ANSWERS

EXERCISE 1.1
1. (i), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) and (viii) are sets.
2. (i) ∈ (ii) ∉ (iii) ∉ (vi) ∈ (v) ∈ (vi) ∉
3. (i) A = {–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } (ii) B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(iii) C = {17, 26, 35, 44, 53, 62, 71, 80} (iv) D = {2, 3, 5}
(v) E = {T, R, I, G, O, N, M, E, Y} (vi) F = {B, E, T, R}
4. (i) { x : x = 3n, n∈N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4 } (ii) { x : x = 2n, n∈N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 5 }
(iii) { x : x = 5n, n∈N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4 } (iv) { x : x is an even natural number}
(v) { x : x = n2, n∈N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 10 }
5. (i) A = {1, 3, 5, . . . } (ii) B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }
(iii) C = { –2, –1, 0, 1, 2 } (iv) D = { L, O, Y, A }
(v) E = { February, April, June, September, November }
(vi) F = {b, c, d, f, g, h, j }
6. (i) ↔ (c) (ii) ↔ (a) (iii) ↔ (d) (iv) ↔ (b)
EXERCISE 1.2
1. (i), (iii), (iv)
2. (i) Finite (ii) Infinite (iii) Finite (iv) Infinite (v) Finite
3. (i) Infinite (ii) Finite (iii) Infinite (iv) Finite (v) Infinite
4. (i) Yes (ii) No (iii) Yes (iv) No
5. (i) No (ii) Yes 6. B= D, E = G

EXERCISE 1.3
1. (i) ⊂ (ii) ⊄ (iii) ⊂ (iv) ⊄ (v) ⊄ (vi) ⊂
(vii) ⊂
2. (i) False (ii) True (iii) False (iv) True (v) False (vi) True
3. (i) as {3,4}∈A, (v) as 1∈A, (vii) as {1,2, 5}⊂A,
(viii) as 3∉Α, (ix) as φ ⊂ A, (xi) as φ ⊂ A,
4. (i) φ, { a } (ii) φ, { a }, { b }, { a, b }
(iii) φ, { 1 }, { 2 }, { 3 }, { 1, 2 }, { 1, 3 }, { 2, 3 }, { 1, 2, 3 } (iv) φ
5. (i) (– 4, 6] (ii) (– 12, –10) (iii) [ 0, 7 )
(iv) [ 3, 4 ]
6. (i) { x : x ∈ R, – 3 < x < 0 } (ii) { x : x ∈ R, 6 ≤ x ≤ 12 }
(iii) { x : x ∈ R, 6 < x ≤ 12 } (iv) { x R : – 23 ≤ x < 5 } 8. (iii)

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336 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 1.4
1. (i) X ∪ Y = {1, 2, 3, 5 } (ii) A ∪ B = { a, b, c, e, i, o, u }
(iii) A ∪ B = {x : x = 1, 2, 4, 5 or a multiple of 3 }
(iv) A ∪ B = {x : 1 < x < 10, x ∈ N} (v) A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3 }
2. Yes, A ∪ B = { a, b, c } 3. B
4. (i) { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } (ii) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8 } (iii) {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }
(iv) {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} (v) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }
(vi) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} (vii) { 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 }
5. (i) X ∩ Y = { 1, 3 } (ii) A ∩ B = { a } (iii) { 3 } (iv) φ (v) φ
6. (i) { 7, 9, 11 } (ii) { 11, 13 } (iii) φ (iv) { 11 }
(v) φ (vi) { 7, 9, 11 } (vii) φ
(viii) { 7, 9, 11 } (ix) {7, 9, 11 } (x) { 7, 9, 11, 15 }
7. (i) B (ii) C (iii) D (iv) φ
(v) { 2 } (vi) { x : x is an odd prime number } 8. (iii)
9. (i) {3, 6, 9, 15, 18, 21} (ii) {3, 9, 15, 18, 21 } (iii) {3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 21}
(iv) {4, 8, 16, 20 } (v) { 2, 4, 8, 10, 14, 16 } (vi) { 5, 10, 20 }
(vii) { 20 } (viii) { 4, 8, 12, 16 } (ix) { 2, 6, 10, 14}
(x) { 5, 10, 15 } (xi) {2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 14, 16} (xii) {5, 15, 20}
10. (i) { a, c } (ii) {f, g } (iii) { b , d }
11. Set of irrational numbers 12. (i) F (ii) F (iii) T (iv) T

EXERCISE 1.5
1. (i) { 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} (ii) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9 } (iii) {7, 8, 9 }
(iv) { 5, 7, 9 } (v) { 1, 2, 3, 4 } (vi) { 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 }
2. (i) { d, e, f, g, h} (ii) { a, b, c, h } (iii) { b, d , f, h }
(iv) { b, c, d, e }
3. (i) { x : x is an odd natural number }
(ii) { x : x is an even natural number }
(iii) { x : x ∈ N and x is not a multiple of 3 }

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 ANSWERS 337

(iv) { x : x is a positive composite number or x = 1 }

(v) { x : x is a positive integer which is not divisible by 3 or not divisible by 5}
(vi) { x : x ∈ N and x is not a perfect square }
(vii) { x : x ∈ N and x is not a perfect cube }
(viii) { x : x ∈ N and x ≠ 3 } (ix) { x : x ∈ N and x ≠ 2 }
9
(x) { x : x ∈ N and x < 7 } (xi) { x : x ∈ N and x ≤ }
2
6. A' is the set of all equilateral triangles.
7. (i) U (ii) A (iii) φ (iv) φ

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 1

1. A ⊂ B, A ⊂ C, B ⊂ C, D ⊂ A, D ⊂ B, D ⊂ C
2. (i) False (ii) False (iii) True (iv) False (v) False
(vi) True
10. We may take A = { 1, 2 }, B = { 1, 3 }, C = { 2 , 3 }

EXERCISE 2.1

1. x = 2 and y = 1 2. The number of elements in A × B is 9.

3. G × H = {(7, 5), (7, 4), (7, 2), (8, 5), (8, 4), (8, 2)}
H × G = {(5, 7), (5, 8), (4, 7), (4, 8), (2, 7), (2, 8)}
4. (i) False
P × Q = {(m, n), (m, m), (n, n), (n, m)}
(ii) True
(iii) True
5. A × A = {(– 1, – 1), (– 1, 1), (1, – 1), (1, 1)}
A × A × A = {(–1, –1, –1), (–1, –1, 1), (–1, 1, –1), (–1, 1, 1), (1, –1, –1), (1, –1, 1),
(1, 1, –1), (1, 1, 1)}
6. A = {a, b}, B = {x, y}
8. A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4)}
A × B will have 24 = 16 subsets.
9. A = {x, y, z} and B = {1,2}
10. A = {–1, 0, 1}, remaining elements of
A × A are (–1, –1), (–1, 1), (0, –1), (0, 0), (1, –1), (1, 0), (1, 1)

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338 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 2.2
1. R = {(1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9), (4, 12)}
Domain of R = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Range of R = {3, 6, 9, 12}
Co domain of R = {1, 2, ..., 14}
2. R = {(1, 6), (2, 7), (3, 8)}
Domain of R = {1, 2, 3}
Range of R = {6, 7, 8}
3. R = {(1, 4), (1, 6), (2, 9), (3, 4), (3, 6), (5, 4), (5, 6)}
4. (i) R = {(x, y) : y = x – 2 for x = 5, 6, 7}
(ii) R = {(5,3), (6,4), (7,5)}. Domain of R = {5, 6, 7}, Range of R = {3, 4, 5}
5. (i) R = {(1, 1), (1,2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 6), (2 4), (2, 6), (2, 2), (4, 4), (6, 6),
(3, 3), (3, 6)}
(ii) Domain of R = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}
(iii) Range of R = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}
6. Domain of R = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,} 7. R = {(2, 8), (3, 27), (5, 125), (7, 343)}
Range of R = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
8. No. of relations from A into B = 26 9. Domain of R = Z
Range of R = Z

EXERCISE 2.3

1. (i) yes, Domain = {2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17}, Range = {1}

(ii) yes, Domain = (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}, Range = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
(iii) No.
2. (i) Domain = R, Range = (– ∞, 0]
(ii) Domain of function = {x : –3 ≤ x ≤ 3}
Range of function = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 3}
3. (i) f (0) = –5 (ii) f (7) = 9 (iii) f (–3) = –11
412
4. (i) t (0) = 32 (ii) t (28) = (iii) t (–10) = 14 (iv) 100
5
5. (i) Range = (– ∞, 2) (ii) Range = [2, ∞) (iii) Range = R

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 ANSWERS 339

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 2

2. 2.1 3. Domain of function is set of real numbers except 6 and 2.
4. Domain = [1, ∞), Range = [0, ∞)
5. Domain = R, Range = non-negative real numbers
6. Range = [0, 1)
7. (f + g) x = 3x – 2 8. a = 2, b = – 1 9. (i) No (ii) No (iii) No
(f – g) x = – x + 4
 f  x +1 3
 x= , x≠
g 2x − 3 2

10. (i) Yes, (ii) No 11. No 12. Range of f = {3, 5, 11, 13 }

EXERCISE 3.1

5π 19π 4π 26π
1. (i) (ii) – (iii) (iv)
36 72 3 9
2. (i) 39° 22′ 30″ (ii) –229° 5′ 27″ (iii) 300° (iv) 210°
20π
3. 12π 4. 12° 36′ 5. 6. 5 : 4
3
2 1 7
7. (i) (ii) (iii)
15 5 25

EXERCISE 3.2

3 2 1
1. sin x = − , cosec x = – , sec x = −2, tan x = 3 , cot x =
2 3 3
5 4 5 3 4
2. cosec x = , cos x = – , sec x = − , tan x = − , cot x = −
3 5 4 4 3
4 5 3 5 4
3. sin x = − , cosec x = – , cos x = − , sec x = − , tan x =
5 4 5 3 3
12 13 5 12 5
4. sin x = − , cosec x = – , cos x = , tan x = − , cot x = −
13 12 13 5 12

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340 MATHEMATICS

5 13 12 13 12
5. sin x = , cosec x = , cos x = − , sec x = − , cot x = −
13 5 13 12 5
1 3
6. 7. 2 8. 3 9. 10. 1
2 2

EXERCISE 3.3

3 +1
5. (i) (ii) 2 – 3
2 2

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 3

2 5 5 1
8. , ,
5 5 2

6 3
9. ,– ,– 2
3 3

8 + 2 15 8 − 2 15
10. , , 4 + 15
4 4

EXERCISE 4.1

1. 3 + i0 2. 0 + i 0 3. 0+i 1 4. 14 + 28 i

19 21i 17 5
5. 2 – 7 i 6. − − 7. +i 8. -4+i0
5 10 3 3

242 −22 107 4 3 5 3

9. − − 26i 10. −i 11. +i 12. −i
27 3 27 25 25 14 14

7 2
13. 0 + i1 14. 0 – i
2

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 ANSWERS 341

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 4

307 + 599 i
1. 2 – 2 i 3.
442

−2
5. 2 7. (i) , (ii) 0 8. x = 3, y = – 3 9. 2
5
11. 1 12. 0 14. 4

EXERCISE 5.1

1. (i) {1, 2, 3, 4} (ii) {... – 3, – 2, –1, 0, 1,2,3,4,}

2. (i) No Solution (ii) {... – 4, – 3}

3. (i) {... – 2, – 1, 0, 1} (ii) (–∞, 2)

4. (i) {–1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} (ii) (–2, ∞)

5. (–4, ∞) 6. (– ∞, –3) 7. (–∞, –3] 8. (–∞, 4]

9. (– ∞, 6) 10. (–∞, –6) 11. (–∞, 2] 12. (– ∞, 120]

13. (4, ∞) 14. (–∞, 2] 15. (4, ∞) 16. (–∞, 2]

17. (– ∞, 3), 18. [–1, ∞),

 2 
19. (–1, ∞), 20.  − 7 ,∞  ,

21. 35 22. 82

23. (5,7), (7,9) 24. (6,8), (8,10), (10,12)

25. 9 cm 26. Greater than or equal to 8cm but less than or equal to 22cm

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342 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 5

1. [2, 3] 2. (0, 1] 3. [– 4, 2]

 – 80 – 10   11 
5.  , 1, 3 
3 
4. (– 23, 2] 6.
 3

7. (–5, 5)

8. (–1, 7)

9. (5, ∞)

10. [– 7, 11]

11. Between 20°C and 25°C

12. More than 320 litres but less than 1280 litres.
13. More than 562.5 litres but less than 900 litres.
14. 9.6 ≤ MA ≤ 16.8

EXERCISE 6.1

1. (i) 125, (ii) 60. 2. 108 3. 5040 4. 336

5. 8 6. 20
EXERCISE 6.2

1. (i) 40320, (ii) 18 2. 30, No 3. 28 4. 64

5. (i) 30, (ii) 15120

EXERCISE 6.3
1. 504 2. 4536 3. 60 4. 120, 48
5. 56 6. 9 7. (i) 3, (ii) 4 8. 40320

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 ANSWERS 343

9. (i) 360, (ii) 720, (iii) 240 10. 33810

11. (i) 1814400, (ii) 2419200, (iii) 25401600

EXERCISE 6.4
1. 45 2. (i) 5, (ii) 6 3. 210 4. 40
5. 2000 6. 778320 7. 3960 8. 200
9. 35

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 6

1. 3600 2. 1440 3. (i) 504, (ii) 588, (iii) 1632
4. 907200 5. 120 6. 50400 7. 420
8. 4 C 1 × 48C 4 9. 2880 10. 22 C 7+ 22C 10 11. 151200

EXERCISE 7.1
1. 1–10x + 40x2 – 80x3 + 80x4 – 32x5
32 40 20 5 3 x5
2. − + − 5 x + x −
x5 x3 x 8 32
3. 64 x –576 x + 2160 x – 4320 x3 + 4860 x2 – 2916 x + 729
6 5 4

x 5 5 x3 10 10 5 1
4. + + x+ + 3 + 5
243 81 27 9 x 3x x
15 6 1
5. x 6 + 6 x 4 + 15 x 2 + 20 + 2
+ 4+ 6
x x x
6. 884736 7. 11040808032 8. 104060401
10000
9. 9509900499 10. (1.1) > 1000 11. 8(a3b + ab3); 40 6
12. 2(x6 + 15x4 + 15x2 + 1), 198

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 7

2. 396 6 3. 2a8 + 12a6 – 10a4 – 4a2 + 2

4. 0.9510
16 8 32 16 x 2 x3 x 4
5. + 2 − 3 + 4 − 4x + + + −5
x x x x 2 2 16
6. 27x6 – 54ax5 + 117a2x4 – 116a3x3 + 117a4x2 – 54a5x + 27a6

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344 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 8.1

1 2 3 4 5
1. 3, 8, 15, 24, 35 2. , , , , 3. 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32
2 3 4 5 6

1 1 1 5 7
4. − , , , and 5. 25, –125, 625, –3125, 15625
6 6 2 6 6

3 9 21 75 49
6. , , , 21 and 7. 65, 93 8.
2 2 2 2 128

360
9. 729 10.
23
11. 3, 11, 35, 107, 323; 3 + 11 + 35 + 107 + 323 + ...

−1 −1 −1 −1  −1   −1   −1   −1 
12. −1, , , , ; – 1+   +   +   +   + ...
2 6 24 120  2   6   24   120 
3 5 8
13. 2, 2, 1, 0, –1; 2 + 2 + 1 + 0 + (–1) + ... 14. 1, 2, , and
2 3 5

EXERCISE 8.2

5 5
1. , 2. 3072 4. – 2187
2 20 2n
1
1 − ( 0.1) 
20
5. (a) 13th , (b) 12th, (c) 9th 6. ± 1 7.  
6

7
( )
 n 
3 + 1  3 2 − 1
1 − ( −a )n 
  (
x 3 1 − x 2n )
8. 2   9. 10.
  1+ a 1− x 2

11. 22 +
2
(
3 11
3 −1 ) 12.
5 2 2 5 5 2
r = or ; Terms are ,1, or ,1,
2 5 5 2 2 5

13. 4 14.
16 16 n
7
;2;
7
(
2 −1 ) 15. 2059 or 463

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 ANSWERS 345

−4 −8 −16
16. , ,
3 3 3
,...or 4, − 8, 16, − 32, 64, .. 18.
80
81
8
10n − 1 − n
9
( )
19. 496 20. rR 21. 3, –6, 12, –24 26. 9 and 27
–1
27. n= 30. 120, 480, 30 (2n) 31. Rs 500 (1.1)10
2
32. x2 –16x + 25 = 0

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 8

1. 4 2. 160; 6 3. ± 3 4. 8, 16, 32

5. 4 11. (i)
81
(
50 n
10 − 1 − )
5n
9
, (ii)
2n 2
−
3 27
(
1 − 10− n )
12. 1680
13. Rs 16680 14. Rs 39100 15. Rs 43690 16. Rs 17000; 20,000
17. Rs 5120 18. 25 days

EXERCISE 9.1

121
1. square unit.
2

( )
2. (0, a), (0, – a) and − 3a,0 or (0, a), (0, – a), and ( 3a,0 )
 15  1
3. (i) y2 − y1 , (ii) x2 − x1 4.  , 0  5. −
2  2
7. – 3 9. 135°
1 1
10. 1 and 2, or and 1, or – 1 and –2, or − and – 1
2 2
EXERCISE 9.2

1. y = 0 and x = 0 2. x – 2y + 10 = 0 3. y = mx

4. ( ) (
3 +1 x − )
3 −1 y = 4 ( 3 –1 ) 5. 2x + y + 6 = 0

6. x − 3y + 2 3 = 0 7. 5x + 3y + 2 = 0

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346 MATHEMATICS

8. 3x – 4y + 8 = 0 9. 5x – y + 20 = 0
10. (1 + n)x + 3(1 + n)y = n +11 11. x + y = 5
12. x + 2y – 6 = 0, 2x + y – 6 = 0
13. 3 x + y − 2 = 0 and 3 x + y + 2 = 0 14. 2x – 9y + 85 = 0
.192
15. L= ( C − 20 ) + 124.942 16. 1340 litres. 18. 2kx + hy = 3kh.
90

EXERCISE 9.3

1 1 5 5
1. (i) y = − x + 0, − , 0; (ii) y = −2 x + , − 2 , ; (iii) y = 0x + 0, 0, 0
7 7 3 3

x y x y 3
2. (i) + = 1, 4,6; (ii) 3 + −2 =1, 2 , −2;
4 6
2
2 2
(iii) y = − , intercept with y-axis = − and no intercept with x-axis.
3 3
3. 5 units
65 1 p+r
4. (– 2, 0) and (8, 0) 5. (i) units, (ii) units.
17 2 l
6. 3x – 4y + 18 = 0 7. y + 7x = 21 8. 30° and 150°
22
9.
9

11. ( ) ( )
3 + 2 x + 2 3 – 1 y = 8 3 + 1 or ( ) ( )
3 − 2 x + 1 + 2 3 y = –1 + 8 3

 68 49  1 5
12. 2x + y = 5 13.  , −  14. m= ,c =
 25 25  2 2
16. y – x = 1, 2

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 9

1. (a) 3, (b) ± 2, (c) 6 or 1
 8   32 
2. 2 x − 3 y = 6 , − 3x + 2 y = 6 3.  0, −  ,  0 , 
 3  3 

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 ANSWERS 347

φ −θ 5
4. Cos 5. x=− 6. 2x – 3y + 18 = 0
2 22
2
7. k square units 8. 5 10. 3x – y = 7, x + 3y = 9
23 5
11. 13x + 13y = 6 13. 1 : 2 14. units
18
15. The line is parallel to x - axis or parallel to y-axis
16. x = 1, y = 1. or x = – 4, y = 3 17. (–1, – 4).
1± 5 2
18. 20. 18x + 12y + 11 = 0
7
 13 
21.  , 0  23. 119x + 102y = 125
5 

EXERCISE 10.1

1. x2 + y2 – 4y = 0 2. x2 + y2 + 4x – 6y –3 = 0
3. 36x + 36y – 36x – 18y + 11 = 0
2 2
4. x2 + y2 – 2x – 2y = 0
5. x2 + y2 + 2ax + 2by + 2b2 = 0 6. c(–5, 3), r = 6
1 1
7. c(2, 4), r = 65 8. c(4, – 5), r = 53 9. c ( , 0) ; r =
4 4
10. x2 + y2 – 6x – 8y + 15 = 0 11. x2 + y2 – 7x + 5y – 14 = 0
12. x2 + y2 + 4x – 21 = 0 & x2 + y2 – 12x + 11 = 0
13. x2 + y2 – ax – by = 0 14. x2 + y2 – 4x – 4y = 5
15. Inside the circle; since the distance of the point to the centre of the circle is less
than the radius of the circle.

