NURSING RESEARCH

12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2

Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

Example: Safe administration of intramuscular injections

OUTLINE OF TOPICS: • Summarize the findings. Your findings will base on
I. Introductory Concepts of Nursing Research your problem. Make sure that those problems
II. History of Nursing Research stated in the proposal have already been answered
III. Key Concepts and Terms in Quantitative because that is the summary of findings.
Research • Draw conclusions about what is known or not
IV. Overview of the Research Process in known about the topic. Conclusion is the overall or
Quantitative Studies the totality of aspects or your view of your topic.
V. Formulating the Research Problem or your study
VI. Research Design EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE GUIDELINES
VII. Measurement and Data Collection
VIII. Review of Related Literature ● Conscientious integration of best research evidence
IX. Formulating Conceptual or Theoretical with clinical expertise and patient values and needs in
Framework the delivery of high-quality, cost-effective health care
X. Ethical Research ● Synthesis of knowledge for development of
XI. Quantitative Research Design guidelines, standards, protocols, or policies to direct
nursing interventions and practice
These are the two evidenced-based practice guidelines.
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS OF NURSING
RESEARCH WHY IS RESEARCH IMPORTANT FOR
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE?
WHAT IS RESEARCH? ● Develops empirical knowledge base, so you will make
a change.
● To search again – to search again, for the specific
● Identifies best practices that are based on clinical
topic you have. Based on the recommendations of the
practices. You have to connect all those best practices
previous study, you need to browse it again or to
in the different institutions and you have to examine
expand your specific research
if there are similarities or differences base on the
● To examine carefully – to re-examine the previous
clinical practice that they have.
research
● Improves outcomes for:
● Diligent and systematic inquiry
- Patient and family
● Discovery – discover new ideas
- Nurse
● Goal is to develop an empirical body of knowledge for
- Health care system
a discipline whether it is in a field of family nursing,
medical-surgical nursing, maternal and child nursing NURSING RESEARCH PROVIDES:
and so on and so forth. Description
NURSING RESEARCH - Identifying and understanding the nature of nursing
phenomena and the relationships among the
● A scientific process that validates and refines existing
phenomena to:
knowledge and generates new knowledge that
- So base on your study, so you have to relate each of
directly and indirectly influences nursing practice. In
those variables.
the nursing research, you are focused on the nursing
a. Describe what exists in nursing practice.
practice per se, in the nursing education and also the
b. Discover new information.
policies. And as part also or in connection with the
c. Promote understanding of situations.
nursing process, you have also the sociology. If you
d. Classify information for use in the discipline
have observed, our researches are more on
Explanation
quantitative, it is related to our social sciences.
- Clarifying the relationships among phenomena
● It is the key to building an evidence-based practice
for nursing. When we say evidenced-based, we and identifying the reasons why certain events
cannot choose a specific topic, or resort to a specific occur. You have to compare those phenomena if
topic if there are no evidences from the previous na there are relationship or if there are specific
mga studies. differences in those phenomena.
USING RESEARCH IN PRACTICE Prediction
- Estimating and anticipating the outcomes in a
How can we use research in practice? First is….
particular situation. It is part of your quantitative
● Synthesis of knowledge (research, theory, and clinical
research utilizing numerical data. Here you are
experiences)
● Effect of philosophy estimating through numbers and anticipating
● Making a change in practice – for example, you have through numbers depending on the level of
your z-track technique in administering your IM significance which is 0.1 or 0.05, it depends on
injection. That could be part of your evidenced based. the level of significance.
Another example is doing your handwashing, if you Control
are not practicing handwashing versus practicing - Manipulating a situation so as to achieve a
handwashing. particular outcome. It is under your experimental
● Evaluation of change for patient, provider, and health research. When we say control group, what is
care system that? Bibigyan ba ng intervention o wala?
INTEGRETAIVE REVIEW OF RESEARCH Answer: Bibigyan.
● Critique of studies on a selected topic or practice
problem
● Development of evidence-based practice guidelines:

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

RESEARCH PARTICIPATION AT VARIOUS ● BSN and MS nursing programs add research to their
LEVELS OF EDUCATIONAL PREPARATION curricula.
● 1953—Institute for Research and Service in Nursing
Education established by Teacher’s College, Columbia
University.
NURSING RESEARCH: 1960’s
● 1963—International Journal of Nursing Studies
● 1967—Image published by Sigma Theta Tau (now
titled The Journal of Nursing Scholarship). An
international nursing organization and until now, ada
pa ito.
NURSING RESEARCH: 1970’s
● 1970—ANA Commission on Nursing Research
● 1972—Council of Nurse Researchers
So we have here a conceptual framework from evidence-
● 1978—Advances in Nursing Science
based practice. So when we say best research evidences,
● 1978—Research in Nursing and Health
we collect those best practices from different institutions
● 1979—Western Journal of Nursing Research
and sum up those ideas, examine and create a new
discovery or knowledge from those practices. So maybe NURSING RESEARCH: 1980’s
one of those best practices will become applicable for this ● 1982–1983—Conduct and Utilization of Research in
procedure or the other procedure. Those best practices
Nursing project (CURN)
will outcome a clinical expertise. Not only for the practice, ● 1983—Annual Review of Nursing Research
but also for the patient’s needs and values that’s why ● 1985—National Center for Nursing Research (NCNR)
there is an evidence-based practice because of these 3 ● 1987—Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice
components.
● 1988—Applied Nursing Research and Nursing Science
BSN RESEARCHER ROLE Quarterly
● Identify research problems. Before you go through ● 1989—Agency for Health Care Policy and Research
with your proposal, you identify your specific topic. (AHCPR)
You will choose which field you will have to go NURSING RESEARCH: 1990’s
through.
● Assist with data collection. ● 1992—Clinical Nursing Research
● Critique research studies. ● 1993—National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR)
● Summarize research findings for use in practice. ● 1993—Journal of Nursing Measurement
● 1994—Qualitative Health Research
● AHCPR renamed Agency for Healthcare Research and
HISTORY OF NURSING RESEARCH Quality (AHRQ).
● Nursing research has evolved slowly over the years. ● 1999—AACN position statement on nursing research
● Nursing research began in the 19th century with NURSING RESEARCH: 21st CENTURY
Florence Nightingale.
● Clinical research is the current major focus of nursing ● 2000—Healthy People 2010
research and will continue to be so throughout the ● 2000—Biological Research for Nursing
21st century. ● 2002—Joint Commission revised policies to support
evidence-based care.
FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE
● 2004—Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing
● Nightingale focused on the importance of a healthy ● 2005—AHRQ guidelines and priorities
environment for patients. ● 2005—NINR priorities
● Aspects of her research included: ● 2006—Revised AACN position statements on nursing
- Ventilation research
- Cleanliness
- Purity of water
WAYS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE IN
- Healthy diet
RESEARCH
NURSING RESEARCH: 1900 – 1940’s
● Traditions – we may take traditions in the past,
During 1900 and 1940’s, American Journal of Nursing was traditions, through borrowing, borrowing of ideas.
first published and case studies reported in 1920’s and Borrowing is to have a permission first, okay, like your
1930’s and also graduate programs in nursing began in tool, standardized tool or instrument. You have to
1920’s. So kindly take note on those dates. And also email the specific author to adopt or before you use
research conducted by nurses in 1940’s. So from the it to prevent plagiarism.
emergence of American Journal of Nursing nagkakasunod ● Authority
sunod na yung researches ng ating mga nurses. ● Borrowing
During the 1950’s, American Nursing Association begins a ● Trial and error
5 year study of nursing functions and activities. ● Personal experience
NURSING RESEARCH: 1950’s ● Role modeling
● Intuition
● 1950—American Nurses Association begins 5-year ● Reasoning
study of nursing functions and activities.
● 1952—Nursing Research published

