can be formed without any pre-existing infrastructure.
 It follows dynamic topology where nodes may join and leave the network at any time and
the multi-hop routing may keep changing as nodes join and depart from the network.
 It does have very limited physical security, and thus increasing security is a major
concern.
 Every node in the MANET can assist in routing of packets in the network.
 Limited Bandwidth & Limited Power

3.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MANET

1. Lack of fixed infrastructure
– bring new n/w designing challenges.

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 – Pair of nodes can either communicate directly when they are in within the range or can
communicate via multi-hop communication.
2. Dynamic topologies :
– n/w topology can change unpredictably because of the mobility of devices in MANET
– Rate of topology change depends on the speed of mobile movement
3. Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity link:
– Wireless link have lower capacity compare to wired link
– Factors affecting Bandwidth: Noise, Interference…….
4. Energy constrained operation:
– Nodes depends on battery power
– Small battery – limited amount of energy
– Need more energy during Routing
– “Energy Conservation” – important objective of MANET routing protocol
5. Increased vulnerability:
– New type of security threats
– Increased the possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing, DOS attacks.
– Difficult to identify the attacker because:
• Devices keeps on moving
• Do not have global Identifier

3.3.4 CHALLENGES / CONSTRAINTS / DESIGN ISSUES OF MANET

1) Limited bandwidth:
Limited bandwidth because of the effect of multiple access, fading, noise, and
interference conditions, etc.,
2) Dynamic topology:
Dynamic topology membership may disturb the trust relationship among node.
3) Routing Overhead:
Unnecessary routing overhead since nodes often change their location within network.
4) Hidden terminal problem:
The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets at a receiving node due to
the simultaneous transmission of those nodes that are not within the direct transmission range of
the sender, but are within the transmission range of the receiver.
5) Packet losses due to transmission errors:
Much higher packet loss due to factors such as increased collisions due to the presence of
hidden terminals, presence of interference, uni-directional links, frequent path breaks due to
mobility of nodes.
6) Mobility-induced route changes:
The network topology in an ad hoc wireless network is highly dynamic due to the
movement of nodes; hence an on-going session suffers frequent path breaks. This situation often
leads to frequent route changes.

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7) Battery constraints:
Devices used in these networks have restrictions on the power source in order to maintain
portability, size and weight of the device.
8) Security threats:
Brings new security challenges to the network design. As the wireless medium is
vulnerable to eavesdropping.

3.3.5. APPLICATIONS OF MANET

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3.3.6 AD-HOC MOBILE ROUTING PROTOCOLS
 Routing is a process of finding an efficient, reliable and secure path from a source node
to a destination node via intermediate nodes in a network.
 Efficiency of the path is measured in various metrics like, Number of hops, traffic,
security, etc.

3.3.6.1 TRADITIONAL ROUTING PROTOCOLS

• Not suitable for MANET.
• Popularly used in packet switching n/w
– LSP (Link State Protocol)
– DVP (Distance Vector Protocol)
Both of these needs to find the next hop along the shortest path towards the destination

LINK STATE ROUTING

 Link – connection of one router to its neighboring router
 Each router maintains;
o LSPDB (Link State DataBase) - Router store its local connectivity information &
flood this through “Link state advertisement”
o Routing Table
 Content of (LSP) Link Sate Packet or (LSA) Link State Advertisement:
o Identity of the router originating the message
o Identities of all its neighbors
o Delay along various link to its neighbors
o Unique seq.no, which is formed by increasing the count every time the router forms a
new link state advertisement.
 Procedure:
1. Exchange of HELLO messages to find the neighbors.
2. Compute the cost between the neighbors
3. Build up LSP.
4. Flooding LSP – Broadcast the LSP
5. Compute the new path using Dijkstra’s algorithm

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 Exchange of HELLO messages - to learn its direct neighbors

 Flooding LSP – for example Router E sends its LSP on all its links and routers D, B and C
insert the LSP in their LSDB and forward it over their other links.

 Link state databases received by all routers- By combining the received LSPs with its own
LSP, each router can compute the entire network topology.

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 Each router computes the spanning tree by using Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm

2. DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (DV) Protocols

• Manipulates vectors (distance, direction) of distances to other nodes in the network.
• Distance – no. of hops b/w 2 nodes
• Direction – Next hop router to which the packet is forwarded
• Other name: Distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm or RIP(Routing Information Protocol)
• Each router maintain routing table.
• All available destination (Dest)
• Next node to reach to destination (Next)
• No. of hops to reach the destination (Metrics)
1. Periodically advertises its routing table to its neighbors
2. Neighbors updates its own routing table by examining the received information, which in
inform its neighbors.
3. Computes shortest path to each host based on the information advertised by its neighbours.