EXERCISE 10.2
1. F (3, 0), axis - x - axis, directrix x = – 3, length of the Latus rectum = 12
3 3
2. F (0, ), axis - y - axis, directrix y = – , length of the Latus rectum = 6
2 2
3. F (–2, 0), axis - x - axis, directrix x = 2, length of the Latus rectum = 8

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348 MATHEMATICS

4. F (0, –4), axis - y - axis, directrix y = 4, length of the Latus rectum = 16

5 5
5. F ( , 0) axis - x - axis, directrix x = – , length of the Latus rectum = 10
2 2
–9 9
6. F (0, ) , axis - y - axis, directrix y = , length of the Latus rectum = 9
4 4
7. y2 = 24x 8. x2 = – 12y 9. y2 = 12x
10. y2 = –8x 11. 2y2 = 9x 12. 2x2 = 25y

EXERCISE 10.3
20
1. F (± 20 ,0); V (± 6, 0); Major axis = 12; Minor axis = 8 , e = ,
6
16
Latus rectum =
3
21
2. F (0, ± 21 ); V (0, ± 5); Major axis = 10; Minor axis = 4 , e = ;
5
8
Latus rectum =
5
7
3. F ( ± 7 , 0); V ( ± 4, 0); Major axis = 8; Minor axis = 6 , e = ;
4
9
Latus rectum =
2
3
4. F (0, ± 75 ); V (0,± 10); Major axis = 20; Minor axis = 10 , e = ;
2
Latus rectum = 5
13
5. F (± 13 ,0); V (± 7, 0); Major axis =14 ; Minor axis = 12 , e = ;
7
72
Latus rectum =
7
3
6. F (0, ± 10 3 ); V (0,± 20); Major axis =40 ; Minor axis = 20 , e = ;
2
Latus rectum = 10

Rationalised 2023-24
 ANSWERS 349

2 2
7. F (0, ± 4 2 ); V (0,± 6); Major axis =12 ; Minor axis = 4 , e = ;
3
4
Latus rectum =
3

8. ( )
F 0,± 15 ; V (0, ± 4); Major axis = 8 ; Minor axis = 2 , e =
15
4
;

1
Latus rectum =
2
5
9. F ( ± 5 ,0); V ( ± 3, 0); Major axis = 6 ; Minor axis = 4 , e = ;
3
8
Latus rectum =
3
x2 y 2 x2 y2 x2 y 2
10. + =1 11. + =1 12. + =1
25 9 144 169 36 20
x2 y 2 x2 y 2 x2 y2
13. + =1 14. + =1 15. + =1
9 4 1 5 169 144
x2 y 2 x2 y 2 x2 y 2
16. + =1 17. + =1 18. + =1
64 100 16 7 25 9
x2 y 2 2 2 x2 y 2
19. + =1 20. x + 4y = 52 or + =1
10 40 52 13

EXERCISE 10.4

5 9
1. Foci (± 5, 0), Vertices (± 4, 0); e = ; Latus rectum =
4 2
2. Foci (0 ± 6), Vertices (0, ± 3); e = 2; Latus rectum = 18
13
3. Foci (0, ± 13 ), Vertices (0, ± 2); e = ; Latus rectum = 9
2
5 64
4. Foci (± 10, 0), Vertices (± 6, 0); e = ; Latus rectum =
3 3

Rationalised 2023-24
350 MATHEMATICS

2 14 6 14 4 5
5. Foci (0,± ), Vertices (0,± ); e = ; Latus rectum =
5 5 3 3

65 49
6. Foci (0, ± 65 ), Vertices (0, ± 4); e = ; Latus rectum =
4 2
x2 y2 y 2 x2 y 2 x2
7. − =1 8. − =1 9. − =1
4 5 25 39 9 16
x2 y2 y 2 x2 x2 y 2
10. − =1 11. − =1 12. − =1
16 9 25 144 25 20
x2 y2 x2 9 y2 y 2 x2
13. − =1 14. − =1 15. − =1
4 12 49 343 5 5

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 10

1. Focus is at the mid-point of the given diameter.
2. 2.23 m (approx.) 3. 9.11 m (approx.) 4. 1.56m (approx.)

x2 y2 x2 y 2
5. + =1 6. 18 sq units 7. + =1
81 9 25 9

8. 8 3a
EXERCISE 11.1
1. y and z - coordinates are zero 2. y - coordinate is zero
3. I, IV, VIII, V, VI, II, III, VII
4. (i) XY - plane (ii) (x, y, 0) (iii) Eight

EXERCISE 11.2

1. (i) 2 5 (ii) 43 (iii) 2 26 (iv) 2 5

4. x – 2z = 0 5. 9x2 + 25y2 + 25z2 – 225 = 0

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 11

16
1. (1, – 2, 8) 2. 7, 34 , 7 3. a = – 2, b = − , c=2
3
k 2 – 109
4. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x − 7 y + 2 z =
2

Rationalised 2023-24
 ANSWERS 351

EXERCISE 12.1

 22  19
1. 6 2.  π −  3. π 4.
 7  2
1 11 108
5. − 6. 5 7. 8.
2 4 7
1
9. b 10. 2 11. 1 12. −
4
a a 1 1
13. 14. 15. 16.
b b π π
a +1
17. 4 18. 19. 0 20. 1
b
21. 0 22. 2 23. 3, 6
24. Limit does not exist at x = 1
25. Limit does not exist at x = 0 26. Limit does not exist at x = 0
27. 0 28. a = 0, b = 4
29. lim f (x) = 0 and lim f (x) = (a – a ) (a – a ) ... (a – a )
x → a1 x →a 1 2 x

30. lim f (x) exists for all a ≠ 0. 31. 2

x →a

32. For lim

x→0
f (x) to exists, we need m = n; lim
x→1
f (x) exists for any integral value
of m and n.

EXERCISE 12.2

1. 20 2. 1 3. 99

−2 −2
4. (i) 3x2 (ii) 2x – 3 (iii) (iv)
x3 ( x − 1)2
6. nx n −1 + a (n − 1)x n − 2 + a 2 (n − 2)x n−3 + ... + a n−1
a −b
7. (i) 2x − a − b (ii) (
4ax ax 2 + b ) (iii)
( x − b )2

Rationalised 2023-24
352 MATHEMATICS

nx n − anx n−1 − x n + a n
8.
( x − a)
2

−3 24
9 . (i) 2 (ii) 20x3 – 15x2 + 6x – 4 (iii) ( 5 + 2x ) (iv) 15x4 +
x4 x5

–12 36 –2 x (3x – 2)
(v) 5 + (vi) x + 1 – 10. – sin x
x x10 ( ) (3 x – 1)2
2

11. (i) cos 2x (ii) sec x tan x

(iii) 5sec x tan x – 4sin x (iv) – cosec x cot x
(v) – 3cosec2 x – 5 cosec x cot x (vi) 5cos x+ 6sin x
(vii) 2sec2 x – 7sec x tan x

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 12

1  π
1. (i) – 1 (ii) (iii) cos (x + 1) (iv) −sin  x −  2. 1
x2  8
− qr
3. + ps 4. 2c (ax+b) (cx + d) + a (cx + d)2
x2

ad − bc −2 − ( 2ax + b )
, x ≠ 0,1
(cx + d ) (ax )
5. 6. 7. 2
2
( x – 1) 2 2
+ bx + c

− apx 2 − 2bpx + ar − bq apx 2 + 2bpx + bq − ar −4a 2b

8. 9. 10. + 3 − sin x
( px ) ( ax + b )
2 2
2
+ qx + r x5 x

2 n−1
11. 12. na ( ax + b )
x

13. ( ax + b )n −1 ( cx + d )m−1 mc ( ax + b ) + na ( cx + d ) 14. cos (x+a)

−1
15. – cosec3 x – cosec x cot2 x 16.
1 + sin x

−2 2sec x tan x n–1

17. 18. 19. n sin x cos x
(sin x − cos x ) 2
(sec x + 1) 2

Rationalised 2023-24
 ANSWERS 353

bc cos x + ad sin x + bd cos a

20. 21.
(c + d cos x ) 2
cos2 x

22. x3 (5 x cos x + 3 x sin x + 20 sin x − 12cos x )

23. − x 2 sin x − sin x + 2 x cos x

24. ( )
−q sin x ax 2 + sin x + ( p + q cos x )( 2a x + cos x )

25. − tan 2 x ( x + cos x ) + ( x − tan x )(1 − sin x )

35 + 15 x cos x + 28 cos x + 28 x sin x − 15sin x

26.
(3x + 7 cos x )2
π
x cos ( 2 sin x − x cos x ) 1 + tanx − x sec 2 x
4
27. 28.
(1 + tanx )
2
sin 2 x

29. ( x + sec x ) (1 − sec2 x ) + ( x − tan x ) . (1 + sec x tan x )

30. sin x − n x cos x
sin n+1 x

EXERCISE 13.1

1. 3 2. 8.4 3. 2.33 4. 7

5. 6.32 6. 16 7. 3.23 8. 5.1

9. 157.92 10. 11.28 11. 10.34 12. 7.35

EXERCISE 13.2

n + 1 n2 − 1
1. 9, 9.25 2. , 3. 16.5, 74.25 4. 19, 43.4
2 12
5. 100, 29.09 6. 64, 1.69 7. 107, 2276 8. 27, 132
9. 93, 105.58, 10.27 10. 5.55, 43.5

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354 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 13

1. 4, 8 2. 6, 8 3. 24, 12
5. (i) 10.1, 1.99 (ii) 10.2, 1.98
6. 20, 3.036

EXERCISE 14.1
1. No.
2. (i) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} (ii) φ (iii) {3, 6} (iv) {1, 2, 3} (v) {6}
(vi) {3, 4, 5, 6}, A∪B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A∩B = φ, B∪C = {3, 6}, E∩F = {6},
D∩E = φ,
A – C = {1, 2,4,5}, D – E = {1,2,3}, E∩ F′ = φ, F′ = {1, 2}
3. A = {(3,6), (4,5), (5, 4), (6,3), (4,6), (5,5), (6,4), (5,6), (6,5), (6,6)}
B = {(1,2), (2,2), (3, 2), (4,2), (5,2), (6,2), (2,1), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6)}
C ={(3,6), (6,3), (5, 4), (4,5), (6,6)}
A and B, B and C are mutually exclusive.
4. (i) A and B; A and C; B and C; C and D (ii) A and C (iii) B and D
5. (i) “Getting at least two heads”, and “getting at least two tails”
(ii) “Getting no heads”, “getting exactly one head” and “getting at least two
heads”
(iii) “Getting at most two tails”, and “getting exactly two tails”
(iv) “Getting exactly one head” and “getting exactly two heads”
(v) “Getting exactly one tail”, “getting exactly two tails”, and getting exactly
three tails”

ANote There may be other events also as answer to the above question.
6. A = {(2, 1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6),
(6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)}
B = {(1, 1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6),
(5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6)}
C = {(1, 1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (4,1)}
(i) A′ = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6),
(5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6)} = B
(ii) B′ = {(2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6),
(6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)} = A
(iii) A∪B = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5),
(3,6), (5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,5),
(2,6), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4),
(6,5), (6,6)} = S

Rationalised 2023-24
 ANSWERS 355

(iv) A ∩ B = φ
(v) A – C = {(2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (6,1), (6,2), (6,3),
(6,4), (6,5), (6,6)}
(vi) B ∪ C = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2),
(3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6), (4,1), (5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6)}
(vii) B ∩ C = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (3,1), (3,2)}
(viii) A ∩ B′ ∩ C′ = {(2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (6,1), (6,2),
(6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)}
7. (i) True (ii) True (iii) True (iv) False (v) False (vi) False

EXERCISE 14.2

3
1. (a) Yes (b) Yes (c) No (d) No (e) No 2.
4
1 2 1 5 1 1 1
3. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 0 (v) 4. (a) 52 (b) (c) (i) (ii)
2 3 6 6 52 13 2
1 1 3
5. (i) (ii) 6.
12 12 5
7. Rs 4.00 gain, Rs 1.50 gain, Re 1.00 loss, Rs 3.50 loss, Rs 6.00 loss.
1 1 3
P ( Winning Rs 4.00) = , P(Winning Rs 1.50) = , P (Losing Re. 1.00) =
16 4 8
1 1
P (Losing Rs 3.50) = , P (Losing Rs 6.00) = .
4 16
1 3 1 7 1 1 3 1 7
8. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix)
8 8 2 8 8 8 8 8 8
9 6 7 1
9. 10. (i) (ii) 11.
11 13 13 38760

12. (i) No, because P(A∩B) must be less than or equal to P(A) and P(B), (ii) Yes
7 4
13. (i) (ii) 0.5 (iii) 0.15 14.
15 5
5 3
15. (i) (ii) 16. No 17. (i) 0.58 (ii) 0.52 (iii) 0.74
8 8

Rationalised 2023-24
356 MATHEMATICS

18. 0.6 19. 0.55 20. 0.65

19 11 2
21. (i) (ii) (iii)
30 30 15

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 14

20 30 13
C5 C5 C3 . 13 C1
1. (i) 60 (ii) 1 − 60 2. 52
C5 C5 C4
9990 9990
1 1 5 999 C2 C10
3. (i) (ii) (iii) 4. (a) (b) 10000
(c) 10000
2 2 6 1000 C2 C10

17 16 2
5. (a) (b) 6.
33 33 3
4
7. (i) 0.88 (ii) 0.12 (iii) 0.19 (iv) 0.34 8.
5
33 3 1
9. (i) (ii) 10.
83 8 5040

Rationalised 2023-24
MATHEMATICS
Textbook for Class XI

Rationalised 2023-24
 11076 – MATHEMATICS ISBN 81-7450-486-9
Textbook for Class XI

First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

February 2006 Phalguna 1927 q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
Reprinted mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
permission of the publisher.
October 2006, November 2007,
q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of
December 2008, December 2009,
trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the
January 2011, February 2012, publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in
December 2012, November 2013, which it is published.
December 2014, May 2016, q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page,
December 2016, December 2017, Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any
other means is incorrect and should be unacceptable.
January 2019, August 2019,
January 2021 and November 2021
OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
DIVISION, NCERT
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Limited, Plot No. 2/4, Dr. Rajkumar
Road, Rajaji Nagar, Bengaluru - 560 010

Rationalised 2023-24
 Foreword

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s life
at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a
departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system
and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks
developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They
also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries
between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly
further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National
Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that given space,
time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information
passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of
examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are
ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat
children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing
the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted
to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how
effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience,
rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address
the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at
different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available
for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher
priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in
small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
the hard work done by the Textbook Development Committee responsible for this

Rationalised 2023-24
book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in Science and
Mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book
Professor P.K. Jain for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals
for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which
have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel.
We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee,
appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human
Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and
Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation
committed to the systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to
undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training

iv

Rationalised 2023-24
 Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on

students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content
load and providing opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In
this background, the NCERT has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks
across all classes. Learning Outcomes already developed by the NCERT across
classes have been taken into consideration in this exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the same
class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions
from teachers and can be learned by children through self-learning or peer-
learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context

This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the

changes given above.

Rationalised 2023-24
Rationalised 2023-24
 Textbook Development Committee

CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Chairman, Advisory Committee Inter University
Centre for Astronomy & Astrophysics (IUCCA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISOR
P.K. Jain, Professor, Department of Mathematics, University of Delhi, Delhi
CHIEF COORDINATOR
Hukum Singh, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
MEMBERS
A.K. Rajput, Associate Professor, RIE Bhopal, M.P.
A.K. Wazalwar, Associate Professor, DESM NCERT, New Delhi
B.S.P. Raju, Professor, RIE Mysore, Karnataka
C.R. Pradeep, Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore, Karnataka.
Pradeepto Hore, Sr. Maths Master, Sarla Birla Academy Bangalore, Karnataka.
S.B. Tripathy, Lecturer, Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Surajmal Vihar, Delhi.
S.K.S. Gautam, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Sanjay Kumar Sinha, P.G.T., Sanskriti School Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.
Sanjay Mudgal, Lecturer, CIET, New Delhi
Sneha Titus, Maths Teacher, Aditi Mallya School Yelaharika, Bangalore, Karnataka
Sujatha Verma, Reader in Mathematics, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Uaday Singh, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
V.P. Singh, Associate Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi

Rationalised 2023-24
 Acknowledgements
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following
participants of the Textbook Review Workshop: P. Bhaskar Kumar, P.G.T., Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalaya, Ananthpur, (A.P.); Vinayak Bujade, Lecturer, Vidarbha Buniyadi
Junior College, Sakkardara Chowk Nagpur, Maharashtra; Vandita Kalra, Lecturer,
Sarvodaya Kanya Vidyalaya Vikashpuri District Centre, New Delhi; P.L. Sachdeva
Deptt. of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka; P.K.Tiwari
Assistant Commissioner (Retd.), Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan; Jagdish Saran,
Department of Statistics, University of Delhi; Quddus Khan, Lecturer, Shibli National
P.G. College Azamgarh (U.P.); Sumat Kumar Jain, Lecturer, K.L. Jain Inter College
Sasni Hathras (U.P.); R.P. Gihare, Lecturer (BRC), Janpad Shiksha Kendra Chicholi
Distt. Betul (M.P.); Sangeeta Arora, P.G.T., A.P.J. School Saket, New Delhi; P.N.
Malhotra, ADE (Sc.), Directorate of Education, Delhi; D.R. Sharma, P.G.T., J.N.V.
Mungespur, Delhi; Saroj, P.G.T. Government Girls Sr. Secondary School, No. 1,
Roop Nagar, Delhi, Manoj Kumar Thakur, P.G.T., D.A.V. Public School, Rajender
Nagar, Sahibabad, Ghaziabad (U.P.) and R.P. Maurya, Reader, DESM, NCERT,
New Delhi.
Acknowledgements are due to Professor M. Chandra, Head, Department of
Education in Science and Mathematics for her support.
The Council acknowledges the efforts of the Computer Incharge, Deepak Kapoor;
Rakesh Kumar, Kamlesh Rao and Sajjad Haider Ansari, D.T.P. Operators; Kushal Pal
Singh Yadav, Copy Editor and Proof Readers, Mukhtar Hussain and Kanwar Singh.
The contribution of APC–Office, administration of DESM and Publication
Department is also duly acknowledged.

Rationalised 2023-24
 Contents
Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks v
1. Sets 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Sets and their Representations 1
1.3 The Empty Set 5
1.4 Finite and Infinite Sets 6
1.5 Equal Sets 7
1.6 Subsets 9
1.7 Universal Set 12
1.8 Venn Diagrams 13
1.9 Operations on Sets 13
1.10 Complement of a Set 18

2. Relations and Functions 24

2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Cartesian Product of Sets 24
2.3 Relations 28
2.4 Functions 30

3. Trigonometric Functions 43
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Angles 43
3.3 Trigonometric Functions 49
3.4 Trigonometric Functions of Sum and Difference of Two Angles 57
4. Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 76
4.1 Introduction 76
4.2 Complex Numbers 76

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 4.3 Algebra of Complex Numbers 77
4.4 The Modulus and the Conjugate of a Complex Number 81
4.5 Argand Plane and Polar Representation 83
5. Linear Inequalities 89
5.1 Introduction 89
5.2 Inequalities 89
5.3 Algebraic Solutions of Linear Inequalities in One Variable
and their Graphical Representation 91
6. Permutations and Combinations 100
6.1 Introduction 100
6.2 Fundamental Principle of Counting 100
6.3 Permutations 104
6.4 Combinations 114
7. Binomial Theorem 126
7.1 Introduction 126
7.2 Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Indices 126
8. Sequences and Series 135
8.1 Introduction 135
8.2 Sequences 135
8.3 Series 137
8.4 Geometric Progression (G.P.) 139
8.5 Relationship Between A.M. and G.M. 144
9. Straight Lines 151
9.1 Introduction 151
9.2 Slope of a Line 152
9.3 Various Forms of the Equation of a Line 159
9.4 Distance of a Point From a Line 164
10. Conic Sections 176
10.1 Introduction 176
10.2 Sections of a Cone 176
10.3 Circle 179
x

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 10.4 Parabola 182
10.5 Ellipse 187
10.6 Hyperbola 195

11. Introduction to Three Dimensional Geometry 208

11.1 Introduction 208
11.2 Coordinate Axes and Coordinate Planes in
Three Dimensional Space 209
11.3 Coordinates of a Point in Space 209
11.4 Distance between Two Points 211
12. Limits and Derivatives 217
12.1 Introduction 217
12.2 Intuitive Idea of Derivatives 217
12.3 Limits 220
12.4 Limits of Trigonometric Functions 234
12.5 Derivatives 239
13. Statistics 257
13.1 Introduction 257
13.2 Measures of Dispersion 259
13.3 Range 259
13.4 Mean Deviation 259
13.5 Variance and Standard Deviation 271
14. Probability 289
14.1 Event 289
14.2 Axiomatic Approach to Probability 295
Appendix 1: Infinite Series 314
A.1.1 Introduction 314
A.1.2 Binomial Theorem for any Index 314
A.1.3 Infinite Geometric Series 316
A.1.4 Exponential Series 318
A.1.5 Logarithmic Series 321

xi

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Appendix 2: Mathematical Modelling 323
A.2.1 Introduction 323
A.2.2 Preliminaries 323
A.2.3 What is Mathematical Modelling 327
Answers 335
Supplementary Material 357

xii

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 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL 357

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

CHAPTER 8

8.6 Infinite G.P. and its Sum

G.P. of the form a, ar, ar2, ar3, ... is called infinite G.P. Now, to find the formulae for
finding sum to infinity of a G.P., we begin with an example.
Let us consider the G.P.,
2 4
1, , , ...
3 9
2
Here a = 1, r = . We have
3
n
2
1−  
 3   2 n 
Sn = = 3 1 −   
1−
2   3  
3
n
2
Let us study the behaviour of   as n becomes larger and larger:
3

n 1 5 10 20

n
2
  0.6667 0.1316872428 0.01734152992 0.00030072866
3

n
2
We observe that as n becomes larger and larger,   becomes closer and closer to
3
n
2
zero. Mathematically, we say that as n becomes sufficiently large,   becomes
3
n
 
2
sufficiently small. In other words as n → ∞ ,   → 0. Consequently, we find that the
3
sum of infinitely many terms is given by S ∞ = 3 .
358 MATHEMATICS

Now, for a geometric progression, a, ar, ar2, ..., if numerical value of common ratio r
is less than 1, then
a (1 − r n ) a ar n
Sn = = −
(1 − r ) 1− r 1− r
In this case as n →∞, rn → 0 since |r| < 1. Therefore
a
Sn →
1− r
Symbolically sum to infinity is denoted by S ∞ or S.
a
Thus, we have S = 1 – r .
For examples,
1 1 1 1
(i) 1+ + 2 + 3 + . .. = = 2.
2 2 2 1
1−
2
1 1 1 1 1 2
(ii) 1− + 2 − 3 + ... = = =
2 2 2  −1  1+
1 3
1−  
 2  2

Exercise 8.3

Find the sum to infinity in each of the following Geometric Progression.