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE BASE KEY CONCEPTS AND TERMS IN QUANTITATIVE

● Identify two common behaviors used in your practice. RESEARCH
● Indicate the knowledge base for these behaviors.
● Is your practice based mainly on research or on other QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
types of knowledge?  move in an orderly and systematic fashion from the
NURSING RESEARCH METHODS definition of a problem and the selection of concepts
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH on which to focus, through the design of the study and
a. Descriptive research collection of information, to the solution of the problem
 Quantitative research use mechamisms designed to
b. Correlational research – you are to examine if
control the study
there is a relationship or if there is a significant
 Control involves imposing condition on the research
difference situation so that biasis are minimized and precision and
c. Quasi-experimental research – if there is an validity are maximized
intervening group, but no control group.  You have to bear in mind that kailangan waray ito bias
d. Experimental research – there is intervening it iyo research. And the precision and validity are
group, control group and there is manipulation. maximized. How can we say that are research is
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH reliable? Through conducting your pilot testing, and
a. Phenomenological research – lived experiences your pilot testing will be conducted outside your
b. Ground theory research – based on the literatures research environment. How can you say that your
to come up with the new theory questionnaire is valid? What statistical treatment will
c. Ethnographic research – study in the culture and be used? Cronbach Alpha. Kailangan ito 0.80 above
traditions of a specific organization. Don’t be that is considered reliable based on the Cronbach
confused with ethnographic research that you are alpha result.
 Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence
using only one indigenous group. You can also
that is rooted in objective reality and gathered directly
use ethnographic research in the treatment or
or indirectly through the senses
transition. What is the culture of RTRH, in ACE  Empirical evidence consists of observations, gathered
what is their culture. This is not only for the ethnic through sight, hearing, taste, touch or smell
groups such as Aeta, Ifugao. You can apply this  Observations of the presence or abscence of skin
to specific organizations. inflammation, the heart rate of a patient or the weight
d. Historical research – nasiring baya hi Ella Cruz of a newborn infant are all examples of empirical
history is based on chismis (hahahehe). observations
e. Focus groups  Using formal instruments to collect needed
information- numeric information that analyzed with
QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE statistical procedure. Your quantitative research is
CHARACTERISTICS more on analyzing data. The best example in assigning
Quantitative Qualitative number is your Likert scale. Ideally, pira dapat ito na
Philosophical origin: Philosophical origin: scale? It should be 5.
logical positivism naturalistic, interpretive,  Generalizability of the research: the degree to which
humanistic research findings can be generalized to individuals
other than those who participated in the study
Focus: concise, Focus: broad, subjective, THE FACES AND PLACES OF RESEARCH
objective, reductionistic holistic
Studies with humans involve two sets of people:
Reasoning: logistic, Reasoning: dialectic,  Those who do the research and those who provide the
deductive inductive information
 In a quantitative study, the people who are being
Basis of knowing: Basis of knowing: meaning, studied are referred to as subjects or study
cause-and-effect discovery, understanding participants. Subjects = term used when you are
relationships conducting experimental research. If you are
conducting descriptive, comparative, correlational,
Theoretical focus: Theoretical focus: theory then you will use the term Respondents or study
tests theory development participants.
 Subjects who provide information to researchers by
OUTCOMES RESEARCH answering questions directly. E.g by filling out a
questionnaire- may be called respondents
● Focus of outcomes:
 When financial assistance is obtained to pay for
- Patients and families
- Providers (nurses, physicians) research costs, the organization providing the money
is the funder or sponsor
- Health care systems
● Outcomes used change practice and developed  Reviewers are sometimes called on to critique various
policy. aspects of a study and offer feedback
 If these people are at a similar level of experience as
the researchers, they may be called peer reviewers.
When we say peer review, the author of the study, diri
mo kilala. Kasi pag kilala mo, it will create bias.

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

RESEARCH SETTING CATEGORICAL VARIABLES

 Research can be conducted in a wide variety of locales,  The variable gender for example has only two values
in health care facilities, in people´s homes, in (male & female)
classrooms  Other variables take on a small range of values that do
 Based on the nature of the research question and the not inherently represent a quantity
type of information needed to address a problem.  Variables that take on only a handful of discrete non
 Multisite studies - offer a larger or more diverse quantitative values are categorical variables
sample of study participants as public and private  Example: Blood type (A, B, AB, O)
sectors, urban and rural location  When categorical variables take on only two values
they are referred to as dichotomous variables
SETTING
Examples: pregnant or not pregnant, HIV positive or
 Settings are the more specific places where data HIV negative, alive or dead.
collection occurs  Polychotomous variables are usually qualitative
 In some cases the setting and sites, as when the variables, but they can be quantitative variables as
selected site is a large hospital and information is well. For example, if studying birth weight of children,
collected exclusively within that setting you could have the categories of heavy
 The nature of setting can influence the way people smoker/smoker/light smoker or non-smoker. But it
behave or feel and how they respond to questions, the may be more useful to code the “number of cigarettes
selection of an appropriate setting is important smoked per day during pregnancy” into categories:
VARIABLES Examples:
o 0 cigarettes per day.
 Something that varies o up to 5 cigarettes per day.
 Weight, anxiety level, income and body temperature o Between 6 and 20 cigarettes per day.
are all variables o Over 20 cigarettes per day.
 To quantitative research nearly all aspects of human ACTIVE VERSUS ATTRIBUTE VARIABLES
beings and their environment are variables
 Quantitative research seek to understand how or why  Variables are often characteristics of research subjects
things vary and to learn how differences in one such as their age, health beliefs, or weight
variable are related to differences in another  For example, if a researcher is interested in testing the
 E.g. Lung cancer research is concerned with the effectiveness of patient controlled analgesia as
variable of lung cancer. It is variable because not opposed to intramuscular analgesia in relieving pain
everybody has this disease after surgery, some patients would be given patient-
 Researchers have studied what variables might be controlled analgesia and others would receive
linked to lung cancer and have discovered cigarette intramuscular analgesia. In the context of this study,
smoking is related. Smoking is a variable because not method of pain management is a variable because
every one smokes. different patients are given different analgesic
methods, the researcher cerates as active variables.
An active variable in one study could be an attribute
CONTINUOUS, DISCRETE, AND CATEGORICAL variable in another.
VARIABLES  For example a researcher might create an active salt
 Sometimes variables take on a wide range of values intake variable by exposing two groups of people to
 A person’s age can take on values from zero to more different amounts of salt in their diets
than 100 and the values are not restricted to whole  Another researcher could examine the salt intake
numbers. So when we say not restricted to whole (attributes) of a sample by asking about their
numbers, they are continuous variables because they consumption of salt
have a specific representation, continuous siya from 0 DEPENDENT VERSUS INDEPENDENT
to 100. VARIABLES
 Such continuous variables have values that can be
represented on a continuum  Does a nursing intervention cause more rapid
 In theory, a continuous variable can assume an infinite recovery?
number of values between two points  Does smoking cause lung cancer?
 Example: Consider the continuous variable weight:  The presumed cause is the independent variable
between 1 and 2 pounds, the number of values is  The presumed effect is the dependent variable
limitless:1.005,1.7,1.33333 and so on.  Some researchers use the term criterion variable
rather than dependent variable
DISCRETE VARIABLES
 Others use the term outcome variable - the variable
 Is one that has a finite number of values between any capturing the outcome of interest
two points variables representing discrete quantities if  Variability in the dependent variable is presumed to
people were asked how many children they had, they depend on variability in the independent variable
might answer 0,1,2,3 or more  For example, researchers investigate the extent to
 The value for number of children is discrete because which lung cancer (the dependent variable) depends
there is such as 1.5 is not a meaningful value on smoking (the independent variable)
 Between the values 1 and 3 the only possible value is  Investigator may be concerned with the extent to
2. We cannot determine if the variable is discrete or which patients´ perception of pain (the dependent
categorical if we cannot do our representation of those variable) depends on different nursing action (the
words into numbers. independent variable)

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

 The terms independent variable and dependent - How strong is the relationship betwen variables?
variable are used to indicate direction of influence How powerful is the relationship between
rather than causal link. smoking and lung cancer? How probable is it that
 If we are interested in studying factórs that influence smokers will be lung cancer victims?
people´s weight, we might consider for example their - What is the nature of the relationship between
height, physical activity, and diet as independent variables ? Does smoking cause lung cancer?
variable. ● One type of relationship is referred to as a cause-
effect (causal) relationship.
HETEROGINITY
● Functional relationship (association
● When an attribute is extremely varied in the group relationship) relationship between preterm
under investigation, the group is said to be neonate´s behavioral competence on the one hand
heterogenous. and the infant´s gender and race on the other.
● Variable like gender would have two attributes: male
CORRELATION
and female or known as dichotomous.
● If the amount of variability is limited, the group is ● In statistics, it is a measure of the strength of the
described as homogeneous: male and male; female relationship between two variables regardless of the
and female. causal and association.
● Example: For variable height, a group of 2-year-old ● It is used to predict the value of one variable given
children is likely to be more homogeneous than a the value of the other.
group of 18-year-old adolescents. ● Example: Distance from urban location to gasoline
● The degree of variability or heterogenity of a group of consumption. Expressed on a scale from -1.0
subjects has implications for study design. Whether (weakest) to +1.0 (strongest), the strongest
this design is cross-sectional or descriptive- correlations are at both extremes and provide the
correlational. best predictions.
DATA
● Research data are the pieces of information obtained KEY CHALLENGES OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH
in the course of the investigation in quantitative ● Researchers face numerous challenges in conducting
studies, researchers identify the variables of interest, research, including the following:
develop operational definitions of those variables and  Conceptual challenges
then collect relevant data from subjects. o How should key concepts be defined?
● The actual values of the study variables constitute the o What are the theoretical underpinnings
data for the project. of the study?
● Quantitative data that is information in numeric form.  Financial challenges
● Example: Suppose we were conducting a quantitative o How will the study be paid for?
study in which a key variable was depression; we o Will available resources be adequate?
need to measure how depressed the study  Administrative challenges
participants were. o Is there sufficient time to complete the
● We might ask, ”Thinking about the past week, how study?
depressed would you say you have been on a scale o Can the flow of tasks be adequately
from 0-10, where 0 means not at all and 10 means managed?
the most possible?” The words used are quantified by o Availability of manpower.
representation of numbers in order to have a good
statistic data.
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
RELATIONSHIP
● Reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency.
● Researcher are rarely interested in a single isolated The he property of holding together and retaining its
concept or phenomenon except in descriptive studies. shape of information.
● Example: Descriptive Study - A researcher might do ● The term is most often associated with the methods
research to determine the percentage of patients used to measure research variables.
receiving intravenous therapy who experience IV ● Example: If a thermometer measured bob´s
infiltration versus no infiltration. temperature as 98.1ºF one minute and as 102.5 ºF
● A relation is a bond or a connection between the two the next minute, the reliability of the thermometer
phenomenon. would be highly suspected. Since there is a variation.
- In the example give, the phenoma of the study ● Statistical reliability refers to the probability that
are those receiving intravenous therapy who the same results would be obtained with a completely
experience IV infiltration and those who have no new sample of subjects that is the results are an
infiltration. accurate reflection of a wider group than just the
● In quantitative study adresses one or more of the particular people who participated in the study. Pilot
following questions about relationship: Does a testing is conducted and should have a reliability of
relationship between variables exist? Is cigarette 0.80 – above. Once the study has been conducted,
smoking related to lung cancer? Are you amenable to make sure to go back to the Cronbach Alpha result to
that? Not all lung cancers come from smoking. determine if the result is the same.
- Using a null hypothesis, there is no signifcant ● Validity is a more complex concept that broadly
relationship between the variables. concerns the soundness of the study’s evidence- that
● What is the direction of the relationship between is, whether the finding are cogent whether it is
variables? Example: Are people who smoke more powerfully persuasive, convincing, and well
likely or less likely to get lung cancer than those who grounded.
do not ?