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3.3.6.2 PROACTIVE PROTOCOLS (Table-driven routing protocol)
 Maintain the global topology information in the form of tables at every node.
 These tables are updated frequently in order to maintain consistent and accurate network
state information.
 EX: DSDV, WRP, and STAR.

DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE-VECTOR ROUTING (DSDV)

 Based on Proactive method
 Enhanced version of the distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm or Distance Vector(DV)
Routing Protocol
 DSDV adds two things to the distance vector algorithm
 Sequence Number:
o Each routing advertisement comes with a sequence number.
o Within ad-hoc networks, advertisements may propagate along many paths.
o Sequence numbers help to apply the advertisements in correct order.
o This avoid the loops in the network.

 Damping:
 Transient changes in topology that are of short duration should not weaken the
routing mechanisms.
 Unstable changes in the topology are not forwarded

Example Ad-hoc network

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o For each node N1 maintain a table that contain;
o The next hop toward this node
o The metric (number of hops)
o The sequence number
o The time at which the path has been installed first.
o Important steps in the operation of DSDV:
1. Each router(node) in the network collects route information from its neighbours.
2. After gathering information, the node determines the shortest path to the destination based on
the gathered information.
3. Based on the gathered information, a new routing table is generated.
4. The router broadcasts this table to its neighbours. On receipt by neighbours, the neighbour
nodes recompute their respective routing tables.
5. This process continues till the routing information becomes stable.
 Advantages
o Simple
o Loop free through destination seq. numbers
o No latency caused by route discovery
 Disadvantages
o No sleeping nodes
o Overhead: most routing information never used

3.3.6.3 REACTIVE PROTOCOLS (On-demand routing protocol)

 They execute the path-finding process and exchange routing information only when a path is
required by a node to communicate with a destination.
 i.e., a route is discovered only when it is necessary.
 Source initiates route discovery

 2 step process

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 o Route Discovery
o Route Maintenance
 Route discovery is expensive
 Example: Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)

(a) DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING PROTOCOL (DSR)

 DSR is a source initiated on-demand(or reactive) routing protocol for ad-hoc network
 Designed to restrict the bandwidth consumed by packets by eliminating the periodic
table-update messages i.e., the nodes do not need to exchange the routing information
periodically, which helps to reduce the bandwidth overhead.
 Each mobile node participating in the protocol maintains a “routing cache” which
contains the list of all routes that the node has learnt
DSR works in 2 phases:
(a) Route Discovery:
Allows any host to dynamically discover the route to any destination in the ad-hoc network.
Route Discovery Process takes place by :
1. Broadcasting a route request (RREQ) packet to all its neighbours.
 The Route request (RREQ) packet contains the
i) Source address
ii) Request id
iii) Route Record, in which the sequence of hops traversed by the request packet before
reaching the destination is recorded.
2. A node after receiving RREQ
2.i. If the node is an intermediate node then
o If the message has the same ID i.e. has seen it before, then the node discards this
message,
o If not, the node appends its own address to the route record in the ROUTE REQUEST
message then propagates the message to the next hop neighbours
2.ii. If the node is the Target (Destination) then
o Returns a Route Reply (RREP) message to the sender
o Copies the accumulated route record from RREQ into RREP

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 Fig. Broadcasting the RREQ packets

Fig. Propagation of RREP packets back to source

(b) Route Maintenance:

 A known route can get broken due to the movement of some node or the battery of a node
getting exhausted.
 Route maintenance: The process of monitoring the correct operation of a route in use &
taking corrective action when needed.
 Steps:
1. When a node detects that one of its next hop neighbour node is not responding, it sends
back a route error (RERR) packet containing its own address and the address of the hop
that is not working

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 2. As Soon as source node receives the RERR message it deletes the broken link route
from its cache.
3. If it has another route to the destination, it starts to retransmit the packet using the
alternative route.
4. Otherwise it initiates the route discovery process again.
The basic message set consists of:
o RREQ – Route request
o RREP – Route reply
o RERR – Route error
o HELLO – For link status monitoring

 Advantages:
 A perfect route is discovered always.
 Highly efficient.
 Low bandwidth Consumption.