1 1
1. 1, , , ... (Ans. 1.5) 2. 6, 1.2, .24, ... (Ans. 7.5)
3 9
20 80 35 −3 3 −3 −3
3. 5, , , ... (Ans. ) 4. , , ,... (Ans. )
7 49 3 4 16 64 5
1 1 1
5. Prove that 3 2 × 3 4 × 3 8 . . . = 3
6. Let x = 1 + a + a2 + ... and y = 1 + b + b2 + ..., where |a| < 1 and |b| < 1. Prove that
xy
1 + ab + a2b2 + ... =
x + y −1
 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL 359

CHAPTER 12

12.6 Limits Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Before discussing evaluation of limits of the expressions involving exponential and
logarithmic functions, we introduce these two functions stating their domain, range and
also sketch their graphs roughly.
Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), the great Swiss mathematician introduced the number
e whose value lies between 2 and 3. This number is useful in defining exponential
function and is defined as f (x) = ex, x ∈ R. Its domain is R, range is the set of positive
real numbers. The graph of exponential function, i.e., y = ex is as given in Fig.13.11.

Fig. 13.11

Similarly, the logarithmic function expressed as loge R+ → R is given by loge x = y,

if and only if ey = x. Its domain is R+ which is the set of all positive real numbers and
range is R. The graph of logarithmic function y = loge x is shown in Fig.13.12.
360 MATHEMATICS

Fig. 13.12

ex – 1
In order to prove the result lim = 1 , we make use of an inequality involving
x→ 0 x
ex −1
the expression which runs as follows:
x
1 ex – 1
≤ ≤ 1 + (e – 2) |x| holds for all x in [–1, 1] ~ {0}.
1+ x x
ex − 1
Theorem 6 Prove that lim =1
x→ 0 x
Proof Using above inequality, we get
1
≤ e − 1 ≤ 1 + | x| (e – 2), x Î [–1, 1] ~ {0}
x

1+ x x
1 1 1
lim = = =1
Also x→ 0 1+ x 1 + lim x 1+ 0
x→ 0
 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL 361

and lim 1 + ( e − 2 ) x  = 1 + ( e − 2 ) lim x = 1 + ( e − 2 )0 = 1

x→ 0 x→0

Therefore, by Sandwich theorem, we get

ex −1
lim =1
x→ 0 x
log e (1 + x )
Theorem 7 Prove that lim =1
x→0 x
log e (1 + x )
Proof Let = y . Then
x
lo g e (1 + x ) = x y
⇒ 1 + x = e xy
e xy − 1
⇒ =1
x
e xy − 1
or .y = 1
xy

e xy − 1
⇒ lim lim y = 1 (s in c e x → 0 g iv e s x y → 0 )
xy → 0 xy x→ 0

 e xy − 1 
⇒ li m y = 1  a s l i m = 1
x→ 0 xy → 0 xy
 
lo g e (1 + x )
⇒ lim =1
x→ 0 x

e3x − 1
Example 5 Compute lxi→m0
x
Solution We have

e3x − 1 e3x − 1
lim = lim ⋅3
x→ 0 x 3x→0 3x
 ey −1
= 3  lim  , w h ere y = 3 x
 y→0 y 
= 3 .1 = 3
362 MATHEMATICS

e x − sin x − 1
Example 6 Compute lim
x →0 x

e x − sin x − 1  e x − 1 sin x 
lim = lim  −
Solution We have x→0 x x →0
 x x 

ex −1 sin x
= lim − lim = 1 −1 = 0
x →0 x x → 0 x
log e x
Example 7 Evaluate lim
x →1 x −1
Solution Put x = 1 + h, then as x → 1 ⇒ h → 0 . Therefore,
log e x log e (1 + h )  log e (1 + x ) 
lim = lim = 1  since lim = 1 .
x→1 x −1 h→ 0 h  x→0 x 

Exercise 13.2

Evaluate the following limits, if exist

e4x − 1 e 2+ x − e 2
1. lim (Ans. 4) 2. lim (Ans. e2)
x→ 0 x x→ 0 x
ex − e5 e s in x − 1
3. lim (Ans. e5) 4. lim (Ans. 1)
x→ 5 x−5 x→0 x
ex − e3 x ( e x − 1)
5. lim (Ans. e3) 6. lim (Ans. 2)
x→ 3 x−3 x→ 0 1 − co s x

lo g e (1 + 2 x ) lo g (1 + x 3 )
7. lim (Ans. 2) 8. lim (Ans. 1)
x→ 0 x x→ 0 s in 3 x
 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL 363

Notes
364 MATHEMATICS
 Chapter 1
SETS
vIn these days of conflict between ancient and modern studies; there
must surely be something to be said for a study which did not
begin with Pythagoras and will not end with Einstein; but
is the oldest and the youngest. — G.H. HARDY v

1.1 Introduction
The concept of set serves as a fundamental part of the
present day mathematics. Today this concept is being used
in almost every branch of mathematics. Sets are used to
define the concepts of relations and functions. The study of
geometry, sequences, probability, etc. requires the knowledge
of sets.
The theory of sets was developed by German
mathematician Georg Cantor (1845-1918). He first
encountered sets while working on “problems on trigonometric
series”. In this Chapter, we discuss some basic definitions
Georg Cantor
and operations involving sets. (1845-1918)
1.2 Sets and their Representations
In everyday life, we often speak of collections of objects of a particular kind, such as,
a pack of cards, a crowd of people, a cricket team, etc. In mathematics also, we come
across collections, for example, of natural numbers, points, prime numbers, etc. More
specially, we examine the following collections:
(i) Odd natural numbers less than 10, i.e., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
(ii) The rivers of India
(iii) The vowels in the English alphabet, namely, a, e, i, o, u
(iv) Various kinds of triangles
(v) Prime factors of 210, namely, 2,3,5 and 7
(vi) The solution of the equation: x2 – 5x + 6 = 0, viz, 2 and 3.
We note that each of the above example is a well-defined collection of objects in

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2 MATHEMATICS

the sense that we can definitely decide whether a given particular object belongs to a
given collection or not. For example, we can say that the river Nile does not belong to
the collection of rivers of India. On the other hand, the river Ganga does belong to this
colleciton.
We give below a few more examples of sets used particularly in mathematics, viz.
N : the set of all natural numbers
Z : the set of all integers
Q : the set of all rational numbers
R : the set of real numbers
Z+ : the set of positive integers
Q+ : the set of positive rational numbers, and
R + : the set of positive real numbers.
The symbols for the special sets given above will be referred to throughout
this text.
Again the collection of five most renowned mathematicians of the world is not
well-defined, because the criterion for determining a mathematician as most renowned
may vary from person to person. Thus, it is not a well-defined collection.
We shall say that a set is a well-defined collection of objects.
The following points may be noted :
(i) Objects, elements and members of a set are synonymous terms.
(ii) Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, X, Y, Z, etc.
(iii) The elements of a set are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y, z, etc.
If a is an element of a set A, we say that “ a belongs to A” the Greek symbol ∈
(epsilon) is used to denote the phrase ‘belongs to’. Thus, we write a ∈ A. If ‘b’ is not
an element of a set A, we write b ∉ A and read “b does not belong to A”.
Thus, in the set V of vowels in the English alphabet, a ∈ V but b ∉ V. In the set
P of prime factors of 30, 3 ∈ P but 15 ∉ P.
There are two methods of representing a set :
(i) Roster or tabular form
(ii) Set-builder form.
(i) In roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, the elements are being separated
by commas and are enclosed within braces { }. For example, the set of all even
positive integers less than 7 is described in roster form as {2, 4, 6}. Some more
examples of representing a set in roster form are given below :
(a) The set of all natural numbers which divide 42 is {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42}.

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 SETS 3

ANote In roster form, the order in which the elements are listed is immaterial.
Thus, the above set can also be represented as {1, 3, 7, 21, 2, 6, 14, 42}.
(b) The set of all vowels in the English alphabet is {a, e, i, o, u}.
(c) The set of odd natural numbers is represented by {1, 3, 5, . . .}. The dots
tell us that the list of odd numbers continue indefinitely.

A Note It may be noted that while writing the set in roster form an element is not
generally repeated, i.e., all the elements are taken as distinct. For example, the set
of letters forming the word ‘SCHOOL’ is { S, C, H, O, L} or {H, O, L, C, S}. Here,
the order of listing elements has no relevance.
(ii) In set-builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common property
which is not possessed by any element outside the set. For example, in the set
{a, e, i, o, u}, all the elements possess a common property, namely, each of them
is a vowel in the English alphabet, and no other letter possess this property. Denoting
this set by V, we write
V = {x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}
It may be observed that we describe the element of the set by using a symbol x
(any other symbol like the letters y, z, etc. could be used) which is followed by a colon
“ : ”. After the sign of colon, we write the characteristic property possessed by the
elements of the set and then enclose the whole description within braces. The above
description of the set V is read as “the set of all x such that x is a vowel of the English
alphabet”. In this description the braces stand for “the set of all”, the colon stands for
“such that”. For example, the set
A = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 10} is read as “the set of all x such that
x is a natural number and x lies between 3 and 10.” Hence, the numbers 4, 5, 6,
7, 8 and 9 are the elements of the set A.
If we denote the sets described in (a), (b) and (c) above in roster form by A, B,
C, respectively, then A, B, C can also be represented in set-builder form as follows:
A= {x : x is a natural number which divides 42}
B= {y : y is a vowel in the English alphabet}
C= {z : z is an odd natural number}
Example 1 Write the solution set of the equation x2 + x – 2 = 0 in roster form.
Solution The given equation can be written as
(x – 1) (x + 2) = 0, i. e., x = 1, – 2
Therefore, the solution set of the given equation can be written in roster form as {1, – 2}.
Example 2 Write the set {x : x is a positive integer and x2 < 40} in the roster form.

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4 MATHEMATICS

Solution The required numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, the given set in the roster form
is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Example 3 Write the set A = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . . }in set-builder form.
Solution We may write the set A as
A = {x : x is the square of a natural number}
Alternatively, we can write
A = {x : x = n2, where n ∈ N}

1 2 3 4 5 6
Example 4 Write the set { , , , , , } in the set-builder form.
2 3 4 5 6 7
Solution We see that each member in the given set has the numerator one less than
the denominator. Also, the numerator begin from 1 and do not exceed 6. Hence, in the
set-builder form the given set is
 n 
x : x = , where n is a natural number and 1 ≤ n ≤ 6 
 n +1 
Example 5 Match each of the set on the left described in the roster form with the
same set on the right described in the set-builder form :
(i) {P, R, I, N, C, A, L} (a) { x : x is a positive integer and is a divisor of 18}
(ii) { 0 } (b) { x : x is an integer and x2 – 9 = 0}
(iii) {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} (c) {x : x is an integer and x + 1= 1}
(iv) {3, –3} (d) {x : x is a letter of the word PRINCIPAL}
Solution Since in (d), there are 9 letters in the word PRINCIPAL and two letters P and I
are repeated, so (i) matches (d). Similarly, (ii) matches (c) as x + 1 = 1 implies
x = 0. Also, 1, 2 ,3, 6, 9, 18 are all divisors of 18 and so (iii) matches (a). Finally, x2 – 9 = 0
implies x = 3, –3 and so (iv) matches (b).

EXERCISE 1.1
1. Which of the following are sets ? Justify your answer.
(i) The collection of all the months of a year beginning with the letter J.
(ii) The collection of ten most talented writers of India.
(iii) A team of eleven best-cricket batsmen of the world.
(iv) The collection of all boys in your class.
(v) The collection of all natural numbers less than 100.
(vi) A collection of novels written by the writer Munshi Prem Chand.
(vii) The collection of all even integers.

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 SETS 5

(viii) The collection of questions in this Chapter.

(ix) A collection of most dangerous animals of the world.
2. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Insert the appropriate symbol ∈ or ∉ in the blank
spaces:
(i) 5. . .A (ii) 8 . . . A (iii) 0. . .A
(iv) 4. . . A (v) 2. . .A (vi) 10. . .A
3. Write the following sets in roster form:
(i) A = {x : x is an integer and –3 ≤ x < 7}
(ii) B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}
(iii) C = {x : x is a two-digit natural number such that the sum of its digits is 8}
(iv) D = {x : x is a prime number which is divisor of 60}
(v) E = The set of all letters in the word TRIGONOMETRY
(vi) F = The set of all letters in the word BETTER
4. Write the following sets in the set-builder form :
(i) (3, 6, 9, 12} (ii) {2,4,8,16,32} (iii) {5, 25, 125, 625}
(iv) {2, 4, 6, . . .} (v) {1,4,9, . . .,100}
5. List all the elements of the following sets :
(i) A = {x : x is an odd natural number}
1 9
(ii) B = {x : x is an integer, – <x< }
2 2
(iii) C = {x : x is an integer, x2 ≤ 4}
(iv) D = {x : x is a letter in the word “LOYAL”}
(v) E = {x : x is a month of a year not having 31 days}
(vi) F = {x : x is a consonant in the English alphabet which precedes k }.
6. Match each of the set on the left in the roster form with the same set on the right
described in set-builder form:
(i) {1, 2, 3, 6} (a) {x : x is a prime number and a divisor of 6}
(ii) {2, 3} (b) {x : x is an odd natural number less than 10}
(iii) {M,A,T,H,E,I,C,S} (c) {x : x is natural number and divisor of 6}
(iv) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} (d) {x : x is a letter of the word MATHEMATICS}.
1.3 The Empty Set
Consider the set
A = { x : x is a student of Class XI presently studying in a school }
We can go to the school and count the number of students presently studying in
Class XI in the school. Thus, the set A contains a finite number of elements.
We now write another set B as follows:

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6 MATHEMATICS

B = { x : x is a student presently studying in both Classes X and XI }

We observe that a student cannot study simultaneously in both Classes X and XI.
Thus, the set B contains no element at all.
Definition 1 A set which does not contain any element is called the empty set or the
null set or the void set.
According to this definition, B is an empty set while A is not an empty set. The
empty set is denoted by the symbol φ or { }.
We give below a few examples of empty sets.
(i) Let A = {x : 1 < x < 2, x is a natural number}. Then A is the empty set,
because there is no natural number between 1 and 2.
(ii) B = {x : x2 – 2 = 0 and x is rational number}. Then B is the empty set because
the equation x2 – 2 = 0 is not satisfied by any rational value of x.
(iii) C = {x : x is an even prime number greater than 2}.Then C is the empty set,
because 2 is the only even prime number.
(iv) D = { x : x2 = 4, x is odd }. Then D is the empty set, because the equation
x2 = 4 is not satisfied by any odd value of x.
1.4 Finite and Infinite Sets
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {a, b, c, d, e, g}
and C = { men living presently in different parts of the world}
We observe that A contains 5 elements and B contains 6 elements. How many elements
does C contain? As it is, we do not know the number of elements in C, but it is some
natural number which may be quite a big number. By number of elements of a set S,
we mean the number of distinct elements of the set and we denote it by n (S). If n (S)
is a natural number, then S is non-empty finite set.
Consider the set of natural numbers. We see that the number of elements of this
set is not finite since there are infinite number of natural numbers. We say that the set
of natural numbers is an infinite set. The sets A, B and C given above are finite sets
and n(A) = 5, n(B) = 6 and n(C) = some finite number.
Definition 2 A set which is empty or consists of a definite number of elements is
called finite otherwise, the set is called infinite.
Consider some examples :
(i) Let W be the set of the days of the week. Then W is finite.
(ii) Let S be the set of solutions of the equation x2 –16 = 0. Then S is finite.
(iii) Let G be the set of points on a line. Then G is infinite.
When we represent a set in the roster form, we write all the elements of the set
within braces { }. It is not possible to write all the elements of an infinite set within
braces { } because the numbers of elements of such a set is not finite. So, we represent

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 SETS 7

some infinite set in the roster form by writing a few elements which clearly indicate the
structure of the set followed ( or preceded ) by three dots.
For example, {1, 2, 3 . . .} is the set of natural numbers, {1, 3, 5, 7, . . .} is the set
of odd natural numbers, {. . .,–3, –2, –1, 0,1, 2 ,3, . . .} is the set of integers. All these
sets are infinite.

A Note All infinite sets cannot be described in the roster form. For example, the
set of real numbers cannot be described in this form, because the elements of this
set do not follow any particular pattern.
Example 6 State which of the following sets are finite or infinite :
(i) {x : x ∈ N and (x – 1) (x –2) = 0}
(ii) {x : x ∈ N and x2 = 4}
(iii) {x : x ∈ N and 2x –1 = 0}
(iv) {x : x ∈ N and x is prime}
(v) {x : x ∈ N and x is odd}
Solution (i) Given set = {1, 2}. Hence, it is finite.
(ii) Given set = {2}. Hence, it is finite.
(iii) Given set = φ. Hence, it is finite.
(iv) The given set is the set of all prime numbers and since set of prime
numbers is infinite. Hence the given set is infinite
(v) Since there are infinite number of odd numbers, hence, the given set is
infinite.
1.5 Equal Sets
Given two sets A and B, if every element of A is also an element of B and if every
element of B is also an element of A, then the sets A and B are said to be equal.
Clearly, the two sets have exactly the same elements.
Definition 3 Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same
elements and we write A = B. Otherwise, the sets are said to be unequal and we write
A ≠ B.
We consider the following examples :
(i) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 1, 4, 2}. Then A = B.
(ii) Let A be the set of prime numbers less than 6 and P the set of prime factors
of 30. Then A and P are equal, since 2, 3 and 5 are the only prime factors of
30 and also these are less than 6.

ANote A set does not change if one or more elements of the set are repeated.
For example, the sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 2, 1, 3, 3} are equal, since each

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8 MATHEMATICS

element of A is in B and vice-versa. That is why we generally do not repeat any

element in describing a set.
Example 7 Find the pairs of equal sets, if any, give reasons:
A = {0}, B = {x : x > 15 and x < 5},
C = {x : x – 5 = 0 }, D = {x: x2 = 25},
E = {x : x is an integral positive root of the equation x2 – 2x –15 = 0}.
Solution Since 0 ∈ A and 0 does not belong to any of the sets B, C, D and E, it
follows that, A ≠ B, A ≠ C, A ≠ D, A ≠ E.
Since B = φ but none of the other sets are empty. Therefore B ≠ C, B ≠ D
and B ≠ E. Also C = {5} but –5 ∈ D, hence C ≠ D.
Since E = {5}, C = E. Further, D = {–5, 5} and E = {5}, we find that, D ≠ E.
Thus, the only pair of equal sets is C and E.
Example 8 Which of the following pairs of sets are equal? Justify your answer.
(i) X, the set of letters in “ALLOY” and B, the set of letters in “LOYAL”.
(ii) A = {n : n ∈ Z and n2 ≤ 4} and B = {x : x ∈ R and x2 – 3x + 2 = 0}.
Solution (i) We have, X = {A, L, L, O, Y}, B = {L, O, Y, A, L}. Then X and B are
equal sets as repetition of elements in a set do not change a set. Thus,
X = {A, L, O, Y} = B
(ii) A = {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}, B = {1, 2}. Since 0 ∈ A and 0 ∉ B, A and B are not equal sets.