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

● The validity questions if whether there is evidence to OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS IN
support the assertion that the methods are really QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
measuring the abstract concepts that they purport to
measure.
● The importance of having solid conceptual definitions MAJOR CLASSES OF QUANTITATIVE
or research variables as well as high quality methods
to operationalize them should be apparent. 1. Experimantal research – researchers actively
introduce an intervention or treatment.
● Example: Is a paper and pencil measure of depression
really measuring depression? Or it is measuring 2. Nonexperimantal researchers – collect data
something else, such as loneliness, low self-esteem, without making changes or introducing
treatment.
or stress?
● Another aspect of validity concerns the quality of the 3. Experimantal studies – designed to rest causal
researcher’s evidence regarding the effect of the relationship. It offers the possibility of greater
control extraneous variables than
independent variable on the dependent variable.
● Example: Did a nursing intervention really bring about nonexperimantal.
 Extraneous variables – any variable that is not
improvements in patient’s outcomes or were other
factors responsible for patient’s progress? being intentionally studied in the experiment or test.
Considered as undesirable variables. They are
BIAS
unintentional.
● It can threaten the study´s validity. Example: When you run an experiment, you are
● Bias is an influence that produces a distortion or any looking to see if one variable (the
undesired change in an signal between input and the
independent variable) has an effect on
output in the study results.
another variable (the dependent variable).
● Bias can result from a number of factors including:
o Study participants – not following the
sampling methods MAJOR STEPS IN A QUANTITATIVE STUDY
o Subjectivity of the researcher – own
perception PHASE 1: THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE
o Sample characteristics
● Activities with a stong conceptual or intelletual
o Faulty methods of data collection –
element.
observation, questionnaire, group
● These activities include:
discussion, one-on-one interview
o Reading or searching for related
o Faulty study design – cross-sectional
literatures
(specific period of time), longitudinal
o Conceptualizing
(years or months)
o Theorising
● Random Bias – handful of study participants might
o Reconceptualizing
fail to provide totally accurate information as a result
o Reviewing ideas with colleagues or
of extreme fatigue at the time the data were collected
advisers
● Systematic Bias – results when the bias is
● During this stage, researchers call on such skills as:
consistent or uniform.
o Creativity
Example: If a scale consistently measured peopl´s
o Deductive reasoning – logic that
weights as being 2 ponds heavier than their true
moves from the general to the specific. It
weight, they would be systemetic bias in the data on
is the kind of reasoning in which the
weight.
conclusion is necessitated by, or reached
RANDMONESS from, previously known facts (the
● Each person has an equal probability of being premises).
selected, no systemetic biases in the make up of the o Insight – also called penetration which
sample. is a clear or deep perception of a
situation, a feeling of understanding.
GENERALIZABILITY
o A firm grounding in previous research on
● Generalizability to assess the extent to which the the topic of interest.
findings can be applied to other groups and settings.
● Design study strong in reliability and validity. STEP 1: Formulating and Delimiting the Problem
● The type of people to whom the results might be
 Develop a research problem and research questions.
generalized, select them nonbiased.
 Good research depends to a great degree on good
RESEARCH CONTROL questions.
● Applicable for experimental researches.  Without significant, interesting problem, the most
● Holding constant other influences on the dependent carefully and skillfully designed research project is of
variable so that the tru relationship between the little value
independent and dependent variables can be  How can this question best be studied to yield high
understood. quality evidence?
● Research control attempts to eliminate contaminating
 The identification and research questions must also
factors that might cloud the relationship between the
take into consideration, specificallu the practicality
variables that are of central interest. The eliminating
and ethical concerns.
factors refer to the extraneous variables.

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

STEP 2: Reviewing the Related Literature STEP 5: Formulating Hypotheses

 Quantitative research is typically conducted within the  It can either be an alternative or null hypothesis.
context of previous knowledge. Make sure that the  A hypothesis is a statement of the researcher’s
previous athor conducted the same methods. expectations about relationships between the
Example: If descriptive-correlational was used, the variables under investigation.
ROL should also have this type of design.  Hypotheses, in other words, are predictions of
 To build on existing theory or research, quantitative expected outcomes; they state the relationships
researchers strive to understand what is already researchers expect to find as a result of the study if it
known about a research problem. has a significant or no significant relationship.
 A thorough literature review provides a foundation on  The research question identifies the concepts under
which to base new knowledge and usually is investigation and asks how the concepts might be
conducted well before any data are collected in related; a hypothesis is the predicted answer.
quantitative studies.  It is used as empirical evidences that are referred
 For clinical problems, it is necessary to learn as much to as a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct
as possible about the ”status quo” of current and indirect observation or experience.
procedures relating to the topic and to review existing  Example: The initial research question might be
practice guidelines or protocols. phrased as follows: Is preeclamptic toxemia in
 A familiarization with previous studies is useful in pregnant women associated with stress factors
suggesting research topics or in identifying aspects of present during pregnancy?
a problem about which more research is needed.  This might be translated into the following
 A literature review sometimes preceded the hypothesis: Pregnant women with a higher incidence
delineation. To draw or trace the outline of; sketch of stressful events during pregnancy will be more
out of the research problem. likely than women with a lower incidence of stress to
experience preeclamptic toxemia.
STEP 3: Undertaking Clinical Research  Most quantitative studies are designed to test
 In addition to refreshing or updating clinical hypotheses through statistical analysis.
knowledge based on written work, researchers
embarking on a clinical study benefit from spending
PHASE 2: THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE
time in clinical settings, discussing the topic with
clinicians and health care administrators, and  Researchers make decision about the methods and
observing current practices. procedures to be used to address the research
 Sterling (2001) notes that such clinical fieldwork can questions and plan for the actual collection of data.
provide perspectives on recent clinical trends, current  Methodologic decisions have crucial implications for
diagnostic procedures, and relevant health care the validity and reliability of the study findings.
delivery models.  If the methods used to collect and analyze research
 It can also help researchers better understand data are seriously flawed, then the evidence from the
affected clients and the settings in which care is study may be of little value. These methods are the
provided. research design, locale, data gathering methods, and
 In addition to expanding the researchers’ clinical and statistical treatment.
conceptual knowledge, such fieldwork can be
valuable in developing methodologic tools for STEP 6: Selecting a Research Design
strengthening the study.  The research design is the overall plan for obtaining
 Example: In the course of clinical fieldwork answers to the questions being studied and for
researchers might learn what extraneous variables handling some of the difficulties encountered during
need to be controlled. the research process.
 A wide variety of research designs is available for
STEP 4: Defining the Framework and Developing quantitative studies, including numerous
Conceptual Definitions experimental and nonexperimental designs.
 Theory is the ultimate aim of science in that it  Researchers specify which specific design will be
transcends the specifics of a particular time, place, adopted and what controls will be used to minimize
and group of people and aims to identify regularities bias and enhance the interpretability of results.
in the relationships among variables.  In quantitative studies, research designs tend to be
 When quantitative research is performed within the highly structured with tight controls over extraneous
context of a theoretical framework — that is, when variables. Construct an objective problem.
previous theory is used as a basis for generating  Designs indicates what types of comparisons will be
predictions that can be tested through empirical made and where the study will take place.
research — the findings may have broader  The research design is essentially the architectural
significance and utility. backbone of the study.
 Even when the research question is not embedded in
a theory, researchers must have a clear sense of the STEP 7: Developing Protocls for the Intervention
concepts under study.  In experimental research, researchers actively
 Thus, an important task in the initial phase of a intervene and create the independent variable, which
project is the development of conceptual definitions. means that people in the sample will be exposed to
different treatments or conditions.