 Drawback:
 Packet header size (Non Uniform Packet Size) grows when intermediate node
increases.
 Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network

(b) AD HOC ON-DEMAND DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (AODV)

 Based on Reactive method
 DSR vs AODV:
o Major problem of DSR is its non-uniform packet size because it includes source routes in
its packet header which degrades the performance. If a packet is large, it has to be split
into smaller packets.
o The packet size in AODV is uniform unlike DSR.
o AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing tables at the nodes, so that
data packets do not have to contain routes.
o AODV holds the desirable feature of DSR that routes are maintained only between nodes
which need to communicate.
 Route is established only when it is required by a source node for transmitting data packets
 Make use of hop-by-hop routing, sequence numbers and beacons.
 Steps:
1. The node that needs a route to a specific destination generates a route request(RREQ).
2. The route request(RREQ) is forwarded by intermediate nodes which also learn a reverse
route from the source to themselves.

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 3. When the request reaches a node with route to destination, it generates a route reply
(RREP) containing the number of hops required to reach the destination.
4. All nodes that participate in forwarding this reply to the source node create a forward route
to destination.
5. This route created from each node from source to destination is a hop-by-hop route.

Example: Suppose Node S needs a routing path to Node D

1. Node S creates a RREQ packet & broadcasts to its neighbours.
RREQ [D's IP addr, Seq#, S's IP addr, hopcount]

2. Node A rebroadcasts RREQ to all its neighbours

3. Since, Node C known a route to Node D

o Node C creates a RREP & uncast RREP to A.
o Set forward path in C's routing table.

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4. Node A creates a RREP & uncast RREP to S
5. Set forward path in A's routing table

6. Set forward path in S's routing table

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Difference between DSR, DSDV & AODV

Property DSR DSDV AODV

Loop Free Yes Yes Yes
Multicast Routes Yes No No
Unidirectional Link Yes No No
Periodic Broadcast No Yes Yes
Routes maintained Route Cache Route Table Route Table
Reactive Yes No Yes

3.3.6.4 HYBRID PROTOCOLS

 Combines the best features of both proactive & reactive routing protocols.
 Eg: ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ZRP)
ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ZRP)
 It is Hybrid Protocol
 Based on the concept of zones.
 A routing zone is defined for each node separately and zones of neighbouring nodes overlap.
 The routing zone has a radius expressed in hops. i.e., Zone radius: Number of hops
Key concept in ZRP to:
o Use a proactive routing scheme within a limited zone
o Use a reactive routing scheme for nodes beyond this zone.
Routing is divided into two parts:
o Intrazone routing: 1st the packet is sent within the routing zone of the source node to reach
the peripheral nodes
o Interzone routing: The packet is sent from the peripheral nodes towards the destination node

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  In the diagram the routing zone of S includes the nodes A-I, but not K.
 The nodes are divided into peripheral nodes and interior nodes.
 Peripheral nodes: Nodes whose minimum distance is less than the radius.
 Interior nodes - Nodes A-F
 Peripheral nodes - Nodes G-J
 Node K is outside the routing zone
 Within the zone table driven is used
 Outside the zone On demand Route Discovery is used
 Procedure:
1. The source sends a Route Request packet (RREQ) to the border nodes of its
zone, containing its own address, destination address and the unique sequence
no.
2. Each border nodes checks its local zone for the destination.
3. If the destination is not a member of local zone, then the border node adds its
own address to the route request packet and forwards the packet to its own
border nodes.
4. When the destination node is reached in this process, a route reply (RREP) is
sent on the reverse path back to the source.
5. The source saves the path which is mentioned in Route Reply to send data
packets to the destination

3.3.7 MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL

 Multicast is the delivery of a message to a group of destination nodes in a single
transmission.
 Multicast Protocols are
Tree based Protocol and Mesh based Protocol
a) Tree based Protocol
 This establishes a single path between any two nodes in the multicast group.
 Example: AMRoute, AMRIS
 The tree consists of root node(r), three intermediate nodes (p,s,t) and seven group members.