EXERCISE 1.2
1. Which of the following are examples of the null set
(i) Set of odd natural numbers divisible by 2
(ii) Set of even prime numbers
(iii) { x : x is a natural numbers, x < 5 and x > 7 }
(iv) { y : y is a point common to any two parallel lines}
2. Which of the following sets are finite or infinite
(i) The set of months of a year
(ii) {1, 2, 3, . . .}
(iii) {1, 2, 3, . . .99, 100}
(iv) The set of positive integers greater than 100
(v) The set of prime numbers less than 99
3. State whether each of the following set is finite or infinite:
(i) The set of lines which are parallel to the x-axis
(ii) The set of letters in the English alphabet
(iii) The set of numbers which are multiple of 5

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 SETS 9

(iv) The set of animals living on the earth

(v) The set of circles passing through the origin (0,0)
4. In the following, state whether A = B or not:
(i) A = { a, b, c, d } B = { d, c, b, a }
(ii) A = { 4, 8, 12, 16 } B = { 8, 4, 16, 18}
(iii) A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} B = { x : x is positive even integer and x ≤ 10}
(iv) A = { x : x is a multiple of 10}, B = { 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, . . . }
5. Are the following pair of sets equal ? Give reasons.
(i) A = {2, 3}, B = {x : x is solution of x2 + 5x + 6 = 0}
(ii) A = { x : x is a letter in the word FOLLOW}
B = { y : y is a letter in the word WOLF}
6. From the sets given below, select equal sets :
A = { 2, 4, 8, 12}, B = { 1, 2, 3, 4}, C = { 4, 8, 12, 14}, D = { 3, 1, 4, 2}
E = {–1, 1}, F = { 0, a}, G = {1, –1}, H = { 0, 1}
1.6 Subsets
Consider the sets : X = set of all students in your school, Y = set of all students in your
class.
We note that every element of Y is also an element of X; we say that Y is a subset
of X. The fact that Y is subset of X is expressed in symbols as Y ⊂ X. The symbol ⊂
stands for ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’.
Definition 4 A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an
element of B.
In other words, A ⊂ B if whenever a ∈ A, then a ∈ B. It is often convenient to
use the symbol “⇒” which means implies. Using this symbol, we can write the definiton
of subset as follows:
A ⊂ B if a ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ B
We read the above statement as “A is a subset of B if a is an element of A
implies that a is also an element of B”. If A is not a subset of B, we write A ⊄ B.
We may note that for A to be a subset of B, all that is needed is that every
element of A is in B. It is possible that every element of B may or may not be in A. If
it so happens that every element of B is also in A, then we shall also have B ⊂ A. In this
case, A and B are the same sets so that we have A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A ⇔ A = B, where
“⇔” is a symbol for two way implications, and is usually read as if and only if (briefly
written as “iff”).
It follows from the above definition that every set A is a subset of itself, i.e.,
A ⊂ A. Since the empty set φ has no elements, we agree to say that φ is a subset of
every set. We now consider some examples :

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(i) The set Q of rational numbers is a subset of the set R of real numbes, and
we write Q ⊂ R.
(ii) If A is the set of all divisors of 56 and B the set of all prime divisors of 56,
then B is a subset of A and we write B ⊂ A.
(iii) Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {x : x is an odd natural number less than 6}. Then
A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A and hence A = B.
(iv) Let A = { a, e, i, o, u} and B = { a, b, c, d}. Then A is not a subset of B,
also B is not a subset of A.
Let A and B be two sets. If A ⊂ B and A ≠ B , then A is called a proper subset
of B and B is called superset of A. For example,
A = {1, 2, 3} is a proper subset of B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
If a set A has only one element, we call it a singleton set. Thus,{ a } is a
singleton set.
Example 9 Consider the sets
φ, A = { 1, 3 }, B = {1, 5, 9}, C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
Insert the symbol ⊂ or ⊄ between each of the following pair of sets:
(i) φ . . . B (ii) A . . . B (iii) A . . . C (iv) B . . . C
Solution (i) φ ⊂ B as φ is a subset of every set.
(ii) A ⊄ B as 3 ∈ A and 3 ∉ B
(iii) A ⊂ C as 1, 3 ∈ A also belongs to C
(iv) B ⊂ C as each element of B is also an element of C.
Example 10 Let A = { a, e, i, o, u} and B = { a, b, c, d}. Is A a subset of B ? No.
(Why?). Is B a subset of A? No. (Why?)
Example 11 Let A, B and C be three sets. If A ∈ B and B ⊂ C, is it true that
A ⊂ C?. If not, give an example.
Solution No. Let A = {1}, B = {{1}, 2} and C = {{1}, 2, 3}. Here A ∈ B as A = {1}
and B ⊂ C. But A ⊄ C as 1 ∈ A and 1 ∉ C.
Note that an element of a set can never be a subset of itself.
1.6.1 Subsets of set of real numbers
As noted in Section 1.6, there are many important subsets of R. We give below the
names of some of these subsets.
The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}
The set of integers Z = {. . ., –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
p
The set of rational numbers Q = { x : x = , p, q ∈ Z and q ≠ 0}
q

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 SETS 11

p
which is read “ Q is the set of all numbers x such that x equals the quotient
q , where
p and q are integers and q is not zero”. Members of Q include –5 (which can be
5 5 1 7 11
expressed as – ) , , 3 (which can be expressed as ) and – .
1 7 2 2 3
The set of irrational numbers, denoted by T, is composed of all other real numbers.
Thus T = {x : x ∈ R and x ∉ Q}, i.e., all real numbers that are not rational.
Members of T include 2 , 5 and π .
Some of the obvious relations among these subsets are:
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q, Q ⊂ R, T ⊂ R, N ⊄ T.
1.6.2 Intervals as subsets of R Let a, b ∈ R and a < b. Then the set of real numbers
{ y : a < y < b} is called an open interval and is denoted by (a, b). All the points
between a and b belong to the open interval (a, b) but a, b themselves do not belong to
this interval.
The interval which contains the end points also is called closed interval and is
denoted by [ a, b ]. Thus
[ a, b ] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}
We can also have intervals closed at one end and open at the other, i.e.,
[ a, b ) = {x : a ≤ x < b} is an open interval from a to b, including a but excluding b.
( a, b ] = { x : a < x ≤ b } is an open interval from a to b including b but excluding a.
These notations provide an alternative way of designating the subsets of set of
real numbers. For example , if A = (–3, 5) and B = [–7, 9], then A ⊂ B. The set [ 0, ∞)
defines the set of non-negative real numbers, while set ( – ∞, 0 ) defines the set of
negative real numbers. The set ( – ∞, ∞ ) describes the set of real numbers in relation
to a line extending from – ∞ to ∞.
On real number line, various types of intervals described above as subsets of R,
are shown in the Fig 1.1.

Fig 1.1

Here, we note that an interval contains infinitely many points.

For example, the set {x : x ∈ R, –5 < x ≤ 7}, written in set-builder form, can be
written in the form of interval as (–5, 7] and the interval [–3, 5) can be written in set-
builder form as {x : –3 ≤ x < 5}.

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12 MATHEMATICS

The number (b – a) is called the length of any of the intervals (a, b), [a, b],
[a, b) or (a, b].
1.7 Universal Set
Usually, in a particular context, we have to deal with the elements and subsets of a
basic set which is relevant to that particular context. For example, while studying the
system of numbers, we are interested in the set of natural numbers and its subsets such
as the set of all prime numbers, the set of all even numbers, and so forth. This basic set
is called the “Universal Set”. The universal set is usually denoted by U, and all its
subsets by the letters A, B, C, etc.
For example, for the set of all integers, the universal set can be the set of rational
numbers or, for that matter, the set R of real numbers. For another example, in human
population studies, the universal set consists of all the people in the world.

EXERCISE 1.3
1. Make correct statements by filling in the symbols ⊂ or ⊄ in the blank spaces :
(i) { 2, 3, 4 } . . . { 1, 2, 3, 4,5 } (ii) { a, b, c } . . . { b, c, d }
(iii) {x : x is a student of Class XI of your school}. . .{x : x student of your school}
(iv) {x : x is a circle in the plane} . . .{x : x is a circle in the same plane with
radius 1 unit}
(v) {x : x is a triangle in a plane} . . . {x : x is a rectangle in the plane}
(vi) {x : x is an equilateral triangle in a plane} . . . {x : x is a triangle in the same plane}
(vii) {x : x is an even natural number} . . . {x : x is an integer}
2. Examine whether the following statements are true or false:
(i) { a, b } ⊄ { b, c, a }
(ii) { a, e } ⊂ { x : x is a vowel in the English alphabet}
(iii) { 1, 2, 3 } ⊂ { 1, 3, 5 }
(iv) { a } ⊂ { a, b, c }
(v) { a } ∈ { a, b, c }
(vi) { x : x is an even natural number less than 6} ⊂ { x : x is a natural number
which divides 36}
3. Let A = { 1, 2, { 3, 4 }, 5 }. Which of the following statements are incorrect and why?
(i) {3, 4} ⊂ A (ii) {3, 4} ∈ A (iii) {{3, 4}} ⊂ A
(iv) 1 ∈ A (v) 1 ⊂ A (vi) {1, 2, 5} ⊂ A
(vii) {1, 2, 5} ∈ A (viii) {1, 2, 3} ⊂ A (ix) φ ∈ A
(x) φ ⊂ A (xi) {φ} ⊂ A
4. Write down all the subsets of the following sets
(i) {a} (ii) {a, b} (iii) {1, 2, 3} (iv) φ

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 SETS 13

5. Write the following as intervals :

(i) {x : x ∈ R, – 4 < x ≤ 6} (ii) {x : x ∈ R, – 12 < x < –10}
(iii) {x : x ∈ R, 0 ≤ x < 7} (iv) {x : x ∈ R, 3 ≤ x ≤ 4}
6. Write the following intervals in set-builder form :
(i) (– 3, 0) (ii) [6 , 12] (iii) (6, 12] (iv) [–23, 5)
7. What universal set(s) would you propose for each of the following :
(i) The set of right triangles. (ii) The set of isosceles triangles.
8. Given the sets A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6} and C = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, which of the
following may be considered as universal set (s) for all the three sets A, B and C
(i) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(ii) φ
(iii) {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
(iv) {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
1.8 Venn Diagrams
Most of the relationships between sets can be
represented by means of diagrams which are known
as Venn diagrams. Venn diagrams are named after
the English logician, John Venn (1834-1883). These
diagrams consist of rectangles and closed curves
usually circles. The universal set is represented
usually by a rectangle and its subsets by circles.
In Venn diagrams, the elements of the sets are
written in their respective circles (Figs 1.2 and 1.3) Fig 1.2
Illustration 1 In Fig 1.2, U = {1,2,3, ..., 10} is the
universal set of which
A = {2,4,6,8,10} is a subset.
Illustration 2 In Fig 1.3, U = {1,2,3, ..., 10} is the
universal set of which
A = {2,4,6,8,10} and B = {4, 6} are subsets,
and also B ⊂ A.
Fig 1.3
The reader will see an extensive use of the
Venn diagrams when we discuss the union, intersection and difference of sets.
1.9 Operations on Sets
In earlier classes, we have learnt how to perform the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division on numbers. Each one of these operations was performed
on a pair of numbers to get another number. For example, when we perform the
operation of addition on the pair of numbers 5 and 13, we get the number 18. Again,
performing the operation of multiplication on the pair of numbers 5 and 13, we get 65.

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Similarly, there are some operations which when performed on two sets give rise to
another set. We will now define certain operations on sets and examine their properties.
Henceforth, we will refer all our sets as subsets of some universal set.
1.9.1 Union of sets Let A and B be any two sets. The union of A and B is the set
which consists of all the elements of A and all the elements of B, the common elements
being taken only once. The symbol ‘∪’ is used to denote the union. Symbolically, we
write A ∪ B and usually read as ‘A union B’.
Example 12 Let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 6, 8, 10, 12}. Find A ∪ B.
Solution We have A ∪ B = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
Note that the common elements 6 and 8 have been taken only once while writing
A ∪ B.
Example 13 Let A = { a, e, i, o, u } and B = { a, i, u }. Show that A ∪ B = A
Solution We have, A ∪ B = { a, e, i, o, u } = A.
This example illustrates that union of sets A and its subset B is the set A
itself, i.e., if B ⊂ A, then A ∪ B = A.
Example 14 Let X = {Ram, Geeta, Akbar} be the set of students of Class XI, who are
in school hockey team. Let Y = {Geeta, David, Ashok} be the set of students from
Class XI who are in the school football team. Find X ∪ Y and interpret the set.
Solution We have, X ∪ Y = {Ram, Geeta, Akbar, David, Ashok}. This is the set of
students from Class XI who are in the hockey team or the football team or both.
Thus, we can define the union of two sets as follows:
Definition 5 The union of two sets A and B is the set C which consists of all those
elements which are either in A or in B (including
those which are in both). In symbols, we write.
A ∪ B = { x : x ∈A or x ∈B }
The union of two sets can be represented by
a Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.4.
The shaded portion in Fig 1.4 represents A ∪ B.
Some Properties of the Operation of Union
(i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative law) Fig 1.4
(ii) ( A ∪ B ) ∪ C = A ∪ ( B ∪ C)
(Associative law )
(iii) A ∪ φ = A (Law of identity element, φ is the identity of ∪)

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 SETS 15

(iv) A ∪ A = A (Idempotent law)

(v) U ∪ A = U (Law of U)
1.9.2 Intersection of sets The intersection of sets A and B is the set of all elements
which are common to both A and B. The symbol ‘∩’ is used to denote the intersection.
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all those elements which belong to
both A and B. Symbolically, we write A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
Example 15 Consider the sets A and B of Example 12. Find A ∩ B.
Solution We see that 6, 8 are the only elements which are common to both A and B.
Hence A ∩ B = { 6, 8 }.
Example 16 Consider the sets X and Y of Example 14. Find X ∩ Y.
Solution We see that element ‘Geeta’ is the only element common to both. Hence,
X ∩ Y = {Geeta}.
Example 17 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 }. Find A ∩ B and
hence show that A ∩ B = B.
Solution We have A ∩ B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 } = B. We
note that B ⊂ A and that A ∩ B = B.
Definition 6 The intersection of two sets A and B
is the set of all those elements which belong to both
A and B. Symbolically, we write
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
The shaded portion in Fig 1.5 indicates the Fig 1.5
intersection of A and B.
If A and B are two sets such that A ∩ B = φ, then U
A and B are called disjoint sets.
For example, let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } and
B = { 1, 3, 5, 7 }. Then A and B are disjoint sets, A B
because there are no elements which are common to
A and B. The disjoint sets can be represented by
means of Venn diagram as shown in the Fig 1.6
In the above diagram, A and B are disjoint sets. Fig 1.6
Some Properties of Operation of Intersection
(i) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law).
(ii) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) (Associative law).
(iii) φ ∩ A = φ, U ∩ A = A (Law of φ and U).
(iv) A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law)

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(v) A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ) (Distributive law ) i. e.,

∩ distributes over ∪
This can be seen easily from the following Venn diagrams [Figs 1.7 (i) to (v)].

(i) (iii)

(ii) (iv)

(v)
Figs 1.7 (i) to (v)

1.9.3 Difference of sets The difference of the sets A and B in this order is the set
of elements which belong to A but not to B. Symbolically, we write A – B and read as
“A minus B”.
Example 18 Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 }. Find A – B and B – A.
Solution We have, A – B = { 1, 3, 5 }, since the elements 1, 3, 5 belong to A but
not to B and B – A = { 8 }, since the element 8 belongs to B and not to A.
We note that A – B ≠ B – A.

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 SETS 17

Example 19 Let V = { a, e, i, o, u } and

B = { a, i, k, u}. Find V – B and B – V
Solution We have, V – B = { e, o }, since the elements
e, o belong to V but not to B and B – V = { k }, since
the element k belongs to B but not to V.
We note that V – B ≠ B – V. Using the set-
builder notation, we can rewrite the definition of Fig 1.8
difference as
A – B = { x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B }
The difference of two sets A and B can be
represented by Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.8.
The shaded portion represents the difference of
the two sets A and B.
Remark The sets A – B, A ∩ B and B – A are
mutually disjoint sets, i.e., the intersection of any of Fig 1.9
these two sets is the null set as shown in Fig 1.9.

EXERCISE 1.4
1. Find the union of each of the following pairs of sets :
(i) X = {1, 3, 5} Y = {1, 2, 3}
(ii) A = [ a, e, i, o, u} B = {a, b, c}
(iii) A = {x : x is a natural number and multiple of 3}
B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}
(iv) A = {x : x is a natural number and 1 < x ≤ 6 }
B = {x : x is a natural number and 6 < x < 10 }
(v) A = {1, 2, 3}, B = φ
2. Let A = { a, b }, B = {a, b, c}. Is A ⊂ B ? What is A ∪ B ?
3. If A and B are two sets such that A ⊂ B, then what is A ∪ B ?
4. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {5, 6, 7, 8 }and D = { 7, 8, 9, 10 }; find
(i) A ∪ B (ii) A ∪ C (iii) B ∪ C (iv) B ∪ D
(v) A ∪ B ∪ C (vi) A ∪ B ∪ D (vii) B ∪ C ∪ D
5. Find the intersection of each pair of sets of question 1 above.
6. If A = { 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 }, B = {7, 9, 11, 13}, C = {11, 13, 15}and D = {15, 17}; find
(i) A ∩ B (ii) B ∩ C (iii) A ∩ C ∩ D
(iv) A ∩ C (v) B ∩ D (vi) A ∩ (B ∪ C)
(vii) A ∩ D (viii) A ∩ (B ∪ D) (ix) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ ( B ∪ C )
(x) ( A ∪ D) ∩ ( B ∪ C)

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7. If A = {x : x is a natural number }, B = {x : x is an even natural number}

C = {x : x is an odd natural number}andD = {x : x is a prime number }, find
(i) A ∩ B (ii) A ∩ C (iii) A ∩ D
(iv) B ∩ C (v) B ∩ D (vi) C ∩ D
8. Which of the following pairs of sets are disjoint
(i) {1, 2, 3, 4} and {x : x is a natural number and 4 ≤ x ≤ 6 }
(ii) { a, e, i, o, u } and { c, d, e, f }
(iii) {x : x is an even integer } and {x : x is an odd integer}
9. If A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21}, B = { 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 },
C = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 }, D = {5, 10, 15, 20 }; find
(i) A – B (ii) A – C (iii) A – D (iv) B – A
(v) C – A (vi) D – A (vii) B – C (viii) B – D
(ix) C – B (x) D – B (xi) C – D (xii) D – C
10. If X= { a, b, c, d } and Y = { f, b, d, g}, find
(i) X – Y (ii) Y – X (iii) X ∩ Y
11. If R is the set of real numbers and Q is the set of rational numbers, then what is
R – Q?
12. State whether each of the following statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
(i) { 2, 3, 4, 5 } and { 3, 6} are disjoint sets.
(ii) { a, e, i, o, u } and { a, b, c, d }are disjoint sets.
(iii) { 2, 6, 10, 14 } and { 3, 7, 11, 15} are disjoint sets.
(iv) { 2, 6, 10 } and { 3, 7, 11} are disjoint sets.
1.10 Complement of a Set
Let U be the universal set which consists of all prime numbers and A be the subset of
U which consists of all those prime numbers that are not divisors of 42. Thus,
A = {x : x ∈ U and x is not a divisor of 42 }. We see that 2 ∈ U but 2 ∉ A, because
2 is divisor of 42. Similarly, 3 ∈ U but 3 ∉ A, and 7 ∈ U but 7 ∉ A. Now 2, 3 and 7 are
the only elements of U which do not belong to A. The set of these three prime numbers,
i.e., the set {2, 3, 7} is called the Complement of A with respect to U, and is denoted by
A′. So we have A′ = {2, 3, 7}. Thus, we see that
A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A }. This leads to the following definition.
Definition 7 Let U be the universal set and A a subset of U. Then the complement of
A is the set of all elements of U which are not the elements of A. Symbolically, we
write A′ to denote the complement of A with respect to U. Thus,
A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A }. Obviously A′ = U – A
We note that the complement of a set A can be looked upon, alternatively, as the
difference between a universal set U and the set A.