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Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

 If we were interested in testing the effect of  Probability sampling methods are the most
biofeedback in treating hypertension, the sophisticated methods which use random procedures
independent variable would be biofeedback for selecting subjects. In a probability sample,
compared with either an alternative treatment (e.g. every member of the population has an equal
relaxation therapy) or with no RX. probability of being included in the sample.
Example: A research conducted on how music  With nonprobability sampling by contrast there is
therapy can ease labor pains but there is no no way that each member of population could be
significant relationship between the two variables. selected. Done conveniently, purposively, or
 The intervention protocol for the study would need to snowball.
be developed, specifying exactly what the  The risk of bias (unrepresentative) sample is
biofeedback treatment would entail (who would greater.
administer it, how frequently and over how long a  The design of a sampling plan includes the selection
period the treatment would last, what specific of a sampling method, the specification of the sample
equipment would be used, and what the alternative size (number of subjects), and the development of
condition would be). procedures for recruiting subjects.
 The goal of well articulated protocols is to have all
subjects in each group treated in the same way which STEP 10: Specifying Methods to Measure the
is the intervening group. Research Variables
 Quantitative researchers must develop methods to
STEP 8: Identifying the Population to be Studied observe or measure the research variables as
 Before selecting subjects, quantitative researchers accurately as possible.
need to know what characteristics participants should  Based on the conceptual definitions, the researcher
possess. selects or design appropriate methods of
 In properly idenitifying who the research respondents operationalizing the variables and collecting data.
will be, sampling method is utilized through a random,  A variety of quantitative data collection approaches
probability, or nonprobaility sampling. exists.
 Researchers and others using the findings also need  Biophysiologic measurements often play an important
to know whom study results can be generalized. role in clinical research. Appropriate measurement or
 During the planning phase of quantitative studies, measures such as descriptive statisitcs – percentiles,
researcher must identify the population to be studied, distribution, central tendencies.
 The term population refers to the aggregate or  Through self-reports, another popular method of
totality of those conforming (be similar) to a set of data collection, subjects are asked directly about their
specifications. feelings, behaviors, attitudes and personal traits (for
 Example: We might specify nurses (RNs) and example, in an interview with research personnel)
residence in the US as attributes (a construct whereby  Another technique is observation, wherein
objects or individuals can be distinguished) of researchers collect data by observing and recording
interest. The study population would then consist of aspects of people´s behavior.
all licensed RNs who reside in US. We could in a  Data collection methods vary in the degree of
similar fasion define a population consisting of all structure imposed on subjects like using a self-made
children younger than 10 years of age with muscular questionnaires.
dystrophy in Canada.
 Quantitative approaches tend to be fairly structured,
involving the use of a formal instrument that elicit the
STEP 9: Designing the Sampling Plan
same information from every subject sometimes
 The basis in doing the sampling is the total sample researchers need to develop their own instruments
population. but more often they use or adapt measuring
 A sample of subject who are a subset (a set whose instruments that have been developed by others.
members are members of another set) of the  The task of measuring research variables and
population developing a data collection plan is a complex and
 It is practical and less costly to collect data from a challenging process that permits a great deal of
sample than from an entire population which means creativity and choice
having no part excluded or left out or as a whole.  Before finalizing the data collection plan, researchers
 The risk is that the sample might not adequatly reflect must carefully evaluate whether the chosen methods
the population´s behaviors, traits, symptoms, or cupture key concepts accurately.
beliefs.
 Various methods of obtaining samples are available, STEP 11: Developing Methods for Safeguarding
these methods vary in cost, effort and skills required Human or Animal Rights
but there adequacy is assessed by the same criterion.  More on the bioethics aspect of research.
 The representativeness of the selected sample, that  Most nursing research involves human subjects, some
is the quality of the sample for quantitative studies studies involve animals.
depends on how typical, or representative the sample  In either case procedures need to be developed to
is of the population with respect to variables of ensure that the study adhers to ethical principles.
concern in the study.
 Example: Forms often need to be developed to
 Sophisticated sampling procedures can produce document that subjects´participation in the study was
samples that have a high likelohood of being voluntary like a consent form.
presentative.

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12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

STEP 12: Finalizing and Reviewing the Research STEP 14: Preparing the Data for Analysis
Plan  Look through questionnaire if they are usable,
 Before collecting research data, researchers often sometimes forms are left almost entirely blank or
perform a number of test to ensure that plans will contain other indications of misinterpretation or
work smoothly. noncompliance.
 Example: They may evaluate the readability of any  Another step is to assign identification numbers to the
written materials to determine if people with below- responses or observations of different subjects if this
average reading skills can comprehend them. First was not done previously.
read by experts before being pilot tested.  Coding of the data is needed at this point. Coding
 They may need to test whether technical equipment involves the translation of verbal data into numeric
is functioning properly. form according to a specified plan.
 If questions are used, it is important to know whether  This mean assigning numeric codes to categorial
respondents understand questions or find certain variables as gender (1 for female and 2 for male)
ones objectionable (Arousing disapproval ) ; this is  Coding might be needed to categorize narrative
usually referred to as pretesting the questionnaire (something told or recounted in the form of a story)
 During final study preparations, researchers also have responses to certain questions. Patient´verbatim
to determine the type of training to provide to those (the same words used by a writer or speaker ) "a
responsible for collecting data. If the research direct quotation” responses to a question about the
environment is wide range, train them regarding data quality of nursing care they received during
collection to have a smoothly flowing process. hospitalization might be coded into:
 If researchers have concerns about their study plans 1) Positive reactions
they may undertake a pilot study which is a small- 2) Negative reaction
scale version or trail run of the major study. 3) Neutral reaction
 Researchers have their research plan critiqued by 4) Or mixed reaction
peers, consultants or other reviewers to obtain  Another preliminary step involves transferring the
substantive, clinical, or methodologic feedback before data from written document into computer files for
implementing the plan when researchers seek subsequent analysis
financial support for the study.
 A proposal typically is submitted to a funding source PHASE 4: THE ANALYTIC PHASE
and reviewers of the proposed plan usually suggest
 Quantitative data gathered in the emprical phase are
improvement/
not reported in raw form.
 Students conducting study as part of a course or  They are subjected to analysis and interpretation
degree requirement have their plans reviewed by
which occurs in the fourth major phase of a project.
faculty advisors.
STEP 15: Analyzing the Data
PHASE 3: THE EMPIRICAL PHASE  Quantitative researchers analyze their data through
 Involves collecting research data and preparing those statistical analyses, which include simple procedures
data for analysis. (computing an average) as well as ones that are
 The empirical phase is one of the most time- complex.
consuming parts of the investigation, the amount of  Some analytic methods are computationally
time spent collecting data varies from one study to formidable, but the underlying logic of statistical tests
the next. is fairly easy to grasp.
 If data are collecting by distributing a written  Computers have eliminated the need to get bogged
questionnaire to intact groups, this task may be down with mathematical equations.
accomplished in a matter of days. Data collection
requires several weeks or even months of work. STEP 16: Interpreting the Results
 Interpretation is the process of making a sense (the
STEP 13: Collecting the Data capacity to appreciate or understand) and of
 The researcher´s plan specifies procedures for the examining their implications.
actual collection of data (where & when the data will  The process of interpretation begins with an attempt
be gathered), for describing the study to participants to explain the findings within the context of the
and for recording information. theoretical framework, prior empirical (relying on or
 Researchers must be sure that enough materials are derived from observation or experiment) knowledge
available to complete the study. and clinical experience.
 That participants are informed of the time and place  If research hypotheses have been supported an
that their presence may be required, that research explanation of the results may be straightforward
personel (interviewers) are conscientios (extreme because the findings fit into a previously conceived
care and great effort) in keeping their appointments, (to be of the opinion that) argument.
that schedules do not conflict.  If hypothesis are not supported, researcher must
 Suitable system of maintaining confidentiality of explain why this might be so, is the underlying
information has been implemented. conceptualization (the act of creating something by
thinking) wrong or was it inappropriate for the
research problem?

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12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

 Or do the findings reflect problems with research Sources of Nursing Research Problems
methods rather than the framework (was the o Personal experiences
measuring tool inappropriate?) o Literature sources like related studies and
 To provide sound explanatios, researchers not only literatures related to specific topics
must be familiar with clinical issues, prior research o Existing theories like theoretical frameworks from
and conceptual underpinning, but must be able to Philosophy of Caring by Jean Watson and Goal
understand methodologic limitations of the study. Attainment Theory by Imogene King
o Previous research that has been conducted.
 The interpretation of the findings must take into
Browse in the recommendations area like
account all available evidence about the study´s
expanding the number of respondents or in a
reliability and validity.
form of qualitative approach since what was done
 Researchers need to evaluate critically the descision was quantitative
they made in designing the study and to recommend
alternatives to other interested in the same research Research Problem Considerations
problems.
 Ethical issues in dealing with subjects especially
experimental researches consider the topic and
PHASE 5: THE DISSEMINATION PHASE ethical issues
 The analytic phase brings researchers full circle.  Significance to nursing or the implications
 It provides answers to the questions posed in the first  Personal motivation
phase of the project.  Researcher qualifications like for a nurse researcher,
 Researchers´responsibilities are not complete until he or she should conduct a research with less
the study results are disseminated. complications and with respondents of at least 50 and
maximum of 200. The environment should be in a one
STEP 17: Communicating the Findings place only. For the type of design in a beginner’s
 A study cannot contribute evidence to nursing research, a descriptive-correlational type can be
practice if the results are not communicated. utilized. Do not do mixed methods because it is
complicated.
 Final task of a research project is the preparation of
a research report that can be shared with others.  Feasibility of study
o Time
 Research reports can take various forms:
o Term papers o Cost
o Dissertation o Equipment and supplies
o Journal articles o Administrative support
o Presentations at professional o Peer support
conferences o Availability of subjects. Convenience
 Journal article - reports appearing in such sampling is not advisable since it is under
professional journal - usually are the most useful nonprobability sampling that has a lot of
because they are available to a broad, international biases.
audience.
RESEARCH QUESTION FORMAT
STEP 18: Utilizing the Findings in Practice
 Research questions for studies that examine more
 The concluding step of a high quality study is to plan than one variable are usually written as
for its utilization in practice settings.
correlational statement or comparative
 Nurse researcher may not themselves be in a position statement.
to implement a plan for utilizing research findings,
they can contribute to the process by including in their 1. Correlational Statement
research reports recommendations regarding how the
 Dependent and Independent.
evidence from the study could be incorporated into
the practice.  Example: “Is there a correlation between anxiety and
midterm scores of baccalaureate nursing students?”
The anxiety vs the midterm scores are correlated.
FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
2. Comparative Statement
RESEARCH QUESTION a. Descriptive Study:
 The specific question that the researcher expects to  Example: “Is there a difference between in
be answered in a study. readiness to learn about preoperative teaching
between preoperative patients who have high
 It should specify the variables and the population that
anxiety levels compared to preoperative patients
are being studied.
who have low anxiety levels?”
 Example: “Is there a difference in anxiety levels of
women about to undergo hysterectomy between b. Experimental Study:
those women who receive a back rub and those who  Example: “Is there a difference in the
not receive a back rub?” An example of experimental preoperative anxiety levels of patients who were
research under the type of descriptive correlational taught relaxation techniques compared to those
design. The control group does not receive the back patients who were not taught relaxation
rub while the intervening group receives the back rub. techniques?” It is an experimental study because
the presence of interventions is given to the
subject in terms of relaxation techniques.
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12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

