Third Edition

Heat Neutron
Energy
Barium
Nucleus
56
82

92
Gamma
Neutron Radiation
143
Uranium 235
Nucleus

36
48
Krypton
Nucleus

Heat
Energy

Introduction to
NUCLEAR AND
PARTICLE PHYSICS
V.K. Mittal
R.C. Verma
S.C. Gupta
Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics
 Introduction to
Nuclear and Particle Physics
Third Edition

V.K. MITTAL
Professor of Physics
Punjabi University, Patiala

R.C. VERMA
Professor of Physics
Punjabi University, Patiala

S.C. GUPTA
Former Professor and Head
Department of Physics
Punjabi University, Patiala

Delhi-110092
2013
INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR AND PARTICLE PHYSICS, Third Edition
V.K. Mittal, R.C. Verma and S.C. Gupta

© 2013 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-4738-0

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Third Printing (Third Edition) … … … April, 2013

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj Industrial
Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Raj Press, New Delhi-110012.
 Contents

Preface ........................................................................................................................................ xv
Preface to the First Edition .................................................................................................... xvii

1 The Nucleus ................................................................................... 1–45

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Historical Developments 1
1.3 Constituents of the Nucleus 3
1.3.1 Proton–Electron Hypothesis 3
1.3.2 Proton–Neutron Hypothesis 5
1.3.3 Terms Associated with the Nucleus 7
1.4 Quantitative Facts about Nucleus 8
1.4.1 Size 8
1.4.2 Mass 9
1.4.3 Density 10
1.4.4 Energy 11
1.4.5 Charge 12
1.5 Binding Energy 12
1.5.1 Mass Defect 12
1.5.2 Packing Fraction 13
1.5.3 Fusion and Fission 14
1.5.4 Binding Energy per Nucleon 14
1.6 Nuclear Angular Momentum 16
1.7 Nuclear Moments 18
1.7.1 Magnetic Dipole Moment 18
1.7.2 Electric Quadrupole Moment 20
1.8 Wave Mechanical Properties 22
1.8.1 Parity 23
1.8.2 Statistics 23

v
vi Contents

1.9 Nature of Nuclear Forces 24

1.10 Yukawa Theory of Nuclear Forces 26
1.11 Mass Spectrometry 27
1.11.1 Bainbridge Spectrograph 28
1.11.2 Bainbridge and Jordan Mass Spectrograph 30
1.12 Determination of Charge by Moseley Law 31
Numerical Problems 32
Review Questions 43

2 Nuclear Models ............................................................................ 46–78

2.1 Introduction 46
2.2 Liquid Drop Model 47
2.2.1 Semiempirical Mass Formula 47
2.2.2 Mass of Most Stable Isobar 51
2.2.3 Achievements of Liquid Drop Model 52
2.2.4 Failures of Liquid Drop Model 52
2.3 Shell Model 52
2.3.1 The Square Well Potential 56
2.3.2 The Harmonic Oscillator Potential 59
2.3.3 Spin-Orbit Coupling 61
2.3.4 Predictions of the Shell Model 62
2.3.5 Achievements of the Shell Model 64
2.3.6 Failures of Shell Model 65
*2.4 Fermi Gas Model 65
2.5 Collective Model 67
Numerical Problems 67
Review Questions 76

3 Radioactivity ............................................................................... 79–153

3.1 Introduction 79
3.2 Laws of Disintegration 81
3.2.1 Activity and its Units 82
3.2.2 Half-life 83
3.2.3 Average (Mean) Life 84
3.3 Radioactive Series 85
3.4 Law of Successive Disintegration 87
3.4.1 Radioactive Equilibrium 90
3.5 Alpha Emission 94
3.5.1 Properties of Alpha Particles 96
3.5.2 Alpha Spectrum 96
3.5.3 Range of Alpha-Particles 98
3.5.4 Geiger–Nuttal Law 98
3.5.5 Gamow Theory of Alpha Decay 99
 Contents vii

3.6 Beta Decay 107

3.6.1 Conditions for Spontaneous Emission of b –-Particles 107
3.6.2 Conditions for Spontaneous Emission of b +-Particles 108
3.6.3 Beta-Particle Spectrum 109
3.6.4 Electron Capture 112
3.6.5 Neutrino (n ) and Antineutrino (O ) 112
3.6.6 Detection of Antineutrino (O ) 112
3.6.7 Detection of Neutrino (n ) 113
3.7 Gamma Decay 114
3.7.1 Gamma Decay 114
3.7.2 Internal Conversion 115
3.7.3 Internal Pair Conversion 116
3.8 Artificial or Induced Radioactivity 118
*3.9 Applications of Radioactivity 119
3.9.1 Medicine 120
3.9.2 Food and Agriculture 120
3.9.3 Insect Control 120
3.9.4 Reactors 121
3.9.5 Research Reactors 122
3.9.6 Geology and Element Identification 123
3.9.7 Radioactive Dating 123
3.9.8 Radioactive Tracers 125
3.9.9 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) 126
3.9.10 In Space Flights 126
3.9.11 In Sea 127
Numerical Problems 127
Review Questions 150

4 Nuclear Reactions ................................................................... 154–202

4.1 Introduction 154
4.2 Types of Nuclear Reactions 156
4.2.1 Reactions Based on the Reaction Mechanism 156
4.2.2 Reactions Based on the Mass of Projectile 158
4.3 Nuclear Reaction Cross-Section 163
4.3.1 Measurement of Cross-Section 163
4.3.2 Units of Cross-Section 164
4.3.3 Different Types of Cross-Sections 165
4.4 Conservation Laws in Nuclear Reactions 165
4.4.1 Conservation of Mass-Energy 166
4.4.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum 166
4.4.3 Conservation of Charge/Atomic Number 166
4.4.4 Conservation of Nucleons/Mass Number 166
4.4.5 Conservation of Angular Momentum 167
4.4.6 Conservation of Spin 167
viii Contents