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 SETS 19

Example 20 Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Find A′.

Solution We note that 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 are the only elements of U which do not belong to
A. Hence A′ = { 2, 4, 6, 8,10 }.
Example 21 Let U be universal set of all the students of Class XI of a coeducational
school and A be the set of all girls in Class XI. Find A′.
Solution Since A is the set of all girls, A′ is clearly the set of all boys in the class.

ANote If A is a subset of the universal set U, then its complement A′ is also a

subset of U.
Again in Example 20 above, we have A′ = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 }
Hence (A′ )′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A′}
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = A
It is clear from the definition of the complement that for any subset of the universal
set U, we have ( A′ )′ = A

Now, we want to find the results for ( A ∪ B )′ and A′ ∩ B′ in the followng

example.
Example 22 Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}.
Find A′, B′ , A′ ∩ B′, A ∪ B and hence show that ( A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩ B′.
Solution Clearly A′ = {1, 4, 5, 6}, B′ = { 1, 2, 6 }. Hence A′ ∩ B′ = { 1, 6 }
Also A ∪ B = { 2, 3, 4, 5 }, so that (A ∪ B )′ = { 1, 6 }
( A ∪ B )′ = { 1, 6 } = A′ ∩ B′
It can be shown that the above result is true in general. If A and B are any two
subsets of the universal set U, then
( A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩ B′. Similarly, ( A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B′ . These two results are stated
in words as follows :
The complement of the union of two sets is
the intersection of their complements and the
complement of the intersection of two sets is the
union of their complements. These are called De
Morgan’s laws. These are named after the
mathematician De Morgan.
The complement A′ of a set A can be represented
by a Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.10. Fig 1.10
The shaded portion represents the complement of the set A.

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20 MATHEMATICS

Some Properties of Complement Sets

1. Complement laws: (i) A ∪ A′ = U (ii) A ∩ A′ = φ
2. De Morgan’s law: (i) (A ∪ B)´ = A′ ∩ B′ (ii) (A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B′
3. Law of double complementation : (A′ )′ = A
4. Laws of empty set and universal set φ′ = U and U′ = φ.
These laws can be verified by using Venn diagrams.

EXERCISE 1.5
1. Let U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }, A = { 1, 2, 3, 4}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } and
C = { 3, 4, 5, 6 }. Find (i) A′ (ii) B′ (iii) (A ∪ C)′ (iv) (A ∪ B)′ (v) (A′)′
(vi) (B – C)′
2. If U = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}, find the complements of the following sets :
(i) A = {a, b, c} (ii) B = {d, e, f, g}
(iii) C = {a, c, e, g} (iv) D = { f, g, h, a}
3. Taking the set of natural numbers as the universal set, write down the complements
of the following sets:
(i) {x : x is an even natural number} (ii) { x : x is an odd natural number }
(iii) {x : x is a positive multiple of 3} (iv) { x : x is a prime number }
(v) {x : x is a natural number divisible by 3 and 5}
(vi) { x : x is a perfect square } (vii) { x : x is a perfect cube}
(viii) { x : x + 5 = 8 } (ix) { x : 2x + 5 = 9}
(x) { x : x ≥ 7 } (xi) { x : x ∈ N and 2x + 1 > 10 }
4. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }, A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 2, 3, 5, 7}. Verify that
(i) (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′ (ii) (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
5. Draw appropriate Venn diagram for each of the following :
(i) (A ∪ B)′, (ii) A′ ∩ B′, (iii) (A ∩ B)′, (iv) A′ ∪ B′
6. Let U be the set of all triangles in a plane. If A is the set of all triangles with at
least one angle different from 60°, what is A′?
7. Fill in the blanks to make each of the following a true statement :
(i) A ∪ A′ = . . . (ii) φ′ ∩ A = . . .
(iii) A ∩ A′ = . . . (iv) U′ ∩ A = . . .

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 23 Show that the set of letters needed to spell “ CATARACT ” and the
set of letters needed to spell “ TRACT” are equal.
Solution Let X be the set of letters in “CATARACT”. Then
X = { C, A, T, R }

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 SETS 21

Let Y be the set of letters in “ TRACT”. Then

Y = { T, R, A, C, T } = { T, R, A, C }
Since every element in X is in Y and every element in Y is in X. It follows that X = Y.
Example 24 List all the subsets of the set { –1, 0, 1 }.
Solution Let A = { –1, 0, 1 }. The subset of A having no element is the empty
set φ. The subsets of A having one element are { –1 }, { 0 }, { 1 }. The subsets of
A having two elements are {–1, 0}, {–1, 1} ,{0, 1}. The subset of A having three
elements of A is A itself. So, all the subsets of A are φ, {–1}, {0}, {1}, {–1, 0}, {–1, 1},
{0, 1} and {–1, 0, 1}.
Example 25 Show that A ∪ B = A ∩ B implies A = B
Solution Let a ∈ A. Then a ∈ A ∪ B. Since A ∪ B = A ∩ B , a ∈ A ∩ B. So a ∈ B.
Therefore, A ⊂ B. Similarly, if b ∈ B, then b ∈ A ∪ B. Since
A ∪ B = A ∩ B, b ∈ A ∩ B. So, b ∈ A. Therefore, B ⊂ A. Thus, A = B
Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 1
1. Decide, among the following sets, which sets are subsets of one and another:
A = { x : x ∈ R and x satisfy x2 – 8x + 12 = 0 },
B = { 2, 4, 6 }, C = { 2, 4, 6, 8, . . . }, D = { 6 }.
2. In each of the following, determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is
true, prove it. If it is false, give an example.
(i) If x ∈ A and A ∈ B , then x ∈ B
(ii) If A ⊂ B and B ∈ C , then A ∈ C
(iii) If A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C , then A ⊂ C
(iv) If A ⊄ B and B ⊄ C , then A ⊄ C
(v) If x ∈ A and A ⊄ B , then x ∈ B
(vi) If A ⊂ B and x ∉ B , then x ∉ A
3. Let A, B, and C be the sets such that A ∪ B = A ∪ C and A ∩ B = A ∩ C. Show
that B = C.
4. Show that the following four conditions are equivalent :
(i) A ⊂ B(ii) A – B = φ (iii) A ∪ B = B (iv) A ∩ B = A
5. Show that if A ⊂ B, then C – B ⊂ C – A.
6. Show that for any sets A and B,
A = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A – B ) and A ∪ ( B – A ) = ( A ∪ B )
7. Using properties of sets, show that
(i) A ∪ ( A ∩ B ) = A (ii) A ∩ ( A ∪ B ) = A.
8. Show that A ∩ B = A ∩ C need not imply B = C.

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22 MATHEMATICS

9. Let A and B be sets. If A ∩ X = B ∩ X = φ and A ∪ X = B ∪ X for some set

X, show that A = B.
(Hints A = A ∩ ( A ∪ X ) , B = B ∩ ( B ∪ X ) and use Distributive law )
10. Find sets A, B and C such that A ∩ B, B ∩ C and A ∩ C are non-empty
sets and A ∩ B ∩ C = φ.

Summary
This chapter deals with some basic definitions and operations involving sets. These
are summarised below:
® A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
® A set which does not contain any element is called empty set.
® A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called finite set,
otherwise, the set is called infinite set.
® Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements.
® A set A is said to be subset of a set B, if every element of A is also an element
of B. Intervals are subsets of R.
® union of two sets A and B is the set of all those elements which are either
The
in A or in B.
® The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which are
common. The difference of two sets A and B in this order is the set of elements
which belong to A but not to B.
® The complement of a subset A of universal set U is the set of all elements of U
which are not the elements of A.
® For any two sets A and B, (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′ and ( A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B′

Historical Note
The modern theory of sets is considered to have been originated largely by the
German mathematician Georg Cantor (1845-1918). His papers on set theory
appeared sometimes during 1874 to 1897. His study of set theory came when he
was studying trigonometric series of the form a1 sin x + a2 sin 2x + a3 sin 3x + ...
He published in a paper in 1874 that the set of real numbers could not be put into
one-to-one correspondence wih the integers. From 1879 onwards, he publishd
several papers showing various properties of abstract sets.

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 SETS 23

Cantor’s work was well received by another famous mathematician Richard

Dedekind (1831-1916). But Kronecker (1810-1893) castigated him for regarding
infinite set the same way as finite sets. Another German mathematician Gottlob
Frege, at the turn of the century, presented the set theory as principles of logic.
Till then the entire set theory was based on the assumption of the existence of the
set of all sets. It was the famous Englih Philosopher Bertand Russell (1872-
1970 ) who showed in 1902 that the assumption of existence of a set of all sets
leads to a contradiction. This led to the famous Russell’s Paradox. Paul R.Halmos
writes about it in his book ‘Naïve Set Theory’ that “nothing contains everything”.
The Russell’s Paradox was not the only one which arose in set theory.
Many paradoxes were produced later by several mathematicians and logicians.
As a consequence of all these paradoxes, the first axiomatisation of set theory
was published in 1908 by Ernst Zermelo. Another one was proposed by Abraham
Fraenkel in 1922. John Von Neumann in 1925 introduced explicitly the axiom of
regularity. Later in 1937 Paul Bernays gave a set of more satisfactory
axiomatisation. A modification of these axioms was done by Kurt Gödel in his
monograph in 1940. This was known as Von Neumann-Bernays (VNB) or Gödel-
Bernays (GB) set theory.
Despite all these difficulties, Cantor’s set theory is used in present day
mathematics. In fact, these days most of the concepts and results in mathematics
are expressed in the set theoretic language.

—v —

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 Chapter 2
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

vMathematics is the indispensable instrument of

all physical research. – BERTHELOT v

2.1 Introduction
Much of mathematics is about finding a pattern – a
recognisable link between quantities that change. In our
daily life, we come across many patterns that characterise
relations such as brother and sister, father and son, teacher
and student. In mathematics also, we come across many
relations such as number m is less than number n, line l is
parallel to line m, set A is a subset of set B. In all these, we
notice that a relation involves pairs of objects in certain
order. In this Chapter, we will learn how to link pairs of
objects from two sets and then introduce relations between
the two objects in the pair. Finally, we will learn about G . W. Leibnitz
special relations which will qualify to be functions. The (1646–1716)
concept of function is very important in mathematics since it captures the idea of a
mathematically precise correspondence between one quantity with the other.
2.2 Cartesian Products of Sets
Suppose A is a set of 2 colours and B is a set of 3 objects, i.e.,
A = {red, blue}and B = {b, c, s},
where b, c and s represent a particular bag, coat and shirt, respectively.
How many pairs of coloured objects can be made from these two sets?
Proceeding in a very orderly manner, we can see that there will be 6
distinct pairs as given below:
(red, b), (red, c), (red, s), (blue, b), (blue, c), (blue, s).
Thus, we get 6 distinct objects (Fig 2.1).
Let us recall from our earlier classes that an ordered pair of elements Fig 2.1
taken from any two sets P and Q is a pair of elements written in small

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 25

brackets and grouped together in a particular order, i.e., (p,q), p ∈ P and q ∈ Q . This
leads to the following definition:
Definition 1 Given two non-empty sets P and Q. The cartesian product P × Q is the
set of all ordered pairs of elements from P and Q, i.e.,
P × Q = { (p,q) : p ∈ P, q ∈ Q }
If either P or Q is the null set, then P × Q will also be empty set, i.e., P × Q = φ
From the illustration given above we note that
A × B = {(red,b), (red,c), (red,s), (blue,b), (blue,c), (blue,s)}.
Again, consider the two sets:
A = {DL, MP, KA}, where DL, MP, KA represent Delhi,
Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka, respectively and B = {01,02, 03
03}representing codes for the licence plates of vehicles issued 02
by DL, MP and KA . 01
If the three states, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka
were making codes for the licence plates of vehicles, with the DL MP KA
restriction that the code begins with an element from set A,
Fig 2.2
which are the pairs available from these sets and how many such
pairs will there be (Fig 2.2)?
The available pairs are:(DL,01), (DL,02), (DL,03), (MP,01), (MP,02), (MP,03),
(KA,01), (KA,02), (KA,03) and the product of set A and set B is given by
A × B = {(DL,01), (DL,02), (DL,03), (MP,01), (MP,02), (MP,03), (KA,01), (KA,02),
(KA,03)}.
It can easily be seen that there will be 9 such pairs in the Cartesian product, since
there are 3 elements in each of the sets A and B. This gives us 9 possible codes. Also
note that the order in which these elements are paired is crucial. For example, the code
(DL, 01) will not be the same as the code (01, DL).
As a final illustration, consider the two sets A= {a1, a2} and
B = {b1, b2, b3, b4} (Fig 2.3).
A × B = {( a1, b1), (a1, b2), (a1, b3), (a1, b4), (a2, b1), (a2, b2),
(a2, b3), (a2, b4)}.
The 8 ordered pairs thus formed can represent the position of points in
the plane if A and B are subsets of the set of real numbers and it is
obvious that the point in the position (a1, b2) will be distinct from the point
Fig 2.3
in the position (b2, a1).
Remarks
(i) Two ordered pairs are equal, if and only if the corresponding first elements
are equal and the second elements are also equal.

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26 MATHEMATICS

(ii) If there are p elements in A and q elements in B, then there will be pq

elements in A × B, i.e., if n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq.
(iii) If A and B are non-empty sets and either A or B is an infinite set, then so is
A × B.
(iv) A × A × A = {(a, b, c) : a, b, c ∈ A}. Here (a, b, c) is called an ordered
triplet.

Example 1 If (x + 1, y – 2) = (3,1), find the values of x and y.

Solution Since the ordered pairs are equal, the corresponding elements are equal.
Therefore x + 1 = 3 and y – 2 = 1.
Solving we get x = 2 and y = 3.
Example 2 If P = {a, b, c} and Q = {r}, form the sets P × Q and Q × P.
Are these two products equal?
Solution By the definition of the cartesian product,
P × Q = {(a, r), (b, r), (c, r)} and Q × P = {(r, a), (r, b), (r, c)}
Since, by the definition of equality of ordered pairs, the pair (a, r) is not equal to the pair
(r, a), we conclude that P × Q ≠ Q × P.
However, the number of elements in each set will be the same.
Example 3 Let A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4} and C = {4,5,6}. Find
(i) A × (B ∩ C) (ii) (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
(iii) A × (B ∪ C) (iv) (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
Solution (i) By the definition of the intersection of two sets, (B ∩ C) = {4}.
Therefore, A × (B ∩ C) = {(1,4), (2,4), (3,4)}.
(ii) Now (A × B) = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,3), (3,4)}
and (A × C) = {(1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6)}
Therefore, (A × B) ∩ (A × C) = {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}.
(iii) Since, (B ∪ C) = {3, 4, 5, 6}, we have
A × (B ∪ C) = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,3),
(3,4), (3,5), (3,6)}.
(iv) Using the sets A × B and A × C from part (ii) above, we obtain
(A × B) ∪ (A × C) = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6),
(3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6)}.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 27

Example 4 If P = {1, 2}, form the set P × P × P.

Solution We have, P × P × P = {(1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,1), (1,2,2), (2,1,1), (2,1,2), (2,2,1),
(2,2,2)}.
Example 5 If R is the set of all real numbers, what do the cartesian products R × R
and R × R × R represent?
Solution The Cartesian product R × R represents the set R × R={(x, y) : x, y ∈ R}
which represents the coordinates of all the points in two dimensional space and the
cartesian product R × R × R represents the set R × R × R ={(x, y, z) : x, y, z ∈ R}
which represents the coordinates of all the points in three-dimensional space.

Example 6 If A × B ={(p, q),(p, r), (m, q), (m, r)}, find A and B.
Solution A = set of first elements = {p, m}
B = set of second elements = {q, r}.

EXERCISE 2.1
x 2 5 1
1. If  + 1, y –  =  ,  , find the values of x and y.
3 3 3 3
2. If the set A has 3 elements and the set B = {3, 4, 5}, then find the number of
elements in (A×B).
3. If G = {7, 8} and H = {5, 4, 2}, find G × H and H × G.
4. State whether each of the following statements are true or false. If the statement
is false, rewrite the given statement correctly.
(i) If P = {m, n} and Q = { n, m}, then P × Q = {(m, n),(n, m)}.
(ii) If A and B are non-empty sets, then A × B is a non-empty set of ordered
pairs (x, y) such that x ∈ A and y ∈ B.
(iii) If A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 4}, then A × (B ∩ φ) = φ.
5. If A = {–1, 1}, find A × A × A.
6. If A × B = {(a, x),(a , y), (b, x), (b, y)}. Find A and B.
7. Let A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, C = {5, 6} and D = {5, 6, 7, 8}. Verify that
(i) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C). (ii) A × C is a subset of B × D.
8. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4}. Write A × B. How many subsets will A × B have?
List them.
9. Let A and B be two sets such that n(A) = 3 and n(B) = 2. If (x, 1), (y, 2), (z, 1)
are in A × B, find A and B, where x, y and z are distinct elements.

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28 MATHEMATICS

10. The Cartesian product A × A has 9 elements among which are found (–1, 0) and
(0,1). Find the set A and the remaining elements of A × A.
2.3 Relations
Consider the two sets P = {a, b, c} and Q = {Ali, Bhanu, Binoy, Chandra, Divya}.
The cartesian product of
P and Q has 15 ordered pairs which
can be listed as P × Q = {(a, Ali),
(a,Bhanu), (a, Binoy), ..., (c, Divya)}.
We can now obtain a subset of
P × Q by introducing a relation R
between the first element x and the
second element y of each ordered pair Fig 2.4
(x, y) as
R= { (x,y): x is the first letter of the name y, x ∈ P, y ∈ Q}.
Then R = {(a, Ali), (b, Bhanu), (b, Binoy), (c, Chandra)}
A visual representation of this relation R (called an arrow diagram) is shown
in Fig 2.4.
Definition 2 A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is a subset of
the cartesian product A × B. The subset is derived by describing a relationship between
the first element and the second element of the ordered pairs in A × B. The second
element is called the image of the first element.
Definition 3 The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R from a set
A to a set B is called the domain of the relation R.
Definition 4 The set of all second elements in a relation R from a set A to a set B is
called the range of the relation R. The whole set B is called the codomain of the
relation R. Note that range ⊂ codomain.
Remarks (i) A relation may be represented algebraically either by the Roster
method or by the Set-builder method.
(ii) An arrow diagram is a visual representation of a relation.
Example 7 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Define a relation R from A to A by
R = {(x, y) : y = x + 1 }
(i) Depict this relation using an arrow diagram.
(ii) Write down the domain, codomain and range of R.
Solution (i) By the definition of the relation,
R = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,5), (5,6)}.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 29

The corresponding arrow diagram is

shown in Fig 2.5.
(ii) We can see that the
domain ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5,}
Similarly, the range = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
and the codomain = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Fig 2.5
Example 8 The Fig 2.6 shows a relation
between the sets P and Q. Write this relation (i) in set-builder form, (ii) in roster form.
What is its domain and range?
Solution It is obvious that the relation R is
“x is the square of y”.
(i) In set-builder form, R = {(x, y): x
is the square of y, x ∈ P, y ∈ Q}
(ii) In roster form, R = {(9, 3),
(9, –3), (4, 2), (4, –2), (25, 5), (25, –5)} Fig 2.6
The domain of this relation is {4, 9, 25}.
The range of this relation is {– 2, 2, –3, 3, –5, 5}.
Note that the element 1 is not related to any element in set P.
The set Q is the codomain of this relation.

A Note The total number of relations that can be defined from a set A to a set B
is the number of possible subsets of A × B. If n(A ) = p and n(B) = q, then
n (A × B) = pq and the total number of relations is 2pq.
Example 9 Let A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4}. Find the number of relations from A to B.
Solution We have,
A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4)}.
Since n (A×B ) = 4, the number of subsets of A×B is 24. Therefore, the number of
relations from A into B will be 24.
Remark A relation R from A to A is also stated as a relation on A.

EXERCISE 2.2
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3,...,14}. Define a relation R from A to A by
R = {(x, y) : 3x – y = 0, where x, y ∈ A}. Write down its domain, codomain and
range.