RESEARCH DESIGN  One-group pretest-posttest

B. Non-experimental – research in which the

TYPES OF STUDY
researcher does not manipulate or control the
1. Exploratory – research studies that are independent variable.
conducted when little is known about the 1. Survey – investigation in which self-report data
phenomenon being studied. Few information and are collected from samples with the purpose of
few respondents are available. describing populations on some variables of
2. Descriptive – research studies in which interest. A questionnaire tool is given to the
phenomena are described in the relationship respondents and it should be discussed with them
between variables is examined; no attempt is on what they are going to do. After receiving the
made to determine cause-and-effect relationship. answered questionnaires, tabulation and analysis
It is like a survey wherein questionnaires are will be done.
given the researches will analyze the results. 2. Comparative Studies – examine the
3. Explanatory – research studies, that search for differences between intact groups on some
casual explanation; The best example is an dependent variable of interest. More on
experimental research. significant differences.
3. Correlational Studies – the researcher
TYPES OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO MOTIVE examines the strengths of relationships between
OR OBJECTIVE variables by determining how changes in one
variable are associated with changes in another
1. Basic Research – research that is conducted to variable. More on the significant relationship
generate knowledge rather than to solve between two or more variables.
immediate problems. Example is a survey. 4. Methodological Studies – concerned with the
2. Applied Research – research that is conducted development, testing, and evaluation of research
to find a solution to an immediate practice instruments and methods.
problem. Example is an experimental research. 5. Secondary Analysis Studies – data are
analyzed that were gathered in a previous study.
TYPES OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO DESIGN Example: Data review like a correlational study
between the students of BSN program if there is
1. Quantitative Research – concerned with a certain relationship with the performance in
objectivity, tight controls over the research nursing review. Surveys are not needed because
situation, and the ability to generalize findings. overall grade and board exam grade are the
2. Qualitative Research – research that is variables analyzed.
concerned with the subjective meaning of an
experience to an individual. Meaningful
experiences are the focus wherein the QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
respondent should verbalize their experience and A. Phenomenological – examine human
the researchers will write down their dialogue. experiences through descriptions provided by the
Own perceptions should not be inserted, unlike in people involved. These experiences are called
quantitative where manipulation can be done. live experiences. The goal of phenomenological
study is to describe the meaning that experiences
TYPES OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO hold for each subject.
CONTROL OF VARIABLE B. Ethnographic – involve in the collection and
analysis of data about cultural groups.
C. Case Studies – in-depth examinations of people.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH It can be a qualitative or a quantitative study but
more on quantitative.
A. Experimental – concerned with cause-and-
D. Grounded Theory – studies in which data are
effect relationship but with interventions.
collected and analyzed, and then a theory is
1. True Experimental – manipulates experimental
developed that is grounded in the data. It is more
variable.
on the data review. Need not to go for data
 Pretest-posttest control group. Pretest is
gathering. Collect hundreds of literatures, read
given then discussion is done and a
and examine it in order to develop a new theory.
posttest will be given with the same
E. Action Research Studies – a type of qualitative
questions to determine if there are any
research that seeks action to improve practice
changes.
and study the effects of the action that was taken.
 Posttest only control group. Discussion
first then posttest afterwards.
 Solomon four group TYPES OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO TIME
2. Quasi-experimental – there is either no FRAME
comparison group or no random assignment of 1. Historical Research – concern the
subjects to groups. identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis
 Nonequivalent control group of data from the past. Not only to discover the
 Time series events of the past but also to relate these past
3. Pre-experimental – the researcher has a little happenings to the present and to the future.
control over the research situation. 2. Descriptive Research – research studies in
 One-shot case study which phenomena are described or the

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12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

relationship between variables is examined; no 3. Where will the data be collected?

attempt is made to determine cause-effect 4. What data will be collected?
relationship. 5. How will the data be collected?

TIME FRAME FOR STUDYING THE SAMPLE DATA COLLECTION METHOD

1. Longitudinal Study 1. Questionnaires
 Follows subjects over a period of time in the  A paper and pencil report instrument.
future.  Contains questions that respondents are
Example: 2 years or 5 years of research asked to answer in writing.
 Cohort study is a special type of 2. Interviews
longitudinal study wherein the focus is on a 3. Observation methods
subgroup of the population, frequently 4. Physiological measures
persons who are of a similar age group. 5. Attitude scales
2. Cross-Sectional Study
 Examines subjects at one point in time. TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
 A specific phenomenon should be present in
that particular time. 1. Demographic questions – characteristic of the
Example: COVID-19 Pandemic from January sample
to December 2. Closed-ended questions – chose from given
alternatives
3. Open-ended-questions – to complete in their
MEASUREMENT AND DATA COLLECTION own words
4. Consistency questions
MEASUREMENT 5. Filler questions
 The process of assigning numbers to variables,
includes counting, ranking, and comparing objects or  In quantitative researches, Likert Scale is frequently
events. used.
 A number is assigned to the variable.
Example: Dichotomous variable of male and female, REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
the male can be categorized as 1 while the female as
 It is the backbone of the study.
2.
 Researchers typically conduct research within the
context of existing knowledge.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
 It is useful in developing the researcher's
A. Nominal Level of Measurement understanding and background, particularly essential
 The lowest level of measurement. when the researcher is not completely familiar with
 Numbers are obtained for this type of data studies previously done within the problem area.
through counting the frequency or  Links past researches to existing knowledge to form
percentage. a foundation for future direction.
 Objects or events are “named” or  Researchers does initial review of literature to have
categorized. an overview of the problem area, and be able to
 Examples: race, gender, religious affiliation, develop a frame of reference. Before coming up with
marital status a specific problem and finalizing the topic, searching
B. Ordinal Level of Measurement for related literatures should be done first.
 Data can be ranked ordered in place into  A thorough ROL covers the last 5 years.
categories.  Second ROL should focus on tested research
 Examples: small, medium, and large approaches and methods, data collection
C. Interval Level of Measurement instruments, and technique of data analysis.
 Consist of real numbers.
 Concerns data that not only can be placed in TWO KINDS OF ROL
categories and ranked, but also distance 1. Research – previously done studies.
between the ranks can be specified. 2. Non-research – includes experiences, opinions
and theories of experts along the problem area.
D. Ratio Level of Measurement
 Considered the highest or most precise level PURPOSE OF ROL
of data.
 To define research questions, methods, and tools that
 Includes data that can be categorized and may prove useful in problem identification, research
ranked the distance between ranks can be design, and instrument development. That is why you
specified and a true or natural zero point can need to read more RRL as to how the previous study
be identified. was constructed.
 To reveal difficulties experienced by others that may
DATA COLLECTION PROCESS save time, money, and error in the projected study.
Five questions in data collection process  To provide clear information on the task carried by
1. Who will collect the data? the nursing personnel.
2. When will the data be collected?
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12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

 To locate findings that may be included in a similar READING RESEARCH REPORTS

study to confirm or refute earlier findings. Other
researchers do the same study because they want to
expand more, they want to explore that particular WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW
topic.  Organize the Review – outline helps to structure
 To provide comparative data that are available in the the flow of presentation.
analysis and interpretation of one’s own.  Content of the Written Literature Review
 To identify studies that may be replicated or re- o Should provide readers with an objective,
tested. organized synthesis of evidence on a topic
 To compare one’s findings with other theoretical and o Should be neither a series of quotes nor a series
conceptual frameworks. of abstract
o Should be summarized in your own words.
MAJOR TYPES OF WRITTEN RESEARCH o Should demonstrate that you have considered
 A review in a research report the cumulative worth of the body of research
 A review in a proposal o Should be objective, to the extent possible
o Typically concludes with a concise summary of
 A review in a thesis or dissertation
 Free-standing literature reviews current evidence on the topic and gaps in the
evidence
You need to task yourself….
o Is the problem important? (worth researching)
o Have others researched it before? FORMULATING THEORETICAL OR
o What conclusions did they reach towards the CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
question?
o What impact might this research have? THEORY
o How will you find these references?
 A set of interrelated construct, definitions, and
prepositions that present a systematic view of
TYPES OF INFORMATION FOR A RESEARCH phenomena by specifying relations among variables
REVIEW with the purpose of explaining and predicting the
 PRIMARY SOURCE – research reports, which are phenomena (Kerlinger, 1973).
descriptions of studies written by a researcher who  Theories refer to a hypothetical universe –
conducted them. hypothetical in the sense that it encompasses all past,
 SECONDARY SOURCE – research source documents present and future cases of which theory applies.
are descriptions of studies prepared by someone other When one makes a theory, it does not mean that that
than the original researcher. particular theory will not be expounded. It must be
Example: Conducting a data review known that the theory of the past will not be
applicable in the present, that is why in a theory,
there is a continuous testing. There is no wrong
LOCATING RESEARCH MATERIALS
theory because it will still and always be tested.
 Devising a strategy to locate relevant studies (e.g. RELATION OF THEORY TO RESEARCH
select database, identify keywords, etc.). Use the  A theory, conceptual model or theoretical framework
library for research purposes. identifies parameters for the study, guides data
collection and provides a perspective in the
I. FORMULATE A SEARCH STRATEGY interpretation of data to enable the researchers to
 Ancestry approach – involves using citations from structure facts into an orderly system.
relevant studies to track down earlier research on the  Fawcett (1984) describes the relationship between
same topic theory and research as a double helix.
 Descendancy Approach – to find a pivotal early  With the theory serving as the impetus of scientific
study and to search forward in citation indexes to find investigations and findings from research shaping the
more recent studies. development of theory.
 Grey Literature – refers to studies with more limited CONCEPTS
distributions, such as conference papers, unpublished
reports and so on. Just like the previous thesis of the  Are abstractions that categorize observations based
previous batch, those are unpublished reports. on commonalities and differences.
 They are building blocks of theories and they vary in
II. SEARCHING BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATABASE level of abstraction.
Key Electronic Data Base for Nurse Researchers:  Example of highly abstract
 CINAHIL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied o Stress
Health Literature) o Pain
 MEDLINE (Medical Literature On-Line) o Grief
Others: o Wellness
 British Nursing Index  Examples of less abstract and more concrete
 Dissertation Abstract Online concepts:
 Scopus o Blood
 Nursing and Allied Health Source (ProQuest) o Temperature
 Google Scholar o Weight
o Height