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  For node u, the packet transmission is relayed through two tree links, that is, from r to q and
then q to u.
 To maintain the tree structure even when nodes move, group members periodically send Join
Request message.

b) Mesh Based Protocol

 This establishes a multiple path between source - receiver pair.
 Example: ODMRP, CAMP
 Tree based protocols, may not perform well in the presence of highly mobile nodes because
multicast tree structure is fragile and needs to be frequently readjusted.
 Each node in a mesh can have multiple parents.
 Multiple links exist and other links are immediately available when the primary link is
broken due to node mobility. This avoids frequent reconfigurations.
 Sending a Packet from R to U involves three transmissions(R,Q,U) & fourteen receives(5
neighbours of R,6 neighbours of Q and 3 neighbours of U).
 For eg, the transmission from node Q is received not only by U but also be neighbour nodes
R,S,T,W and X; the redundant link from Q to W may be useful when the path from P to W is
broken

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o Drawback of this scheme is that multiple copies of the same packet are forwarded through the
mesh.

ON-DEMAND MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL (ODMRP)

 Provides richer connectivity among multicast members using a mesh based approach.
 Supplies multiple route for one particular destination.
 Helps in case of topology changes & node failures.
 Use the concept of Forwarding Group - A subset of nodes forwards multicast packets.
 Operation of ODMRP:
1. A sender node wishing to send multicast packets periodically floods a JOIN REQUEST to
entire network.
2. A Node receiving a non-duplicate JOIN REQUEST, stores the upstream node ID (i.e.
backward learning) into routing table & rebroadcasts the packet.

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3. A multicast receiver getting the JOIN REQUEST creates or updates the source entry in its
member table.
4. As long as valid entries in receiver's member table, JOIN TABLE are broadcasted periodically.

5. An intermediate node, receiving the JOINT TABLE, compares it's Node ID with the entries of
that table.

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6. If there's a match, it is a member of the forwarding group. Then it sets FG-FLAG & broadcasts its
JOIN TABLE.
7. This process is going to create a mesh between all forwarding group members.
8. JOIN TABLE is propagated by each forwarding Group member until it reaches source via a
shortest path.
9. Routes from source to receivers builds a mesh of nodes called "Forwarding Group"

3.4 TYPES OF MANET

 VANET - VEHICULAR AD HOC NETWORKS: Used for communication between
vehicles and roadside equipment.
 SPANET - SMART PHONE AD HOC NETWORKS : Used to create peer-to-peer
networks without relying on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points, or traditional
network infrastructure.
 i MANET - INTERNET BASED MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS : Used to link mobile
nodes and fixed Internet-gateway nodes.
 Military / Tactical MANET : Used by military units with emphasis on security, range, and
integration with existing systems.
3.4.1 VANET: VEHICULAR AD - HOC NETWORK
The Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network, or VANET, is a technology that uses moves cars as nodes in a
network to create a mobile network.
Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) are created by applying the principles of mobile ad hoc
networks (MANETs) - the spontaneous creation of a wireless network for data exchange - to the
domain of vehicles. They are a key component of intelligent transportation systems (ITS).

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The term VANET became mostly synonymous with the more generic term inter-vehicle
communication (IVC).
VANET is an application of mobile ad hoc network. More precisely a VANET is self-organised
network that can be formed by connecting vehicle aiming to improve driving safety and traffic
management with internet access by drivers and programmers.

WORKING OF VANET
VANET turns every participating car into a wireless router or node, allowing cars approximately 100
to 300 meters of each other to connect and, in turn, create a network with a wide range.
As cars fall out of the signal range and drop out of the network, other cars can join in, connecting
vehicles to one another so that a mobile Internet is created.
It is estimated that the first systems that will integrate this technology are police and fire vehicles to
communicate with each other for safety purposes.

COMMUNICATION IN VANET
Two types of communication are provided in the VANET.
 First a pure wireless ad hoc network where vehicle to vehicle without any support of
infrastructure.
 Second is communication between the road side units (RSU), a fixed infrastructure, and
vehicle.

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ARCHITECTURE OF VANET
Each node in VANET is equipped with two types of unit i.e. On Board Unit (OBU) and Application
Unit (AU). OBU has the communicational capability whereas AU executes the program making
OBU‘s communicational capabilities. An RSU can be attached to the infrastructure network which is
connected to the Internet.