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30 MATHEMATICS

2. Define a relation R on the set N of natural numbers by R = {(x, y) : y = x + 5,

x is a natural number less than 4; x, y ∈N}. Depict this relationship using roster
form. Write down the domain and the range.
3. A = {1, 2, 3, 5} and B = {4, 6, 9}. Define a relation R from A to B by
R = {(x, y): the difference between x and y is odd; x ∈ A, y ∈ B}. Write R in
roster form.
4. The Fig2.7 shows a relationship
between the sets P and Q. Write this
relation
(i) in set-builder form (ii) roster form.
What is its domain and range?
5. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}. Let R be the
relation on A defined by Fig 2.7
{(a, b): a , b ∈A, b is exactly divisible by a}.
(i) Write R in roster form
(ii) Find the domain of R
(iii) Find the range of R.
6. Determine the domain and range of the relation R defined by
R = {(x, x + 5) : x ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}}.
7. Write the relation R = {(x, x3) : x is a prime number less than 10} in roster form.
8. Let A = {x, y, z} and B = {1, 2}. Find the number of relations from A to B.
9. Let R be the relation on Z defined by R = {(a,b): a, b ∈ Z, a – b is an integer}.
Find the domain and range of R.
2.4 Functions
In this Section, we study a special type of relation called function. It is one of the most
important concepts in mathematics. We can, visualise a function as a rule, which produces
new elements out of some given elements. There are many terms such as ‘map’ or
‘mapping’ used to denote a function.
Definition 5 A relation f from a set A to a set B is said to be a function if every
element of set A has one and only one image in set B.
In other words, a function f is a relation from a non-empty set A to a non-empty
set B such that the domain of f is A and no two distinct ordered pairs in f have the
same first element.
If f is a function from A to B and (a, b) ∈ f, then f (a) = b, where b is called the
image of a under f and a is called the preimage of b under f.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 31

The function f from A to B is denoted by f: A à B.

Looking at the previous examples, we can easily see that the relation in Example 7 is
not a function because the element 6 has no image.
Again, the relation in Example 8 is not a function because the elements in the
domain are connected to more than one images. Similarly, the relation in Example 9 is
also not a function. (Why?) In the examples given below, we will see many more
relations some of which are functions and others are not.
Example 10 Let N be the set of natural numbers and the relation R be defined on
N such that R = {(x, y) : y = 2x, x, y ∈ N}.
What is the domain, codomain and range of R? Is this relation a function?
Solution The domain of R is the set of natural numbers N. The codomain is also N.
The range is the set of even natural numbers.
Since every natural number n has one and only one image, this relation is a
function.
Example 11 Examine each of the following relations given below and state in each
case, giving reasons whether it is a function or not?
(i) R = {(2,1),(3,1), (4,2)}, (ii) R = {(2,2),(2,4),(3,3), (4,4)}
(iii) R = {(1,2),(2,3),(3,4), (4,5), (5,6), (6,7)}
Solution (i) Since 2, 3, 4 are the elements of domain of R having their unique images,
this relation R is a function.
(ii) Since the same first element 2 corresponds to two different images 2
and 4, this relation is not a function.
(iii) Since every element has one and only one image, this relation is a
function.
Definition 6 A function which has either R or one of its subsets as its range is called
a real valued function. Further, if its domain is also either R or a subset of R, it is
called a real function.
Example 12 Let N be the set of natural numbers. Define a real valued function
f : Nà N by f (x) = 2x + 1. Using this definition, complete the table given below.
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y f (1) = ... f (2) = ... f (3) = ... f (4) = ... f (5) = ... f (6) = ... f (7) = ...
Solution The completed table is given by
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y f (1) = 3 f (2) = 5 f (3) = 7 f (4) = 9 f (5) = 11 f (6) = 13 f (7) =15

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32 MATHEMATICS

2.4.1 Some functions and their graphs

(i) Identity function Let R be the set of real numbers. Define the real valued
function f : R → R by y = f(x) = x for each x ∈ R. Such a function is called the
identity function. Here the domain and range of f are R. The graph is a straight line as
shown in Fig 2.8. It passes through the origin.

Fig 2.8
(ii) Constant function Define the function f: R → R by y = f (x) = c, x ∈ R where
c is a constant and each x ∈ R. Here domain of f is R and its range is {c}.

Fig 2.9

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 33

The graph is a line parallel to x-axis. For example, if f(x)=3 for each x∈R, then its
graph will be a line as shown in the Fig 2.9.
(iii) Polynomial function A function f : R → R is said to be polynomial function if
for each x in R, y = f (x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ...+ an xn, where n is a non-negative
integer and a0, a1, a2,...,an∈R.
The functions defined by f(x) = x3 – x2 + 2, and g(x) = x4 + 2 x are some examples
2
of polynomial functions, whereas the function h defined by h(x) = x 3 + 2x is not a
polynomial function.(Why?)
Example 13 Define the function f: R → R by y = f(x) = x2, x ∈ R. Complete the
Table given below by using this definition. What is the domain and range of this function?
Draw the graph of f.
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y = f(x) = x2
Solution The completed Table is given below:
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
2
y = f (x) = x 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16
2
Domain of f = {x : x∈R}. Range of f = {x : x ∈ R}. The graph of f is given
by Fig 2.10

Fig 2.10

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34 MATHEMATICS

Example 14 Draw the graph of the function f :R → R defined by f (x) = x3, x∈R.
Solution We have
f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1, f(–1) = –1, f(2) = 8, f(–2) = –8, f(3) = 27; f(–3) = –27, etc.
Therefore, f = {(x,x3): x∈R}.
The graph of f is given in Fig 2.11.

Fig 2.11
f (x )
(iv) Rational functions are functions of the type , where f(x) and g(x) are
g (x)
polynomial functions of x defined in a domain, where g(x) ≠ 0.
1
Example 15 Define the real valued function f : R – {0} → R defined by f (x) = ,
x
x ∈ R –{0}. Complete the Table given below using this definition. What is the domain
and range of this function?

x –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0.25 0.5 1 1.5 2

1
y = ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
x
Solution The completed Table is given by
x –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0.25 0.5 1 1.5 2

1
y= – 0.5 – 0.67 –1 – 2 4 2 1 0.67 0.5
x

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 35

The domain is all real numbers except 0 and its range is also all real numbers
except 0. The graph of f is given in Fig 2.12.

Fig 2.12

(v) The Modulus function The function

f: R→R defined by f(x) = |x| for each
x ∈R is called modulus function. For each
non-negative value of x, f(x) is equal to x.
But for negative values of x, the value of
f(x) is the negative of the value of x, i.e.,

 x,x ≥ 0
f (x) = 
 − x,x < 0
The graph of the modulus function is given
in Fig 2.13.
(vi) Signum function The function
f:R→R defined by
Fig 2.13
1,if x > 0

f (x ) = 0,if x = 0
−1,if x < 0


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36 MATHEMATICS

is called the signum function. The domain of the signum function is R and the range is
the set {–1, 0, 1}. The graph of the signum function is given by the Fig 2.14.

Fig 2.14

(vii) Greatest integer function

The function f: R → R defined
by f(x) = [x], x ∈R assumes the
value of the greatest integer, less
than or equal to x. Such a function
is called the greatest integer
function.
From the definition of [x], we
can see that
[x] = –1 for –1 ≤ x < 0
[x] = 0 for 0 ≤ x < 1
[x] = 1 for 1 ≤ x < 2
[x] = 2 for 2 ≤ x < 3 and
so on.
Fig 2.15
The graph of the function is
shown in Fig 2.15.
2.4.2 Algebra of real functions In this Section, we shall learn how to add two real
functions, subtract a real function from another, multiply a real function by a scalar
(here by a scalar we mean a real number), multiply two real functions and divide one
real function by another.
(i) Addition of two real functions Let f : X → R and g : X → R be any two real
functions, where X ⊂ R. Then, we define (f + g): X → R by
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x), for all x ∈ X.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 37

(ii) Subtraction of a real function from another Let f : X → R and g: X → R be

any two real functions, where X ⊂ R. Then, we define (f – g) : X → R by
(f–g) (x) = f(x) –g(x), for all x ∈ X.
(iii) Multiplication by a scalar Let f : X→R be a real valued function and α be a
scalar. Here by scalar, we mean a real number. Then the product α f is a function from
X to R defined by (α f ) (x) = α f (x), x ∈X.
(iv) Multiplication of two real functions The product (or multiplication) of two real
functions f:X → R and g:X → R is a function fg:X → R defined by
(fg) (x) = f(x) g(x), for all x ∈ X.
This is also called pointwise multiplication.
(v) Quotient of two real functions Let f and g be two real functions defined from
f
X→R, where X ⊂ R. The quotient of f by g denoted by
g is a function defined by ,

 f  f ( x)
  ( x) = , provided g(x) ≠ 0, x ∈ X
g g ( x)
2
Example 16 Let f(x) = x and g(x) = 2x + 1 be two real functions.Find
 f 
(f + g) (x), (f –g) (x), (fg) (x),   ( x ) .
g
Solution We have,
2 2
(f + g) (x) = x + 2x + 1, (f –g) (x) = x – 2x – 1,

2  f  3 2 x2 1
(fg) (x) = x (2x + 1) = 2x + x ,   ( x ) = ,x ≠ −
g 2x + 1 2
Example 17 Let f(x) = x and g(x) = x be two functions defined over the set of non-
 f 
negative real numbers. Find (f + g) (x), (f – g) (x), (fg) (x) and   (x).
g
Solution We have
(f + g) (x) = x + x, (f – g) (x) = x –x,
3  f  x –
1

(fg) x = x( x ) = x2 and  g  ( x ) = = x 2,x≠0

  x

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38 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 2.3
1. Which of the following relations are functions? Give reasons. If it is a function,
determine its domain and range.
(i) {(2,1), (5,1), (8,1), (11,1), (14,1), (17,1)}
(ii) {(2,1), (4,2), (6,3), (8,4), (10,5), (12,6), (14,7)}
(iii) {(1,3), (1,5), (2,5)}.
2. Find the domain and range of the following real functions:
(i) f(x) = – x (ii) f(x) = 9 − x2 .
3. A function f is defined by f(x) = 2x –5. Write down the values of
(i) f (0), (ii) f (7), (iii) f (–3).
4. The function ‘t’ which maps temperature in degree Celsius into temperature in
9C
degree Fahrenheit is defined by t(C) = + 32.
5
Find (i) t(0) (ii) t(28) (iii) t(–10) (iv) The value of C, when t(C) = 212.
5. Find the range of each of the following functions.
(i) f (x) = 2 – 3x, x ∈ R, x > 0.
(ii) f (x) = x2 + 2, x is a real number.
(iii) f (x) = x, x is a real number.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 18 Let R be the set of real numbers.
Define the real function
f: R→R by f(x) = x + 10
and sketch the graph of this function.
Solution Here f(0) = 10, f(1) = 11, f(2) = 12, ...,
f(10) = 20, etc., and
f(–1) = 9, f(–2) = 8, ..., f(–10) = 0 and so on.
Therefore, shape of the graph of the given
function assumes the form as shown in Fig 2.16.
Remark The function f defined by f(x) = mx + c ,
x ∈ R, is called linear function, where m and c are
constants. Above function is an example of a linear
Fig 2.16
function.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 39

Example 19 Let R be a relation from Q to Q defined by R = {(a,b): a,b ∈ Q and

a – b ∈ Z}. Show that
(i) (a,a) ∈ R for all a ∈ Q
(ii) (a,b) ∈ R implies that (b, a) ∈ R
(iii) (a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ R implies that (a,c) ∈R
Solution (i) Since, a – a = 0 ∈ Z, if follows that (a, a) ∈ R.
(ii) (a,b) ∈ R implies that a – b ∈ Z. So, b – a ∈ Z. Therefore,
(b, a) ∈ R
(iii) (a, b) and (b, c) ∈ R implies that a – b ∈ Z. b – c ∈ Z. So,
a – c = (a – b) + (b – c) ∈ Z. Therefore, (a,c) ∈ R
Example 20 Let f = {(1,1), (2,3), (0, –1), (–1, –3)} be a linear function from Z into Z.
Find f(x).
Solution Since f is a linear function, f (x) = mx + c. Also, since (1, 1), (0, – 1) ∈ R,
f (1) = m + c = 1 and f (0) = c = –1. This gives m = 2 and f(x) = 2x – 1.

x2 + 3x + 5
Example 21 Find the domain of the function f ( x ) =
x2 − 5x + 4
2
Solution Since x –5x + 4 = (x – 4) (x –1), the function f is defined for all real numbers
except at x = 4 and x = 1. Hence the domain of f is R – {1, 4}.
Example 22 The function f is defined by
1− x, x < 0

1 , x=0
f (x) = 
 x + 1, x > 0

Draw the graph of f (x).
Solution Here, f(x) = 1 – x, x < 0, this gives
f(– 4) = 1 – (– 4) = 5;
f(– 3) =1 – (– 3) = 4,
f(– 2) = 1 – (– 2) = 3
f(–1) = 1 – (–1) = 2; etc,
and f(1) = 2, f (2) = 3, f (3) = 4
f(4) = 5 and so on for f(x) = x + 1, x > 0.
Thus, the graph of f is as shown in Fig 2.17 Fig 2.17

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40 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 2

 x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
2
1. The relation f is defined by f (x) = 
3 x,3 ≤ x ≤10

 x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
The relation g is defined by g ( x) = 
3x , 2 ≤ x ≤ 10
Show that f is a function and g is not a function.
2 f (1.1) – f (1)
2. If f (x) = x , find .
(1.1 – 1)

x2 + 2 x + 1
3. Find the domain of the function f (x) = .
x 2 – 8 x + 12
4. Find the domain and the range of the real function f defined by f (x) = ( x − 1) .
5. Find the domain and the range of the real function f defined by f (x) = x – 1 .

 x2  
6. Let f =  x ,  : x ∈ R  be a function from R into R. Determine the range
 1 + x 
2

of f.
7. Let f, g : R→R be defined, respectively by f(x) = x + 1, g(x) = 2x – 3. Find
f
f + g, f – g and
g.
8. Let f = {(1,1), (2,3), (0,–1), (–1, –3)} be a function from Z to Z defined by
f(x) = ax + b, for some integers a, b. Determine a, b.
2
9. Let R be a relation from N to N defined by R = {(a, b) : a, b ∈N and a = b }. Are
the following true?
(i) (a,a) ∈ R, for all a ∈ N (ii) (a,b) ∈ R, implies (b,a) ∈ R
(iii) (a,b) ∈ R, (b,c) ∈ R implies (a,c) ∈ R.
Justify your answer in each case.
10. Let A ={1,2,3,4}, B = {1,5,9,11,15,16} and f = {(1,5), (2,9), (3,1), (4,5), (2,11)}
Are the following true?
(i) f is a relation from A to B (ii) f is a function from A to B.
Justify your answer in each case.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 41

11. Let f be the subset of Z × Z defined by f = {(ab, a + b) : a, b ∈ Z}. Is f a

function from Z to Z? Justify your answer.
12. Let A = {9,10,11,12,13} and let f : A→N be defined by f (n) = the highest prime
factor of n. Find the range of f.

Summary
In this Chapter, we studied about relations and functions.The main features of
this Chapter are as follows:
® Ordered pair A pair of elements grouped together in a particular order.
® Cartesian product A × B of two sets A and B is given by
A × B = {(a, b): a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
In particular R × R = {(x, y): x, y ∈ R}
and R × R × R = {(x, y, z): x, y, z ∈ R}
® If (a, b) = (x, y), then a = x and b = y.
® If n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq.
®A×φ=φ
® In general, A × B ≠ B × A.
® Relation A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the cartesian
product A × B obtained by describing a relationship between the first element
x and the second element y of the ordered pairs in A × B.
® The image of an element x under a relation R is given by y, where (x, y) ∈ R,
® The domain of R is the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a
relation R.
® The range of the relation R is the set of all second elements of the ordered
pairs in a relation R.
® Function A function f from a set A to a set B is a specific type of relation for
which every element x of set A has one and only one image y in set B.
We write f: A→B, where f(x) = y.
® A is the domain and B is the codomain of f.

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42 MATHEMATICS

® The range of the function is the set of images.

® A real function has the set of real numbers or one of its subsets both as its
domain and as its range.
® Algebra of functions For functions f : X → R and g : X → R, we have
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g(x), x ∈ X
(f – g) (x) = f (x) – g(x), x ∈ X
(f.g) (x) = f (x) .g (x), x ∈ X
(kf) (x) = k ( f (x) ), x ∈ X, where k is a real number.
f f ( x)
  (x) = g ( x ) , x ∈ X, g(x) ≠ 0
g

Historical Note
The word FUNCTION first appears in a Latin manuscript “Methodus
tangentium inversa, seu de fuctionibus” written by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz
(1646-1716) in 1673; Leibnitz used the word in the non-analytical sense. He
considered a function in terms of “mathematical job” – the “employee” being
just a curve.
On July 5, 1698, Johan Bernoulli, in a letter to Leibnitz, for the first time
deliberately assigned a specialised use of the term function in the analytical
sense. At the end of that month, Leibnitz replied showing his approval.
Function is found in English in 1779 in Chambers’ Cyclopaedia: “The
term function is used in algebra, for an analytical expression any way compounded
of a variable quantity, and of numbers, or constant quantities”.

—v —

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 Chapter 3
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
vA mathematician knows how to solve a problem,
he can not solve it. – MILNE v

3.1 Introduction
The word ‘trigonometry’ is derived from the Greek words
‘trigon’ and ‘metron’ and it means ‘measuring the sides of
a triangle’. The subject was originally developed to solve
geometric problems involving triangles. It was studied by
sea captains for navigation, surveyor to map out the new
lands, by engineers and others. Currently, trigonometry is
used in many areas such as the science of seismology,
designing electric circuits, describing the state of an atom,
predicting the heights of tides in the ocean, analysing a
musical tone and in many other areas.
In earlier classes, we have studied the trigonometric Arya Bhatt
ratios of acute angles as the ratio of the sides of a right (476-550)
angled triangle. We have also studied the trigonometric identities and application of
trigonometric ratios in solving the problems related to heights and distances. In this
Chapter, we will generalise the concept of trigonometric ratios to trigonometric functions
and study their properties.
3.2 Angles
Angle is a measure of rotation of a given ray about its initial point. The original ray is
Vertex

Fig 3.1

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44 MATHEMATICS

called the initial side and the final position of the ray after rotation is called the
terminal side of the angle. The point of rotation is called the vertex. If the direction of
rotation is anticlockwise, the angle is said to be positive and if the direction of rotation
is clockwise, then the angle is negative (Fig 3.1).
The measure of an angle is the amount of
rotation performed to get the terminal side from
the initial side. There are several units for
measuring angles. The definition of an angle Fig 3.2
suggests a unit, viz. one complete revolution from the position of the initial side as
indicated in Fig 3.2.
This is often convenient for large angles. For example, we can say that a rapidly
spinning wheel is making an angle of say 15 revolution per second. We shall describe
two other units of measurement of an angle which are most commonly used, viz.
degree measure and radian measure.
th
 1 
3.2.1 Degree measure If a rotation from the initial side to terminal side is   of
 360 
a revolution, the angle is said to have a measure of one degree, written as 1°. A degree is
divided into 60 minutes, and a minute is divided into 60 seconds . One sixtieth of a degree is
called a minute, written as 1′, and one sixtieth of a minute is called a second, written as 1″.
Thus, 1° = 60′, 1′ = 60″
Some of the angles whose measures are 360°,180°, 270°, 420°, – 30°, – 420° are
shown in Fig 3.3.

Fig 3.3

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 45

3.2.2 Radian measure There is another unit for measurement of an angle, called
the radian measure. Angle subtended at the centre by an arc of length 1 unit in a
unit circle (circle of radius 1 unit) is said to have a measure of 1 radian. In the Fig
3.4(i) to (iv), OA is the initial side and OB is the terminal side. The figures show the
1 1
angles whose measures are 1 radian, –1 radian, 1 radian and –1 radian.
2 2

(i) (ii)
(iii)

(iv)
Fig 3.4 (i) to (iv)
We know that the circumference of a circle of radius 1 unit is 2π. Thus, one
complete revolution of the initial side subtends an angle of 2π radian.
More generally, in a circle of radius r, an arc of length r will subtend an angle of
1 radian. It is well-known that equal arcs of a circle subtend equal angle at the centre.
Since in a circle of radius r, an arc of length r subtends an angle whose measure is 1
l
radian, an arc of length l will subtend an angle whose measure is radian. Thus, if in
r
a circle of radius r, an arc of length l subtends an angle θ radian at the centre, we have
l
θ = or l = r θ.
r

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46 MATHEMATICS

P
3.2.3 Relation between radian and real numbers
2
Consider the unit circle with centre O. Let A be any point
on the circle. Consider OA as initial side of an angle.
Then the length of an arc of the circle will give the radian 1
measure of the angle which the arc will subtend at the
centre of the circle. Consider the line PAQ which is
1 A 0
tangent to the circle at A. Let the point A represent the O
real number zero, AP represents positive real number and
AQ represents negative real numbers (Fig 3.5). If we
−1
rope the line AP in the anticlockwise direction along the
circle, and AQ in the clockwise direction, then every real
number will correspond to a radian measure and −2
conversely. Thus, radian measures and real numbers can Fig 3.5 Q
be considered as one and the same.