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12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

CONSTRUCT  New theory might integrate new observations into an

existing theory to yield a more accurate explanation
 A group of concepts that are directly or indirectly of a phenomena.
observable.  Theories and models that are not congruent with a
 They are derived from a combination of academic and culture’s values also may fail into disfavor over time.
clinical knowledge and add meaning and scope to a  Thus, theories and models are never considered final
theory. and verified.
 Example  We have no way of knowing the ultimate accuracy
o Society and utility of any theory and so should treat all
o Social status theories as tentative.
o Health
 Not observable are theoretical constructs CONCEPTUAL MODELS AND THEORIES USED IN
o Superego NURSING
o Oedipus complex from psychoanalytical ● Fawcett, 2005 noted four concepts are central to
theory models of nursing:
PREPOSITIONS 1. Human beings
 Are statements that describes the relationship of two 2. Environment
or more concepts. 3. Health
 If you have the concepts already, so in making a 4. Nursing
preposition it should have a relationship between 2 or Examples:
more concepts. ● Sister calista roy’s adaptation model identifies
 Theory development begins with the identification adaptation of patients as a critical phenomenon
and description of concepts and constructs and ● Martha rogers by contrast, emphasized the
proceeds to formulate relationships between the two centrality of the individual as a unified whole.
concepts.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONCEPTUAL AND
CONCEPTUAL MODEL OR PARADIGM
THEORITICAL MODELS
 Are concepts that provide a structure or pattern for
organizing phenomena of interest in the practice or Conceptual Model or Theoretical Model or
research. Paradigm Framework
 So when we say paradigm we have your nursing,
1. It is a pretheoretic basis 1. It proposes a
environment, health and person. That is your
from which substantive framework derived from
paradigm.
theories may be derived theories.
 Paradigm is also used to mean a model or worldview
about a major phenomena of concern to a discipline. 2. It is highly abstract 2. It is less abstract than
 The term conceptual model or paradigm mean the conceptual models
same thing.
 Example
o Orem 3. Concepts are related 3. Concepts are narrowly
o King and multidimensional bounded, specific, and
o Levine’s explicitly interrelated
o Neuman’s
o Roger’s 4. It provides a 4. It postulates
 A model represents some aspects of reality, concrete perspective for science relationships. It is
or abstract, by means of a likeness that may be descriptive, explanatory or
structural, pictorial, diagrammatic or mathematical. predictive. In applied
 It does not focus on the relationship among science it is prescriptive.
phenomena but rather on their structure or function.
5. It is derived from 5. It is constructed from
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK systematic observation available theories and
and intuition findings of empirical
 Is derived from one or more theories or paradigms
research.
through the processes of induction and deduction.
 It postulates relationships among concepts and
permits empirical testing. 6. It is developed through 6. It is developed through
 THEORETICAL MODEL refers to a group of the process of intuition. the process of induction
interrelated theories that provide rationale for the and deduction.
hypotheses, policies and curricula of a science,
whereas a theory encompasses fewer phenomena. 7. It may be evaluated 7. It permits empirical
 If you have the concepts already, so in making a through logical grounds tests.
preposition it should have a relationship between 2 or and cannot be empirically
more concepts. tested.
NATURE OF THEORIES AND MODELS
 Theorist best effort to describe and explain
phenomena. TESTING AND DEVELOPING THEORIES AND
 Today’s flourishing theory may be discredited or FRAMEWORKS
revised tomorrow.
● Theories sometimes stimulate new studies.

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

● In testing a theory or model, quantitative ● It translates problem statements into predictions

researchers deduce implications and develop of expected outcomes and is thus a technique in
hypothesis, which are predictions about the answering a problem.
manner in which variables would be interrelated ● If our problem statement is ganito “is there a
if the theory were valid. significant relationship of this one to this one?”
● The hypothesis are then subjected to testing How do we state that to our hypothesis? When
through systemic data collection and analysis. we state our null hypothesis there is no significant
● The testing process involves a comparison relationship between this and this.
between observed outcomes with those predicted ● Hypothesis is not proved, it is only tested.
in the hypothesis.
ATTRIBUTES OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
DIFFERENT METHODS IN TESTING 1. It is strong enough to compel an injury and serves as
THEORIES/FRAMEWORK its focus.
● Researchers base a new study on a theory in an 2. When substantiated through research, it moves to the
effort to explain earlier descriptive findings. realm of outcomes.
● Researchers sometimes combine elements from 3. It can be used to explain phenomena, guide actions,
more than one theory as a basis for generating and predict outcomes.
hypothesis. 4. It adequately explains observed facts.
● Another strategy sometimes used in theory – 5. It offers the simplest explanation under the
testing researcher is to test two competing circumstances.
theories directly- that is to test alternative 6. It offers an explanation that is as complex as
explanations of a phenomenon. necessary under the circumstances.
7. It can be brought into an agreement or disagreement
DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK with observations.
● The basic intellectual process underlying theory SOURCE OF HYPOTHESIS
development is induction. ● The hypothesis may be based on astute
● Induction- reasoning from particular observation of some phenomenon within the
observation and facts to broader generalizations. environment, or on other hypotheses that have
● The inductive process involves integrating what been tested.
one has experienced or learned into an organized ● Experience may be also be a source.
scheme.
● The first step in the development of a
framework is to formulate a generalized TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
scheme of relevant concepts that is firmly 1. Simple hypothesis- predicts the relationship
grounded in the research literature. between one independent variable and one
● Kaya nga you need to collect all those related dependent variable.
literatures before you can come up with a specific 2. Complex hypothesis- predicts the relationship
topic or problem. between two or more independent variables and
● Conceptual framework is an example of concept two or more dependent variables.
map that is the overall flow of your research and 3. Directional/Predictive Hypothesis- specifies
both the dependent and independent variables the direction of the relationship between the
are present in that conceptual framework. variables being studied.
● Concept map represents an attempt to put 4. Non Directional Hypothesis- predicts only
the pieces of the puzzle together for a study that there is a relationship between the variables
involving a test. being studied but does not specify what it is.
● The inputs are your demographic data. The 5. Null Hypothesis- an assumption that there is no
process is your questionnaires, statistical difference between the studied variables.
statement and data gathering and your output
will be your result, recommendation or maybe
VARIABLES
your interventional plan or propose program plan.
That is how to do your conceptual framework by ● Is a quality, property or characteristics of the
the Intake, Process and Output. person or thing to be studied that can be
quantitatively measured.
● Independent Variable (cause) - is one
FORMULATING THE HYPOTHESIS
manipulated by the researcher.
PURPOSE: ● Dependent Variable (effect) - is the response
● HYPOTHESIS- is a shrewd guess or inference and effect or the criterion measure.
that is formulated and provisionally adopted to ● Target Population- subjects to be studied.
explain observed facts or conditions and to guide
further investigations. OTHER VARIABLES
● A hypothesis is also a statement of the ● Confounding or extraneous or uncontrolled
relationships between the phenomenon and the variables
variables being studied. ● Dichotomous variable- one that has only two
● Kaya nga based in your null hypothesis there is categories, such as male or female.
no significant relationship between this and this ● Polychotomous variable- more than two
one. In a negative way your adding null categories such as race.
hypothesis.