4.4.7 Conservation of Statistics 167

4.4.8 Conservation of Parity 167
4.4.9 Conservation of Lepton Number 167
4.5 Kinematics of Nuclear Reactions 168
4.5.1 Exoergic or Exothermic Reactions 170
4.5.2 Endoergic or Endothermic Reactions 171
4.5.3 Threshold Energy 171
4.6 Compound Nucleus 172
*4.7 Nuclear Fission 173
4.7.1 Neutron-Induced Fission 173
4.7.2 Energy Released in Fission 175
*4.8 Nuclear Fusion 176
4.8.1 Energy Released in Fusion 177
4.8.2 Hydrogen Burning and Solar Energy 178
4.8.3 Helium Burning in Stars 179
Numerical Problems 180
Review Questions 201

5 Interaction of Radiations with Matter .................................... 203–241

5.1 Introduction 203
5.2 Energy Loss by Heavy Charged Particles 203
5.3 Interaction of Electrons with Matter 208
5.4 Range of Charged Particles 210
5.5 Interaction of Gamma Rays with Matter 211
5.5.1 Radiation Length 213
5.5.2 Half-thickness 213
5.5.3 Experimental Determination of Attenuation Coefficient 213
5.6 Photoelectric Effect 215
5.6.1 Experimental Verification of Photoelectric Effect 217
5.7 Compton Effect 219
5.7.1 Experimental Verification of Compton Effect 222
5.8 Pair Production 224
5.8.1 Positron Annihilation 225
Numerical Problems 226
Review Questions 239

6 Particle Accelerators ................................................................ 242–282

6.1 Introduction 242
6.2 Cockcroft and Walton Accelerator 243
6.2.1 Principle 243
6.2.2 Construction 243
6.2.3 Working 244
6.2.4 Advantages 244
6.2.5 Limitations 244
 Contents ix

6.3 Van de Graaff Accelerator 245

6.3.1 Principle 245
6.3.2 Construction 245
6.3.3 Working 246
6.3.4 Advantages 246
6.3.5 Limitations 247
6.4 Tandem Accelerator 247
6.4.1 Principle 247
6.4.2 Construction and Working 247
6.4.3 Advantages 248
6.4.4 Limitations 248
6.5 Linear Accelerator (LINAC) or Drift Tube Accelerator 249
6.5.1 Principle 249
6.5.2 Construction 249
6.5.3 Working 250
6.5.4 Advantages 251
6.5.5 Limitations 252
6.6 Wave-Guide Accelerators 252
6.7 Magnetic Resonance Accelerators or Cyclotrons 252
6.7.1 Principle 253
6.7.2 Construction 253
6.7.3 Working 254
6.7.4 Theory 254
6.7.5 Advantages 256
6.7.6 Limitations 256
6.8 Betatron 257
6.8.1 Principle 257
6.8.2 Construction 257
6.8.3 Working 258
6.8.4 Average Energy per Orbit 259
6.8.5 Calculation of Final Energy of Electrons 259
*6.9 Synchrocyclotrons or Frequency Modulated Cyclotrons 261
6.9.1 Principle 261
6.9.2 Construction 261
6.9.3 Theory 262
6.9.4 Advantages 263
6.9.5 Limitation 263
*6.10 Azimuthally Varying Field (A.V.F.) or Sector Focusing Cyclotrons 263
6.10.1 Principle 263
6.10.2 Construction 264
6.11 Synchrotrons 265
6.11.1 Proton Synchrotron 265
Numerical Problems 268
Review Questions 282
x Contents

7 Radiation Detectors ................................................................. 283–325

7.1 Introduction 283
7.2 Gas-Filled Detectors 284
7.2.1 Principle 285
7.2.2 Construction and Working 285
7.2.3 Concept of Average Energy Required for Creating Electron–Ion
Pair (W-value) 285
7.3 Ionization Chamber 288
7.3.1 Principle 288
7.3.2 Construction 288
7.3.3 Working 289
7.3.4 Main Uses 289
7.3.5 Main Drawback 289
7.4 Proportional Counters 289
7.4.1 Principle 290
7.4.2 Construction 290
7.4.3 Working 290
7.4.4 Uses 292
7.4.5 Main Disadvantage 292
7.5 Geiger–Müller (GM) Counters 292
7.5.1 Principle 293
7.5.2 Construction 293
7.5.3 Working 293
7.5.4 Main Uses 296
7.5.5 Main Drawback 296
7.6 Scintillation Detectors 297
7.6.1 Scintillation Detector/Crystal 297
7.6.2 Photomultiplier Tubes 299
7.6.3 Electronic Circuitry 300
7.6.4 Uses of Scintillation Detectors 301
7.6.5 Limitations of Scintillation Detectors 301
7.7 Semiconductor Radiation Detectors 301
7.7.1 Diffused Junction Detector 303
7.7.2 Silicon Surface Barrier Detectors 304
7.7.3 Ion Implantation Detectors 304
7.7.4 Silicon Lithium Si(Li) Detectors 304
7.7.5 Germanium Lithium Ge(Li) Detectors 305
7.7.6 High Purity Germanium Detectors 306
7.8 Cloud Chamber 307
7.8.1 Principle 307
7.8.2 Construction 307
7.8.3 Working 308
7.8.4 Advantages 308
7.8.5 Limitations 308
 Introduction To Nuclear And Particle
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