3.2.4 Relation between degree and radian Since a circle subtends at the centre
an angle whose radian measure is 2π and its degree measure is 360°, it follows that
2π radian = 360° or π radian = 180°
The above relation enables us to express a radian measure in terms of degree
measure and a degree measure in terms of radian measure. Using approximate value
22
of π as , we have
7
180°
1 radian = = 57° 16′ approximately.
π

π
Also 1° = radian = 0.01746 radian approximately.
180

The relation between degree measures and radian measure of some common angles
are given in the following table:

Degree 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π π π π 3π
Radian π 2π
6 4 3 2 2

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 47

Notational Convention
Since angles are measured either in degrees or in radians, we adopt the convention
that whenever we write angle θ°, we mean the angle whose degree measure is θ and
whenever we write angle β, we mean the angle whose radian measure is β.
Note that when an angle is expressed in radians, the word ‘radian’ is frequently
π π
omitted. Thus, π = 180° and = 45° are written with the understanding that π and
4 4
are radian measures. Thus, we can say that
π
180 ×
Radian measure = Degree measure

180
Degree measure = × Radian measure
π
Example 1 Convert 40° 20′ into radian measure.
Solution We know that 180° = π radian.
1 π 121 121π
Hence 40° 20′ = 40 degree = × radian = radian.
3 180 3 540
121π
Therefore 40° 20′ = radian.
540
Example 2 Convert 6 radians into degree measure.
Solution We know that π radian = 180°.
180 1080 × 7
Hence 6 radians = × 6 degree = degree
π 22
7 7 × 60
= 343 degree = 343° + minute [as 1° = 60′]
11 11
2
= 343° + 38′ + minute [as 1′ = 60″]
11
= 343° + 38′ + 10.9″ = 343°38′ 11″ approximately.
Hence 6 radians = 343° 38′ 11″ approximately.
Example 3 Find the radius of the circle in which a central angle of 60° intercepts an
22
arc of length 37.4 cm (use π = ).
7

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48 MATHEMATICS

60π π
Solution Here l = 37.4 cm and θ = 60° = radian =
180 3
l
Hence, by r = , we have
θ
37.4×3 37.4×3×7
r= = = 35.7 cm
π 22
Example 4 The minute hand of a watch is 1.5 cm long. How far does its tip move in
40 minutes? (Use π = 3.14).
Solution In 60 minutes, the minute hand of a watch completes one revolution. Therefore,
2 2
in 40 minutes, the minute hand turns through of a revolution. Therefore, θ = × 360°
3 3
4π
or radian. Hence, the required distance travelled is given by
3
4π
l = r θ = 1.5 × cm = 2π cm = 2 × 3.14 cm = 6.28 cm.
3
Example 5 If the arcs of the same lengths in two circles subtend angles 65°and 110°
at the centre, find the ratio of their radii.
Solution Let r1 and r2 be the radii of the two circles. Given that
π 13π
θ1 = 65° = × 65 = radian
180 36
π 22π
and θ2 = 110° = × 110 = radian
180 36
Let l be the length of each of the arc. Then l = r1θ1 = r2θ2, which gives
13π 22π r1 22
× r1 = × r2 , i.e., r =
36 36 2 13
Hence r1 : r2 = 22 : 13.

EXERCISE 3.1
1. Find the radian measures corresponding to the following degree measures:
(i) 25° (ii) – 47°30′ (iii) 240° (iv) 520°

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 49

2. Find the degree measures corresponding to the following radian measures

22
(Use π = ).
7
11 5π 7π
(i) (ii) – 4 (iii) (iv)
16 3 6
3. A wheel makes 360 revolutions in one minute. Through how many radians does
it turn in one second?
4. Find the degree measure of the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of
22
radius 100 cm by an arc of length 22 cm (Use π = ).
7
5. In a circle of diameter 40 cm, the length of a chord is 20 cm. Find the length of
minor arc of the chord.
6. If in two circles, arcs of the same length subtend angles 60° and 75° at the
centre, find the ratio of their radii.
7. Find the angle in radian through which a pendulum swings if its length is 75 cm
and th e tip describes an arc of length
(i) 10 cm (ii) 15 cm (iii) 21 cm
3.3 Trigonometric Functions
In earlier classes, we have studied trigonometric ratios for acute angles as the ratio of
sides of a right angled triangle. We will now extend the definition of trigonometric
ratios to any angle in terms of radian measure and study them as trigonometric functions.
Consider a unit circle with centre
at origin of the coordinate axes. Let
P (a, b) be any point on the circle with
angle AOP = x radian, i.e., length of arc
AP = x (Fig 3.6).
We define cos x = a and sin x = b
Since ∆OMP is a right triangle, we have
OM2 + MP2 = OP2 or a2 + b2 = 1
Thus, for every point on the unit circle,
we have
a2 + b2 = 1 or cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
Since one complete revolution
subtends an angle of 2π radian at the
π
centre of the circle, ∠AOB = , Fig 3.6
2

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50 MATHEMATICS

3π π
∠AOC = π and ∠AOD = . All angles which are integral multiples of are called
2 2
quadrantal angles. The coordinates of the points A, B, C and D are, respectively,
(1, 0), (0, 1), (–1, 0) and (0, –1). Therefore, for quadrantal angles, we have
cos 0° = 1 sin 0° = 0,
π π
cos =0 sin =1
2 2
cosπ = − 1 sinπ = 0
3π 3π
cos =0 sin = –1
2 2
cos 2π = 1 sin 2π = 0
Now, if we take one complete revolution from the point P, we again come back to
same point P. Thus, we also observe that if x increases (or decreases) by any integral
multiple of 2π, the values of sine and cosine functions do not change. Thus,
sin (2nπ + x) = sin x , n ∈ Z , cos (2nπ + x) = cos x , n ∈ Z
Further, sin x = 0, if x = 0, ± π, ± 2π , ± 3π, ..., i.e., when x is an integral multiple of π
π 3π 5π
and cos x = 0, if x = ± ,± ,± , ... i.e., cos x vanishes when x is an odd
2 2 2
π
multiple of . Thus
2
π, where n is any integer
sin x = 0 implies x = nπ,
π
cos x = 0 implies x = (2n + 1) , where n is any integer.
2
We now define other trigonometric functions in terms of sine and cosine functions:
1
cosec x = , x ≠ nπ, where n is any integer.
sin x
1 π
sec x = , x ≠ (2n + 1) , where n is any integer.
cos x 2
sin x π
tan x = , x ≠ (2n +1) , where n is any integer.
cos x 2
cos x
cot x = , x ≠ n π, where n is any integer.
sin x

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 51

We have shown that for all real x, sin2 x + cos2 x = 1

It follows that

1 + tan2 x = sec2 x (why?)

1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x (why?)

In earlier classes, we have discussed the values of trigonometric ratios for 0°,
30°, 45°, 60° and 90°. The values of trigonometric functions for these angles are same
as that of trigonometric ratios studied in earlier classes. Thus, we have the following
table:
π π π π 3π
0° π 2π
6 4 3 2 2
1 1 3
sin 0 1 0 –1 0
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos 1 0 –1 0 1
2 2 2
1 not not
tan 0 1 3 0 0
3 defined defined

The values of cosec x, sec x and cot x

are the reciprocal of the values of sin x,
cos x and tan x, respectively.
3.3.1 Sign of trigonometric functions
Let P (a, b) be a point on the unit circle
with centre at the origin such that
∠AOP = x. If ∠AOQ = – x, then the
coordinates of the point Q will be (a, –b)
(Fig 3.7). Therefore
cos (– x) = cos x
and sin (– x) = – sin x
Since for every point P (a, b) on
the unit circle, – 1 ≤ a ≤ 1 and Fig 3.7

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52 MATHEMATICS

– 1 ≤ b ≤ 1, we have – 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 and –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for all x. We have learnt in

π
previous classes that in the first quadrant (0 < x < ) a and b are both positive, in the
2
π
second quadrant ( < x <π) a is negative and b is positive, in the third quadrant
2
3π 3π
(π < x < ) a and b are both negative and in the fourth quadrant ( < x < 2π) a is
2 2
positive and b is negative. Therefore, sin x is positive for 0 < x < π, and negative for
π π 3π
π < x < 2π. Similarly, cos x is positive for 0 < x < , negative for < x < and also
2 2 2
3π
positive for < x < 2π. Likewise, we can find the signs of other trigonometric
2

functions in different quadrants. In fact, we have the following table.

I II III IV

sin x + + – –

cos x + – – +

tan x + – + –

cosec x + + – –

sec x + – – +

cot x + – + –

3.3.2 Domain and range of trigonometric functions From the definition of sine
and cosine functions, we observe that they are defined for all real numbers. Further,
we observe that for each real number x,
– 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 and – 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
Thus, domain of y = sin x and y = cos x is the set of all real numbers and range
is the interval [–1, 1], i.e., – 1 ≤ y ≤ 1.

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 53

1
Since cosec x =
sin x , the domain of y = cosec x is the set { x : x ∈ R and
x ≠ n π, n ∈ Z} and range is the set {y : y ∈ R, y ≥ 1 or y ≤ – 1}. Similarly, the domain
π
of y = sec x is the set {x : x ∈ R and x ≠ (2n + 1)
, n ∈ Z} and range is the set
2
{y : y ∈ R, y ≤ – 1or y ≥ 1}. The domain of y = tan x is the set {x : x ∈ R and
π
x ≠ (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z} and range is the set of all real numbers. The domain of
2
y = cot x is the set {x : x ∈ R and x ≠ n π, n ∈ Z} and the range is the set of all real
numbers.
π
We further observe that in the first quadrant, as x increases from 0 to , sin x
2
π
increases from 0 to 1, as x increases from to π, sin x decreases from 1 to 0. In the
2
3π
third quadrant, as x increases from π to , sin x decreases from 0 to –1and finally, in
2
3π
the fourth quadrant, sin x increases from –1 to 0 as x increases from to 2π.
2
Similarly, we can discuss the behaviour of other trigonometric functions. In fact, we
have the following table:

I quadrant II quadrant III quadrant IV quadrant

sin increases from 0 to 1 decreases from 1 to 0 decreases from 0 to –1 increases from –1 to 0

cos decreases from 1 to 0 decreases from 0 to – 1 increases from –1 to 0 increases from 0 to 1

tan increases from 0 to ∞ increases from –∞to 0 increases from 0 to ∞ increases from –∞to 0

cot decreases from ∞ to 0 decreases from 0 to–∞ decreases from ∞ to 0 decreases from 0to –∞

sec increases from 1 to ∞ increases from –∞to–1 decreases from –1to–∞ decreases from ∞ to 1

cosec decreases from ∞ to 1 increases from 1 to ∞ increases from –∞to–1 decreases from–1to–∞

Remark In the above table, the statement tan x increases from 0 to ∞ (infinity) for
π π
0<x< simply means that tan x increases as x increases for 0 < x < and
2 2

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54 MATHEMATICS

π
assumes arbitraily large positive values as x approaches to . Similarly, to say that
2
cosec x decreases from –1 to – ∞ (minus infinity) in the fourth quadrant means that
3π
cosec x decreases for x ∈ ( , 2π) and assumes arbitrarily large negative values as
2
x approaches to 2π. The symbols ∞ and – ∞ simply specify certain types of behaviour
of functions and variables.
We have already seen that values of sin x and cos x repeats after an interval of
2π. Hence, values of cosec x and sec x will also repeat after an interval of 2π. We

Fig 3.8

Fig 3.9

Fig 3.10 Fig 3.11

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 55

Fig 3.12 Fig 3.13

shall see in the next section that tan (π + x) = tan x. Hence, values of tan x will repeat
after an interval of π. Since cot x is reciprocal of tan x, its values will also repeat after
an interval of π. Using this knowledge and behaviour of trigonometic functions, we can
sketch the graph of these functions. The graph of these functions are given above:

Example 6 If cos x = – 3 , x lies in the third quadrant, find the values of other five
5
trigonometric functions.
3 5
Solution Since cos x = − , we have sec x = −
5 3
2 2 2 2
Now sin x + cos x = 1, i.e., sin x = 1 – cos x
9 16
or sin2 x = 1 – =
25 25
4
Hence sin x = ±
5
Since x lies in third quadrant, sin x is negative. Therefore
4
sin x = –
5
which also gives
5
cosec x = –
4

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56 MATHEMATICS

Further, we have
sin x 4 cos x 3
tan x = = and cot x = = .
cos x 3 sin x 4
5
Example 7 If cot x = – , x lies in second quadrant, find the values of other five
12
trigonometric functions.

5 12
Solution Since cot x = – , we have tan x = –
12 5
144 169
Now sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + =
25 25
13
Hence sec x = ±
5
Since x lies in second quadrant, sec x will be negative. Therefore
13
sec x = – ,
5
which also gives
5
cos x = −
13
Further, we have
12 5 12
sin x = tan x cos x = (– ) × (– )=
5 13 13
1 13
and cosec x = = .
sin x 12

31π
Example 8 Find the value of sin .
3
Solution We know that values of sin x repeats after an interval of 2π. Therefore

31π π π 3
sin = sin (10π + ) = sin = .
3 3 3 2

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 57

Example 9 Find the value of cos (–1710°).

Solution We know that values of cos x repeats after an interval of 2π or 360°.
Therefore, cos (–1710°) = cos (–1710° + 5 × 360°)
= cos (–1710° + 1800°) = cos 90° = 0.

EXERCISE 3.2
Find the values of other five trigonometric functions in Exercises 1 to 5.

1
1. cos x = – , x lies in third quadrant.
2
3
2. sin x = , x lies in second quadrant.
5
3
3. cot x = , x lies in third quadrant.
4
13
4. sec x = , x lies in fourth quadrant.
5
5
5. tan x = – , x lies in second quadrant.
12
Find the values of the trigonometric functions in Exercises 6 to 10.
6. sin 765° 7. cosec (– 1410°)
19π 11π
8. tan 9. sin (– )
3 3
15π
10. cot (– )
4
3.4 Trigonometric Functions of Sum and Difference of Two Angles
In this Section, we shall derive expressions for trigonometric functions of the sum and
difference of two numbers (angles) and related expressions. The basic results in this
connection are called trigonometric identities. We have seen that

1. sin (– x) = – sin x
2. cos (– x) = cos x
We shall now prove some more results:

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58 MATHEMATICS

3. cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y

Consider the unit circle with centre at the origin. Let x be the angle P4OP1and y be
the angle P1OP2. Then (x + y) is the angle P4OP2. Also let (– y) be the angle P4OP3.
Therefore, P 1 , P 2 , P 3 and P 4 will have the coordinates P 1 (cos x, sin x),
P2 [cos (x + y), sin (x + y)], P3 [cos (– y), sin (– y)] and P4 (1, 0) (Fig 3.14).

Fig 3.14
Consider the triangles P1OP3 and P2OP4. They are congruent (Why?). Therefore,
P1P3 and P2P4 are equal. By using distance formula, we get
P 1P 32 = [cos x – cos (– y)]2 + [sin x – sin(–y]2
= (cos x – cos y)2 + (sin x + sin y)2
= cos2 x + cos2 y – 2 cos x cos y + sin2 x + sin2 y + 2sin x sin y
= 2 – 2 (cos x cos y – sin x sin y) (Why?)
Also, P 2P 42 = [1 – cos (x + y)] 2 + [0 – sin (x + y)]2
= 1 – 2cos (x + y) + cos2 (x + y) + sin2 (x + y)
= 2 – 2 cos (x + y)

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 59

Since P 1 P 3 = P2P4, we have P1P32 = P2P42.

Therefore, 2 –2 (cos x cos y – sin x sin y) = 2 – 2 cos (x + y).
Hence cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y
4 . cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
Replacing y by – y in identity 3, we get
cos (x + (– y)) = cos x cos (– y) – sin x sin (– y)
or cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
π
5. cos ( – x ) = sin x
2
π
If we replace x by and y by x in Identity (4), we get
2
π π π
cos ( − x ) = cos cos x + sin sin x = sin x.
2 2 2
π
6. sin ( – x ) = cos x
2
Using the Identity 5, we have
π π  π 
sin (− x ) = cos  −  − x   = cos x.
2 2  2 
7. sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
We know that
π   π 
sin (x + y) = cos  − (x + y )  = cos  ( − x) − y 
2   2 
π π
= cos ( − x ) cos y + sin ( − x) sin y
2 2
= sin x cos y + cos x sin y
8. sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y
If we replace y by –y, in the Identity 7, we get the result.
9. By taking suitable values of x and y in the identities 3, 4, 7 and 8, we get the
following results:
π π
cos ( + x ) = – sin x sin ( + x ) = cos x
2 2
π – x) = – cos x
cos (π π – x) = sin x
sin (π

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60 MATHEMATICS

π + x) = – cos x
cos (π π + x) = – sin x
sin (π
cos (2ππ – x) = cos x sin (2ππ – x) = – sin x
Similar results for tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x can be obtained from the results of sin
x and cos x.
π
10. If none of the angles x, y and (x + y) is an odd multiple of , then
2
tan x + tan y
tan (x + y) =
1 – tan x tan y

π
Since none of the x, y and (x + y) is an odd multiple of , it follows that cos x,
2
cos y and cos (x + y) are non-zero. Now
sin( x + y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
tan (x + y) = = .
cos( x + y ) cos x cos y − sin x sin y
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos x cos y, we have

sin x cos y cos x sin y

+
cos x cos y cos x cos y
tan (x + y) =
cos x cos y sin x sin y
−
cos x cos y cos x cos y

tan x + tan y
= 1 – tan x tan y

tan x – tan y
11. tan ( x – y) =
1 + tan x tan y
If we replace y by – y in Identity 10, we get
tan (x – y) = tan [x + (– y)]
tan x + tan (− y ) tan x − tan y
= =
1 − tan x tan ( − y ) 1+ tan x tan y
12. If none of the angles x, y and (x + y) is a multiple of π, then
cot x cot y – 1
cot ( x + y) =
cot y + cot x

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 61

Since, none of the x, y and (x + y) is multiple of π, we find that sin x sin y and
sin (x + y) are non-zero. Now,
cos ( x + y ) cos x cos y – sin x sin y
cot ( x + y) = =
sin ( x + y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
Dividing numerator and denominator by sin x sin y, we have
cot x cot y – 1
cot (x + y) =
cot y + cot x

cot x cot y + 1
13. cot (x – y) = if none of angles x, y and x–y is a multiple of π
cot y – cot x
If we replace y by –y in identity 12, we get the result

2 2 2
1 – tan 2 x 2
14. cos 2x = cos x – sin x = 2 cos x – 1 = 1 – 2 sin x =
1 + tan 2 x
We know that
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y
Replacing y by x, we get
cos 2x = cos2x – sin2 x
= cos2 x – (1 – cos2 x) = 2 cos2x – 1
Again, cos 2x = cos2 x – sin2 x
= 1 – sin2 x – sin2 x = 1 – 2 sin2 x.