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

● Categorical variables- are those that Which of the following is not a null hypothesis?
represents unordered categories, groups or
classes. 1. There is no relationship between the level of
● Continuous variables- are those that have a knowledge and practice of prevention of needle prick
range of variety such as weight, height, and injuries
temperature. 2. There is no relationship between the practice of
prevention of needle prick injuries and
Identify the independent variable in the following sociodemographic profile of staff nurses
hypothesis: 3. There is a significant relationship between the
knowledge and sociodemographic profile of
1. "Cancer patients who receive music therapy staff nurses
complain less frequently of pain and require less 4. All of the above.
pain medication than cancer patients not
receiving music therapy."
OTHERS:
EXAMPLES OF VARIABLES FOR DIFFERENT 1. Hypothesis- Graduate of the baccalaureate degree
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS program is more proficient at the bedside than
graduates of the diploma program
1. Non- directional hypothesis- There is a difference TYPE: Directional Hypothesis
in the level of anxiety of pre-surgical patients who
received preoperative instruction and patients who IV TP DV
receives no instruction pre-operatively. Type of Graduates Degree of proficiency at
educational of both the bedside
IV TP DV program BSN and
Presence or Surgical Level of anxiety high or GN
absence of patients low program
preop
instruction 2. Hypothesis- The use of tranquilizers is more
effective than shock therapy in treating disturbed,
2. Directional or Predictive Hypothesis- There is a mentally ill patients.
more significant increase in the rate of healing of TYPE: Directional Hypothesis
decubitus ulcer among subjects who receives regular
application of topical insulin than in those who do not. IV TP DV
The key word here is “there is more significant” Kind of treatment Disturbed, Effectivity rate
na makasiring ka na directional or predictive - Tranquilizers mentally ill
hypothesis hya. Both are part of your comparative - Shock therapy patients
design. Comparative design there is a significant
differences. Now, how can we convert this one into ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS – It is the opposite of
non-directional? You just need to delete the “more”. your null hypothesis. When we say opposite ttanggalin mo
lang yung ‘NO’ that is your alternate hypothesis.
IV TP DV
Use or non- Patients Rate of healing "Cancer patients who receive music therapy
use of topical with (increased or not) complain less frequently of pain and require less
insulin decubiti pain medication than cancer patients not receiving
music therapy." - NON-DIRECTIONAL
3. Null hypothesis- There is no significant difference
HYPOTHESIS
in test means between students having a hospital
laboratory experience and students having a free day "Normal saline flush with heparin is more effective
preceding the day of test administration. It iya than normal saline flush alone in maintaining
pagka state. An key word dida is “There is no patency of an intermittent intravenous site. " -
significant.”
DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
IV TP DV
Kind of day Students Rate in test
ETHICAL RESEARCH
preceding exam taking exam measure
- With ● Nursing research focuses on people their health
laboratory attitude, experiences, values, coping behavior,
experience support system, community networks, and
- Free day environmental stress.
● Being aware of the human rights of human
subjects is a major part of nurses responsibilities
when it comes to research studies or assisting
one who is conducting research or evaluating a
research article.

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

ETHICS 3. Scope of Application

 Apply to research activities involving patients,
● Is the science that deals with the nature of donors of organs and tissues, informants, normal
actions of intelligence beings in relation to their volunteers, students, vulnerable sectors such as
moral qualities. the mentally retarded, and prisoners.
● Performing moral judgement, the nurse decides 4. Nurses Responsibility to Broaden
what is right or good and what he or she must Knowledge
do,  Obligation to support additional knowledge that
● Scientific knowledge should compatible with the further clarifies the scientific aspects of nursing
dignity and rights of individuals and social groups. practice and the delivery of nursing services.
5. Informed Consent
CODE OF ETHICS OF THE PNA  Safeguard the basic rights of self-determination,
● States that health is a fundamental right of every consent to participate in researches.
individual.  Detailed description of the benefits for him/her or
● Therefore the nurses primary responsibility is to for the development of new knowledge.
preserve life at all cost.  The subjects should have an option to withdraw
● This responsibility encompasses the promotion of or discontinue participation.
health, the prevention of illness, the restoration 6. Representation in Human Subjects
of health, and alleviation of suffering. Committee
 to ensure that individual rights are not denied
 Institutional committee judged competent to
CODE OF RESEARCH ETHICS
review studies and investigations
● Nuremberg Code also known as the
NUREMBERG ARTICLE
BASIC HUMAN RIGHTS OF RESEARCH
● Developed as a result of the sadistic treatment of
SUBJECTS
prisoners in Nazi concentration camps during the
Second World War. ● Right to Informed Consent
● Doctors in these camps declared that “they were ● Right to refuse or withdraw from participation
engaged in important medical research.” ● Right to privacy
● The code disallows any research subjects ● Right to confidentiality and anonymity of data
incapable of giving consent. ● Right to be protected from harm
● It requires informed consent in all cases and
makes no provision for special treatment of VULNERABLE SUBJECTS
children, the elderly or the mentally incompetent.
So these are the vulnerable groups ● Subject who are physically or legally unable to
give their own consent
● Mentally ill
Helsinki Declaration of 1964 ● Unconscious patient
● Was issued as a guide for physicians in medical ● Minors
research. ● Students
● Revised in 1974, differentiates two major types ● Prisoners- restricted movement
of research ● Employees- many influences
o Essentially therapeutic ● Those unique situations like fetuses that requires
o Essentially directed special attention
● It emphasizes the need to inform the research ● If your respondents are part of the vulnerable
subjects when a clinical study will be of no subjects you need to undergo an ethics
personal benefit to them so as to avoid suspicion. committee or an ethical board review before you
push through with your research.
ANA Human Rights Guidelines for Nurses in
Clinical and other Research QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Employment in Setting Where Research is ● Quantitative Research is an inquiry into a

Conducted identified problem based on testing a theory
 Anyone employed in work that carries potential composed of variables, measured with numbers
risks should be advised as to the type of risk and analyzed by using statistical technique.
involved, how to recognize these risks, and the
proper actions needed to counteract harmful GENERAL DESIGN ISSUES (CASUALITY)
effects and unnecessary danger.
 Meaning to say disclosing the benefits, the
advantaged and disadvantages CAUSE AND EFFECT
2. Nurses Responsibility to Protect the Rights
of Human Subjects.
 Prospective subjects must be given relevant data General concept of cause
or information before participating in activities
that go beyond established and accepted Most phenomenon have multiple
procedures to meet their personal needs. causes.
 Because the patient has the right to refuse or
withdraw even during the research

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

EXAMPLES Control
●
● Does telephone therapy interventions for patients Randomization - every subject has an equal
●
diagnosed with prostate cancer cause chance of being assigned to experimental or
improvements in their decision-making skills? control group.
(intervention prognosis) METHODS
● Do birth weights under 1,500 grams cause ● Flip of a coin
development delays in children? (prognosis ● Random table
question) ● Drawing lots
● Does cigarette smoking cause lung cancer CONTROL
(etiology/harm question) ● Use of control group and controlling the effects of
extraneous variable on the dependent variable in
EXAMPLE OF GENERAL CONCEPT OF CAUSE which researcher is interested.
● We understand that failure to sleep causes o Matching
fatigue and that high-caloric intake causes weight o Counter balancing
gain. o Homogeneity
● Weight gain can be the effect of high-caloric
consumption. TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Not Deterministic but rather Probabilistic 1. Post-Test Only Control Design

EXAMPLE: Evidence that smoking is a cause of lung 2. Pretest Post-Test Control Design
cancer, but not everyone who smokes develops lung 3. Solomon Four Group Design
cancer, and not everyone with lung cancer was a smoker 4. Factorial Design
5. Randomized Block Design
6. Crossover Design
CRITERIA FOR CASUALITY
POST-TEST ONLY CONTROL DESIGN

CAUSED BY
TEMPORAL
A THIRD
VARIABLE

EMPIRICAL
RELATIONSHIP

1. Caused by a third variable

 You have here Random assignments, the
2. Temporal
experimental group and control group. In your
3. Empirical Relationship
Experimental Group gintagaan hin treatment then do
a post-test. For Control Group waray treatment
CLASSIFICATION diretso post-test.
I. Experimental Research Design EXAMPLE: A study to assess the effect of an educational
a. True Experimental Design intervention related to urinary incontinence on the
b. Quasi Experimental Design subsequent help seeking behavior of older adults.
c. Pre-Experimental Design
II. Non Experimental Research Design PRETEST POST-TEST ONLY CONTROL DESIGN
a. Descriptive Design
b. Correlational or Ex-post Facto Design
c. Developmental Research Design
d. Epidemiological Design
e. Descriptive Design
f. Survey Research Design
III. Other Additional Research Design

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

● Observation under controlled condition
● Examination of the effect of independent  If you observe the diagram you have there the
● Variable on dependent variable
Random Assignments of your subjects. We have here
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN the Experimental Group and Control Group. Ha
experimental group gintagaan hya pre-test and the
● Researcher have complete control over the after gintagaan hin treatment then Post-test. Control
extraneous variable and can predict confidently Group naman waray niya treatment diretso Post-test.
that the observed effect on the dependent EXAMPLE: An experimental study to assess the
variable is only due to the manipulation of effectiveness of cognitive behavior therapy interventions
independent variable. for patients with breast cancer.
CHARACTERISTICS
● Manipulation - conscious control of the
independent variable.
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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN CROSS OVER DESIGN

 Subjects are exposed to more than one treatment,
where subjects are randomly assigned to different
orders of treatment.
 Repeat measure design
 Extremely powerful design, sometimes not effective
EXAMPLE: Effectiveness of chlorhexidine and saline
mouth care protocol on prevention of VA P

 In Solomon four group design from the word itself

‘four group’, we have 4 random assignments. We
have the Experimental group 1, Experimental  Just like this table, we have protocols of mouth care
group 2, Control group 1 and then Control of group 1 and 2. Group will be expose first with the
group 2. If you can observe gin by batch hira. An Chorhexidine while the Group 2 will be expose first
Group 1 mayda pretest and again an Control group with the saline and after saline naman ig use an group
waray Treatment. So an group 2 naman, no Pre-test 1 tas Chlorhexidine naman an group 2. We have to
has been done, diretso hya post-test. measure the effectiveness of those interventions.
EXAMPLE: A study to assess the effectiveness of Both group must undergo those treatment but in a
smoking prevention programme on standard five children. different session.