TECHNOLOGY USED IN VANET

 To establish a VANET, IEEE has defined the standard 802.11p or 802.16 (WiMax). A
Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) is proposed which is operating on 5.9GHz
band and uses 802.11 access methods.
 It is standardized as 802.11p which provides short range communication with low latency.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VANET
 High Mobility: The nodes in VANETs usually are moving at high speed. This makes harder
to predict a node’s position and making protection of node privacy


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  Rapidly changing network topology: Due to high node mobility and random speed of
vehicles, the position of node changes frequently. As a result of this, network topology in
VANETs tends to change frequently.
 Unbounded network size: VANET can be implemented for one city, several cities or for
countries. This means that network size in VANET is geographically unbounded.
 Frequent exchange of information: The ad hoc nature of VANET motivates the nodes to
gather information from the other vehicles and road side units. Hence the information
exchange among node becomes frequent.
 Wireless Communication: VANET is designed for the wireless environment. Nodes are
connected and exchange their information via wireless. Therefore some security measure
must be considered in communication.
 Time Critical: The information in VANET must be delivered to the nodes with in time limit
so that a decision can be made by the node and perform action accordingly.

APPLICATIONS OF VANET

Safety Related Application:

These applications are used to increase the safety on the roads. These applications can be further
categorised in following way.
 Collision Avoidance: If a driver gets a warning message on time then the collision can be
avoided.
 Cooperative Driving: Drivers can get traffic related warning signals & these signals can co-
operate the driver for an uninterrupted and safe driving.
 Traffic optimization: Traffic can optimized by the use of sending signals like jam, accidents
etc. to the vehicles so that they can choose their alternate path and can save time.

User Based Application:

These applications provide the user infotainment. A VANET can be utilised to provide following
services for the user apart from safety:
 Peer to peer application: These application are useful to provide services like sharing
music, movies etc. among the vehicles in the network.
 Internet Connectivity: People always want to connect with the Internet all the time. Hence
VANET provides the constant connectivity of the Internet to the users.

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  Other services: VANET can be utilised in other user based application such as payment
service to collect the tall taxes, to locate the fuel station, restaurant etc.

CHALLENGING ISSUES IN VANET

 Network Management: Due to high mobility, the network topology and channel condition
change rapidly.
 Congestion and Collision Control: The unbounded network size also creates a challenge.
The traffic load is low in rural areas and night in even urban areas. In rush hours the traffic
load is very high and hence network is congested and collision occurs in the network.
 Environmental Impact: VANETs use the electromagnetic waves for communication. These
waves are affected by the environment.
 MAC Design: VANET generally use the shared medium to communicate hence the MAC
design is the key issue.
 Security: As VANET provides the road safety applications which are life critical therefore
security of these messages must be satisfied

SECURITY ISSUES IN VANET

 Lack of physical boundary: Each mobile node functions as a router & forwards packets
from other nodes. AS a result, network boundaries become blurred. So it is difficult to deploy
firewalls or monitor the incoming traffic.
 Low power RF transmission: It if possible for a malicious node having high power RF
transmission capability to continuously transmit & monopolise the medium & cause its
neighbouring nodes or the entire targeted MANET to wait endlessly for transmitting their
messages. Also signal jamming can lead to denial-of-service(DOS) attack.
 Limited computational capabilities: Nodes in an ad hoc network usually have limited
computational capabilities. It therefore becomes difficult to deploy compute-intensive
security solutions such as setting up a public-key cryptosystem. Inability to encrypt messages
invites a host of security attacks such as spoofing as well as several other forms of routing
attacks.

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  Limited power supply: Since nodes normally rely on battery power, an attacker might
attempt to exhaust batteries by causing unnecessary transmissions to take place at the
targeted node or might cause excessive computations to be carried out by the targeted nodes.
 Real time Constraint: VANET is time critical where safety related message should be
delivered with 100ms transmission delay. So to achieve real time constraint, fast
cryptographic algorithm should be used. Message and entity authentication must be done in
time.
 Data Consistency Liability: In VANET even authenticate node can perform malicious
activities that can cause accidents or disturb the network. Hence a mechanism should be
designed to avoid this inconsistency. Correlation among the received data from different
node on particular information may avoid this type of inconsistency.
 Low tolerance for error: Some protocols are designed on the basis of probability. VANET
uses life critical information on which action is performed in very short time. A small error in
probabilistic algorithm may cause harm.

MANET Vs VANET
MANET VANET
Collection of mobile nodes that Nodes(vehicles) can communicate with
communicate with each other over certain roadside infrastructures or base
bandwidth constrained wireless links stations.
without any infrastructure support.
The node movement is more random in The node mobility is constrained to the
nature road topologies.
Power is a major constrained The battery power available in a vehicle is
quite adequate.
Cost of production is cheap Expensive
Change in network topology is slow Frequent & very fast
Node lifetime depends on power resource depends on lifetime of vehicles
Multi-hop routing is available. Weakly available.
Attribute based addressing scheme Location-based

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