FACTORIAL DESIGN ADVANTAGES

 Most powerful design to establish the causal
 Researcher manipulates 2 or more independent relationship between the independent and dependent
variables simultaneously to observe their effect on the variable
dependent variable  Controlled environment in which study is conducted
 Useful when more than two independent variables to can yield a greater degree of purity in observation
be tested  Conditions not found in natural setting can be created
 Testing of several hypothesis at a single time in an experimental setting
EXAMPLE: Effect of two different protocols of mouth  Researcher can pursue studies in more leisurely,
care on prevention of VA P when performed at different careful and concentrated way.
frequencies in a day. DISADVANTAGES
 Results cannot be replicated in studies conducted on
human beings due to ethical problems.
 It is not possible to impose control over extraneous
variable
 Difficult to get co-operation from the study
participants
 Many of human variables neither have valid
measurable criteria nor instrument to measure them.
 Another example of factorial design, we have here the
interval of 4, 6, and 8 frequency of mouth care. We QUASI EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
have two interventions the Chlorhexidine and Saline.  Involves manipulation of independent variable to
B1 is every 4 hours, B2 is every 6 hours and your B3 observe the effect on dependent variable, but it lacks
is every 8 hours. at least one of the two characteristics of the true
experimental design: randomization or control group
RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN  Quasi-independent variable is used instead of true
independent variable
 When there is a large number of experimental
 There’s a manipulation but no randomization.
comparison groups, the randomized block design
used to bring homogeneity among selected different
groups. TYPES OF QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
EXAMPLE: Effect of three different antihypertensive 1. Nonrandomized control group design
drugs on patient with hypertension 2. Time series design

NONRANDOMIZED CONTROL GROUP DESIGN

 Non-equivalent control group design
 Identical to pre-test post-test control group design,
except no random assignment of subjects

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

EXAMPLE: Lalitha, Premila & Balu (2006) conducted a

study on nursing personnel registered for a day workshop
on life skill education at MTIHS, Pondicherry.

ONE GROUP PRETEST POSTTEST DESIGN

 Simplest type
 Only the experimental group is selected
 No control group
EXAMPLE: To study the effects of integrated care on
quality of work in nursing homes.

TIME SERIES DESIGN

 When experimenter wants to measure the effects of EXAMPLE: Effect of STP on level of knowledge regarding
a treatment over a long period of time. labour and newborn care among primigravida mothers.
 Experimenter continue to administer the treatment
and measure the effects a number of times during the ADVANTAGES
course of the experiment.  Very simple and convenient to conduct these
studies in natural setting
 Most suitable for beginners in the field of
experimental research.
DISADVANTAGES
 Very weak experimental design because it controls
no threat to internal validity
 Very little control over the research
 Higher threat to internal validity, may have a
EXAMPLE: Measuring a child’s school performance on a selection bias.
weekly basis and then introducing a new teaching
technique. Then again measuring on a weekly basis.
NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
ADVANTAGES  Researcher observes the phenomenon as they occur
 Practical and feasible to conduct naturally and no external variables are introduced.
 More suitable for real world natural setting than true  Variables are not deliberately manipulated nor is the
experimental design setting controlled.
 Allow researcher to evaluate the impact of quasi-  Data obtained are analyzed and results may lead to
independent variable under naturally occurring the formation of hypothesis that can be tested
conditions experimentally
 May be able to establish causal relationship. Need of non-experimental design
 The studies in which the independent variables
DISADVANTAGES cannot be manipulated
 No control over extraneous variables  The studies in which it is unethical to manipulate the
 Absence of a control group make the results less independent variable
reliable and weak for establishment of the causal  Not practically possible to conduct experiments
relationship between independent and dependent  Descriptive type studies that do not require any
variables. experimental approaches

PRE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN

 Considered as very weak, because the researcher has  The purpose is to observe, describe and
very little control over the experiment document aspects of a situation as it naturally
occurs and sometimes to serve as a starting point for
TYPES OF PRE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN hypothesis generation or theory development
1. One Shot Case Design
2. One Group Pretest Posttest Design TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
1. Univariant descriptive design
ONE SHOT CASE DESIGN 2. Exploratory design
3. Comparative design
 No random assignment
 No control group FEATURES
 A single experiment group is exposed to treatment  To observe, document and describe a phenomenon
and observations are made after treatment occurring in its natural setting.
 To gain more information about characteristics within
a particular field of inquiry.
 Provides an impression of situation as it occurs in
natural setting

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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

 To develop theories, identify problems with current  Magnitude and direction of relationship of
practices, justify current practices, make judgements, independent variable and dependent variable is
or determine other practices in similar situation measured by using the correlation of coefficient
 Bias is prevented through operational definitions of statistical measure.
variables, large sample size, random sampling  Cause and effect study. It can be investigated in
techniques, valid and reliable research tools and forward manner or backward.
formal data collection methods
 Identification of a phenomenon of interest, identifying PROSPECTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
the variables within the phenomenon, developing
operational definition of the variables and describing  A design in which the researcher relates the present
the variables to the future
 It starts with a presumed cause and then go to
presumed effect
UNIVARIANT DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
 Longitudinal
 To describe the frequency of occurrence of EXAMPLE: A prospective correlational study on the effect
phenomenon of earthquakes on migration of people in Gujarat
 The basic purpose of the study is not only to describe
each of the variables, but also to establish the RETRSOPECTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
relationship between those variables.
 Used to identify and describe perception, awareness,  Researcher studies the current phenomenon by
behavior, attitude, knowledge and practice of people. seeking information from past.
 EXAMPLE: A descriptive study of the perceived  Backward approach
causes of female foeticide among women in selected  Effect to identify the cause
rural and urban communities of district Jaipur, EXAMPLE: A retrospective correlational study on the
Rajasthan alcohol consumption pattern among patients diagnosed
with alcoholic liver cirrhosis at gastroenterology
department, CMCH, Ludhiana
EXPLORATORY DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
 Identify, explore, and describe the existing DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
phenomena and its related factors. But it is in depth
exploration and a study of its related factors to  Examines the phenomenon with reference to time
improve further understanding about a less  Used as adjunct research design
understood phenomenon.
 EXAMPLE: An exploratory study on factors affecting TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
bowel movements in orthopaedic patients admitted in
civil hospital, Ludhiana 1. Cross-sectional Design
2. Longitudinal Design
a. Trend studies
COMPARATIVE DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN b. Panel studies
 Comparing and contrasting 2 or more samples of c. Follow up studies
study subjects on one or more variables, often at a
single point of time. CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
 Compare 2 distinct groups on the basis of selected
attributes such as knowledge level, perceptions and  Researcher collects data at a particular point of time
attitudes, physical or physiological symptoms and so  Easier and more convenient
on. EXAMPLE: assessing the awareness on swine flu among
 EXAMPLE: A comparative study on the employment people in rural area.
pattern among older people from rural and urban
community in district Simoga, Karnataka. LONGITUDINAL DESIGN
 Collect data over an extended period of time
CORRELATIONAL OR EX-POST FACTO  Its value is in its ability to demonstrate change over
RESEARCH DESIGN a period of time
 Researcher examines the relationship between 2 or
more variables in a natural setting without A. TREND STUDIES
manipulation or control. o Help to investigate a sample from general
population over a time with respect to some
phenomenon.
TYPES OF CORRELATIONAL OR EX-POST o Permits researcher to examine pattern and rate
DESIGN of changes and to make prediction about future
1. Prospective Research Design direction based on previously identified pattern
2. Retrospective Research Design and rates of changes
o EXAMPLE: A trend study to determine whether
FEATURES gender differences associated with coronary
 Researcher examines the strength of relationship artery revascularization changed over time.
between variables. B. PANEL STUDIES
 The effect of independent variable is observed on o Sample of people involved in study
dependent variable without manipulating the o Same people are involved and over a period of
independent variable time they become more informative on the
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 NURSING RESEARCH
12 NCA 2: Nursing Course Appraisal 2
Mr. Mark Angelo T. Cristino, MAN, RN • July 8, 2022

phenomenon than the subject in trend studies

because the researcher can not only examine the
patterns of change, and but also the reasons for
change
o The same selected people are contacted for 2 or
more times to collect further data
o EXAMPLE: Wu and Pender tested Pender ’s
Health Promotion Model using data from a two-
wave panel study of Taiwanese adolescents.
C. FOLLOW-UP STUDIES
o To determine the subsequent states of subjects
with a specified condition or those who have
received a specific intervention
o EXAMPLE: Lukkarinen and Hentenien (2006)
conducted a follow up study of 280 patients who
had undergone various treatments for coronary
artery disease. Data relating to the patients
quality of life were gathered 1 year and 8 years
after their treatment

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESEARCH DESIGN

 To investigate causes of different disease in either
prospective approach (cohort studies) or
retrospective approach (case control studies)

TYPES OF EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESERCH

DESIGN
1. Cohort Studies
2. Case Control Studies

COHORT STUDY
 Longitudinal approach is used to investigate the
occurrence of a disease in existing presumed causes.
EXAMPLE: A researcher longitudinally observes the
smoker for development of lung cancer.

CASE CONTROL STUDY

 Causes of a disease are investigated after the
occurrence of a disease
EXAMPLE: Researcher investigates the history of
smoking in patients diagnose with lung cancer

SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN

 Used to collect information from different subject
within a given population having same characteristics
of interest
FEATURES
 Process of gathering current required data from the
subjects
 Information is collected from a mix of subjects who
represent the total population in the characteristics
being studied.
 Mode of enquiry that relies upon the validity of verbal
reports
 Common method is questioning
EXAMPLE: A study to assess the factors influencing
postnatal depression among the postnatal mothers at
Bagalkot, Karnataka (2006).

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