2
cos2 x − sin 2 x
2
We have cos 2x = cos x – sin x =
cos2 x + sin 2 x
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos2 x, we get
1 – tan 2 x π
cos 2x = 2 ,
x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 + tan x 2

2tan x π
15. sin 2x = 2 sinx cos x = 2 x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 + tan x 2
We have
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
Replacing y by x, we get sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x.
2sin x cos x
Again sin 2x =
cos2 x + sin 2 x

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62 MATHEMATICS

Dividing each term by cos2 x, we get

2tan x
sin 2x =
1 +tan 2 x

2tan x π
16. tan 2x = 2 if 2 x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 – tan x 2
We know that
tan x + tan y
tan (x + y) = 1 – tan x tan y

2 tan x
Replacing y by x , we get tan 2 x =
1− tan 2 x
17. sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x
We have,
sin 3x = sin (2x + x)
= sin 2x cos x + cos 2x sin x
= 2 sin x cos x cos x + (1 – 2sin2 x) sin x
= 2 sin x (1 – sin2 x) + sin x – 2 sin3 x
= 2 sin x – 2 sin3 x + sin x – 2 sin3 x
= 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x
18. cos 3x = 4 cos3 x – 3 cos x
We have,
cos 3x = cos (2x +x)
= cos 2x cos x – sin 2x sin x
= (2cos2 x – 1) cos x – 2sin x cos x sin x
= (2cos2 x – 1) cos x – 2cos x (1 – cos2 x)
= 2cos3 x – cos x – 2cos x + 2 cos3 x
= 4cos3 x – 3cos x.
3 tan x – tan 3 x π
19. tan 3 x = if 3 x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 – 3tan 2 x 2
We have tan 3x =tan (2x + x)
2tan x
+ tan x
tan 2 x + tan x 1 – tan 2 x
= =
1 – tan 2 x tan x 1 – 2tan x . tan x
1 – tan 2 x

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 63

2tan x + tan x – tan 3 x 3 tan x – tan 3 x

= =
1 – tan 2 x – 2tan 2 x 1 – 3tan 2 x

x+ y x– y
20. (i) cos x + cos y = 2cos cos
2 2
x+ y x– y
(ii) cos x – cos y = – 2sin sin
2 2
x+ y x– y
(iii) sin x + sin y = 2sin cos
2 2
x+ y x– y
(iv) sin x – sin y = 2cos sin
2 2
We know that
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y ... (1)
and cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y ... (2)
Adding and subtracting (1) and (2), we get
cos (x + y) + cos(x – y) = 2 cos x cos y ... (3)
and cos (x + y) – cos (x – y) = – 2 sin x sin y ... (4)
Further sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y ... (5)
and sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y ... (6)
Adding and subtracting (5) and (6), we get
sin (x + y) + sin (x – y) = 2 sin x cos y ... (7)
sin (x + y) – sin (x – y) = 2cos x sin y ... (8)
Let x + y = θ and x – y = φ. Therefore
 θ+ φ   θ−φ 
x =  and y =  
 2   2 
Substituting the values of x and y in (3), (4), (7) and (8), we get
 θ+φ   θ −φ 
cos θ + cos φ = 2 cos   cos  
 2   2 

θ+φ θ – φ
cos θ – cos φ = – 2 sin   sin  
 2   2 

 θ+φ   θ−φ 
sin θ + sin φ = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 

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64 MATHEMATICS

 θ+φ   θ−φ 
sin θ – sin φ = 2 cos   sin  
 2   2 
Since θ and φ can take any real values, we can replace θ by x and φ by y.
Thus, we get
x+ y x− y x+ y x− y
cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos ; cos x – cos y = – 2 sin sin ,
2 2 2 2
x+ y x− y x+ y x− y
sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos ; sin x – sin y = 2 cos sin .
2 2 2 2
Remark As a part of identities given in 20, we can prove the following results:
21. (i) 2 cos x cos y = cos (x + y) + cos (x – y)
(ii) –2 sin x sin y = cos (x + y) – cos (x – y)
(iii) 2 sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x – y)
(iv) 2 cos x sin y = sin (x + y) – sin (x – y).
Example 10 Prove that
π π 5π π
3sin sec − 4sin cot =1
6 3 6 4
Solution We have
π π 5π π
L.H.S. = 3sin sec − 4sin cot
6 3 6 4
1  π π
=3× × 2 – 4 sin  π −  × 1 = 3 – 4 sin
2  6 6
1
=3–4× = 1 = R.H.S.
2
Example 11 Find the value of sin 15°.
Solution We have
sin 15° = sin (45° – 30°)
= sin 45° cos 30° – cos 45° sin 30°
1 3 1 1 3 –1
= × − × = .
2 2 2 2 2 2
13 π
Example 12 Find the value of tan .
12

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 65

Solution We have
13 π  π π π π
tan = tan  π +  = tan = tan  − 
12  12  12 4 6

π π 1−
1
tan − tan
4 6 3 = 3 −1 = 2 − 3
= =
π π 1 3 +1
1 + tan tan 1+
4 6 3

Example 13 Prove that

sin ( x + y ) tan x + tan y
=
sin ( x − y ) tan x − tan y .

Solution We have
sin (x + y) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
L.H.S. = =
sin (x − y ) sin x cos y − cos x sin y
Dividing the numerator and denominator by cos x cos y, we get
sin ( x + y ) tan x + tan y
=
sin ( x − y ) tan x − tan y .

Example 14 Show that

tan 3 x tan 2 x tan x = tan 3x – tan 2 x – tan x
Solution We know that 3x = 2x + x
Therefore, tan 3x = tan (2x + x)
tan 2 x + tan x
or tan 3x =
1– tan 2 x tan x
or tan 3x – tan 3x tan 2x tan x = tan 2x + tan x
or tan 3x – tan 2x – tan x = tan 3x tan 2x tan x
or tan 3x tan 2x tan x = tan 3x – tan 2x – tan x.
Example 15 Prove that
π  π 
cos  + x  + cos  − x  = 2 cos x
4  4 
Solution Using the Identity 20(i), we have

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66 MATHEMATICS

π  π 
L.H.S. = cos  + x  + cos  − x 
4  4 

π π  π π 
 4 +x+ 4 −x  4 + x – ( 4 − x) 
= 2cos   cos  
 2   2 
   

π 1
= 2 cos cos x = 2 × cos x = 2 cos x = R.H.S.
4 2

cos 7 x + cos 5 x
Example 16 Prove that = cot x
sin 7 x – sin 5 x

Solution Using the Identities 20 (i) and 20 (iv), we get

7 x + 5x 7 x − 5x
2cos cos cos x
2 2 = cot x = R.H.S.
L.H.S. = =
7 x + 5x 7 x − 5x sin x
2cos sin
2 2

sin 5 x − 2sin 3x + sin x

Example 17 Prove that = = tan x
cos5 x − cos x

Solution We have

sin 5 x − 2sin 3 x + sin x sin 5 x + sin x − 2sin 3x

L.H.S. = =
cos5 x − cos x cos5 x − cos x

2sin 3 x cos 2 x − 2sin 3 x sin 3 x (cos 2 x − 1)

= =–
– 2sin 3x sin 2x sin 3x sin 2x

1− cos 2 x 2sin 2 x
= = = tan x = R.H.S.
sin 2 x 2sin x cos x

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 67

EXERCISE 3.3
Prove that:
π π π 1 π 7π π 3
1. sin2 + cos2 – tan2 = – 2. 2sin2 + cosec2 cos 2 =
6 3 4 2 6 6 3 2
π 5π π 2 3π π π
3. cot
2
+ cosec + 3tan 2 = 6 4. 2sin + 2cos 2 + 2sec 2 = 10
6 6 6 4 4 3
5. Find the value of:
(i) sin 75° (ii) tan 15°

Prove the following:

π  π  π  π 
6. cos  − x  cos  − y  − sin  − x  sin  − y  = sin ( x + y )
 4   4   4   4 

π 
tan  + x  2
 4  =  1 + tan x cos (π + x) cos ( − x )
7.   8. = cot 2 x
π   1 − tan x π 
tan  − x  sin (π − x) cos  + x 
4  2 

 3π    3π  
9. cos  + x  cos (2 π + x)  cot  − x  + cot (2π + x)  = 1
 2    2  
10. sin (n + 1)x sin (n + 2)x + cos (n + 1)x cos (n + 2)x = cos x
 3π   3π 
11. cos  + x  − cos  − x  = − 2 sin x
 4   4 
12. sin2 6x – sin2 4x = sin 2x sin 10x 13. cos2 2x – cos2 6x = sin 4x sin 8x
14. sin2 x + 2 sin 4x + sin 6x = 4 cos2 x sin 4x
15. cot 4x (sin 5x + sin 3x) = cot x (sin 5x – sin 3x)
cos 9 x − cos 5 x sin 2 x sin 5x + sin 3 x
16. =− 17. = tan 4 x
sin 17 x − sin 3 x cos 10 x cos 5x + cos 3 x
sin x − sin y x−y sin x + sin 3 x
18. = tan 19. = tan 2 x
cos x + cos y 2 cos x + cos 3 x
sin x − sin 3x cos 4 x + cos 3x + cos 2 x
20. = 2 sin x 21. = cot 3x
2
sin x − cos x
2
sin 4 x + sin 3x + sin 2 x

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68 MATHEMATICS

22. cot x cot 2x – cot 2x cot 3x – cot 3x cot x = 1

4tan x (1 − tan 2 x)
23. tan 4 x = 24. cos 4x = 1 – 8sin2 x cos2 x
1 − 6 tan 2 x + tan 4 x

25. cos 6x = 32 cos6 x – 48cos4 x + 18 cos2 x – 1

Miscellaneous Examples
3 12
Example 18 If sin x = , cos y = − , where x and y both lie in second quadrant,
5 13
find the value of sin (x + y).
Solution We know that
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y ... (1)
9 16
Now cos2 x = 1 – sin2 x = 1 – =
25 25
4
Therefore cos x = ± .
5
Since x lies in second quadrant, cos x is negative.
4
Hence cos x = −
5
144 25
Now sin2y = 1 – cos2y = 1 – =
169 169
5
i.e. sin y = ± .
13
5
Since y lies in second quadrant, hence sin y is positive. Therefore, sin y = . Substituting
13
the values of sin x, sin y, cos x and cos y in (1), we get
3  12   4  5 36 20 56
sin( x + y ) = ×  −  +  − × = − − =− .
5  13   5  13 65 65 65
Example 19 Prove that
x 9x 5x
cos 2 x cos − cos 3 x cos = sin 5 x sin .
2 2 2
Solution We have

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 69

1  x 9x 
L.H.S. =  2cos 2 x cos − 2cos cos 3x 
2  2 2 

1  x  x  9x   9x 
=  cos  2 x +  + cos  2 x −  − cos  + 3x  − cos  − 3x  
2  2  2  2   2 
1 5x 3x 15x 3x  1  5x 15x 
 cos + cos − cos − cos  =  cos − cos
2 
=
2 2 2 2 2  2 2

  5 x 15 x   5 x 15 x 
1  2 + 2   2 − 2 
 −2sin   sin  
= 2  2   2 
    

 5x  5x
= − sin 5x sin  −  = sin 5x sin = R.H.S.
 2 2
π
Example 20 Find the value of tan .
8
π π
Solution Let x = . Then 2 x = .
8 4
2 tan x
Now tan 2 x = 2
1 − tan x
π
2tan
π 8
tan =
or 4 1 − tan 2 π
8

π 2y
Let y = tan . Then 1 =
8 1− y2
or y2 + 2y – 1 = 0

−2 ± 2 2
Therefore y= = − 1± 2
2

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70 MATHEMATICS

π π
Since lies in the first quadrant, y = tan is positve. Hence
8 8
π
tan = 2 −1 .
8

3 3π x x x
Example 21 If tan x = , π < x < , find the value of sin , cos and tan .
4 2 2 2 2
3π
Solution Since π < x < , cos x is negative.
2
π x 3π
Also < < .
2 2 4
x x
Therefore, sin is positive and cos is negative.
2 2
9 25
Now sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + =
16 16
16 4
Therefore cos2 x = or cos x = – (Why?)
25 5
x 4 9
Now 2 sin 2 = 1 – cos x = 1 + = .
2 5 5
x 9
Therefore sin2 =
2 10
x 3
or sin = (Why?)
2 10
x 4 1
Again 2cos2 = 1+ cos x = 1 − =
2 5 5
x 1
Therefore cos2 =
2 10
x 1
or cos =− (Why?)
2 10

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 71
x
sin  − 10 
x 2 3
Hence tan = = ×  = – 3.
2 x 10  1 
cos
2
Example 22
 π  π 3
Prove that cos2 x + cos2  x +  + cos 2  x −  = .
 3  3 2

Solution We have

 2π   2π 
1 + cos  2 x +  1 + cos  2 x − 
L.H.S. = 1 + cos 2 x +  3 
+  3  .
2 2 2

1  2π   2π  
 3 + cos 2 x + cos  2 x +  + cos  2 x − 
3  
=
2  3  

1 2π 
=  3 + cos 2 x + 2cos 2 x cos 
2 3

1  π 
=  3 + cos 2 x + 2cos 2 x cos  π −  
2  3 

1 π
=  3 + cos 2 x − 2cos 2 x cos 
2 3
1 3
= [3 + cos 2x − cos 2 x ] = = R.H.S.
2 2

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 3

Prove that:
π 9π 3π 5π
1. 2 cos cos + cos + cos =0
13 13 13 13
2. (sin 3x + sin x) sin x + (cos 3x – cos x) cos x = 0
x+ y
3. (cos x + cos y)2 + (sin x – sin y)2 = 4 cos2
2

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72 MATHEMATICS

x −y
4. (cos x – cos y)2 + (sin x – sin y)2 = 4 sin2
2
5. sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + sin 7x = 4 cos x cos 2x sin 4x
(sin 7x + sin 5x ) + (sin 9x + sin 3x )
6. = tan 6x
(cos 7x + cos 5x ) + (cos 9x + cos 3x )
x 3x
7. sin 3x + sin 2x – sin x = 4sin x cos cos
2 2
x x x
Find sin , cos and tan in each of the following :
2 2 2
4 1
8. tan x = − , x in quadrant II 9. cos x = − , x in quadrant III
3 3
1
10. sin x = , x in quadrant II
4

Summary
® If in a circle of radius r, an arc of length l subtends an angle of θ radians, then
l=rθ
π
® Radian measure = × Degree measure
180
180
® Degree measure = π × Radian measure
® cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
® 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
® 1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x
® cos (2nπ + x) = cos x
® sin (2nπ + x) = sin x
® sin (– x) = – sin x
® cos (– x) = cos x
® cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y
® cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
π
® cos ( 2 − x ) = sin x

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 73

π
® sin ( 2 − x ) = cos x
® sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
® sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y
π  π 
® cos  2 + x  = – sin x sin  + x  = cos x
2 
cos (π – x) = – cos x sin (π – x) = sin x
cos (π + x) = – cos x sin (π + x) = – sin x
cos (2π – x) = cos x sin (2π – x) = – sin x

π
® If none of the angles x, y and (x ± y) is an odd multiple of 2
, then

tan x + tan y
tan (x + y) =
1 − tan x tan y
tan x − tan y
® tan (x – y) = 1 + tan x tan y
® If none of the angles x, y and (x ± y) is a multiple of π, then
cot x cot y − 1
cot (x + y) = cot y + cot x

cot x cot y + 1
® cot (x – y) = cot y − cot x

1 – tan 2 x
® cos 2x = cos2 x – sin2 x = 2cos2 x – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2 x = 1 + tan 2 x

2 tan x
® sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x =
1 + tan 2 x

2tanx
® tan 2x = 1 − tan 2 x
® sin 3x = 3sin x – 4sin3 x
® cos 3x = 4cos3 x – 3cos x

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74 MATHEMATICS

3tan x − tan 3 x
® tan 3x = 1− 3tan 2 x

x+ y x− y
® (i) cos x + cos y = 2cos cos
2 2
x+ y x− y
(ii) cos x – cos y = – 2sin sin
2 2
x+ y x− y
(iii) sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
x+ y x− y
(iv) sin x – sin y = 2cos sin
2 2
® (i) 2cos x cos y = cos ( x + y) + cos ( x – y)
(ii) – 2sin x sin y = cos (x + y) – cos (x – y)
(iii) 2sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x – y)
(iv) 2 cos x sin y = sin (x + y) – sin (x – y).

Historical Note
The study of trigonometry was first started in India. The ancient Indian
Mathematicians, Aryabhatta (476), Brahmagupta (598), Bhaskara I (600) and
Bhaskara II (1114) got important results. All this knowledge first went from
India to middle-east and from there to Europe. The Greeks had also started the
study of trigonometry but their approach was so clumsy that when the Indian
approach became known, it was immediately adopted throughout the world.
In India, the predecessor of the modern trigonometric functions, known as
the sine of an angle, and the introduction of the sine function represents the main
contribution of the siddhantas (Sanskrit astronomical works) to the history of
mathematics.
Bhaskara I (about 600) gave formulae to find the values of sine functions
for angles more than 90°. A sixteenth century Malayalam work Yuktibhasa
(period) contains a proof for the expansion of sin (A + B). Exact expression for
sines or cosines of 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, etc., are given by
Bhaskara II.

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 75

The symbols sin–1 x, cos–1 x, etc., for arc sin x, arc cos x, etc., were
suggested by the astronomer Sir John F.W. Hersehel (1813) The names of Thales
(about 600 B.C.) is invariably associated with height and distance problems. He
is credited with the determination of the height of a great pyramid in Egypt by
measuring shadows of the pyramid and an auxiliary staff (or gnomon) of known
height, and comparing the ratios:
H h
= = tan (sun’s altitude)
S s
Thales is also said to have calculated the distance of a ship at sea through
the proportionality of sides of similar triangles. Problems on height and distance
using the similarity property are also found in ancient Indian works.

—v —

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76 MATHEMATICS

Chapter 4

COMPLEX NUMBERS AND

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

vMathematics is the Queen of Sciences and Arithmetic is the Queen of

Mathematics. – GAUSS v

4.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, we have studied linear equations in one
and two variables and quadratic equations in one variable.
We have seen that the equation x2 + 1 = 0 has no real
solution as x2 + 1 = 0 gives x2 = – 1 and square of every
real number is non-negative. So, we need to extend the
real number system to a larger system so that we can
find the solution of the equation x2 = – 1. In fact, the main
objective is to solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where
D = b2 – 4ac < 0, which is not possible in the system of
real numbers.
W. R. Hamilton
4.2 Complex Numbers (1805-1865)

Let us denote −1 by the symbol i. Then, we have i = −1 . This means that i is a

2

solution of the equation x2 + 1 = 0.

A number of the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers, is defined to be a
 −1 
complex number. For example, 2 + i3, (– 1) + i 3 , 4 + i   are complex numbers.
 11 
For the complex number z = a + ib, a is called the real part, denoted by Re z and
b is called the imaginary part denoted by Im z of the complex number z. For example,
if z = 2 + i5, then Re z = 2 and Im z = 5.
Two complex numbers z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id are equal if a = c and b = d.

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 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 77

Example 1 If 4x + i(3x – y) = 3 + i (– 6), where x and y are real numbers, then find
the values of x and y.
Solution We have
4x + i (3x – y) = 3 + i (–6) ... (1)
Equating the real and the imaginary parts of (1), we get
4x = 3, 3x – y = – 6,
3 33
which, on solving simultaneously, give x = and y = .
4 4
4.3 Algebra of Complex Numbers
In this Section, we shall develop the algebra of complex numbers.
4.3.1 Addition of two complex numbers Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two
complex numbers. Then, the sum z1 + z2 is defined as follows:
z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i (b + d), which is again a complex number.
For example, (2 + i3) + (– 6 +i5) = (2 – 6) + i (3 + 5) = – 4 + i 8
The addition of complex numbers satisfy the following properties:
(i) The closure law The sum of two complex numbers is a complex
number, i.e., z1 + z2 is a complex number for all complex numbers
z1 and z2.
(ii) The commutative law For any two complex numbers z 1 and z 2,
z 1 + z 2 = z 2 + z1
(iii) The associative law For any three complex numbers z 1, z 2, z 3 ,
(z1 + z2) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3).
(iv) The existence of additive identity There exists the complex number
0 + i 0 (denoted as 0), called the additive identity or the zero complex
number, such that, for every complex number z, z + 0 = z.
(v) The existence of additive inverse To every complex number
z = a + ib, we have the complex number – a + i(– b) (denoted as – z),
called the additive inverse or negative of z. We observe that z + (–z) = 0
(the additive identity).
4.3.2 Difference of two complex numbers Given any two complex numbers z1 and
z2, the difference z1 – z2 is defined as follows:
z1 – z2 = z1 + (– z2).
For example, (6 + 3i) – (2 – i) = (6 + 3i) + (– 2 + i ) = 4 + 4i
and (2 – i) – (6 + 3i) = (2 – i) + ( – 6 – 3i) = – 4 – 4i

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78 MATHEMATICS

4.3.3 Multiplication of two complex numbers Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any

two complex numbers. Then, the product z1 z2 is defined as follows:
z1 z2 = (ac – bd) + i(ad + bc)
For example, (3 + i5) (2 + i6) = (3 × 2 – 5 × 6) + i(3 × 6 + 5 × 2) = – 24 + i28
The multiplication of complex numbers possesses the following properties, which
we state without proofs.
(i) The closure law The product of two complex numbers is a complex number,
the product z1 z2 is a complex number for all complex numbers z1 and z2.
(ii) The commutative law For any two complex numbers z1 and z2,
z1 z2 = z2 z1 .
(iii) The associative law For any three complex numbers z 1 , z 2 , z 3 ,
(z1 z2) z3 = z1 (z2 z3).
(iv) The existence of multiplicative identity There exists the complex number
1 + i 0 (denoted as 1), called the multiplicative identity such that z.1 = z,
for every complex number z.
(v) The existence of multiplicative inverse For every non-zero complex
number z = a + ib or a + bi(a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0), we have the complex number
a –b 1
+i 2 2 (denoted by or z–1 ), called the multiplicative inverse
a +b
2 2
a +b z
of z such that
1
z. = 1 (the multiplicative identity).
z
(vi) The distributive law For any three complex numbers z1, z2, z3,
(a) z1 (z2 + z3) = z1 z2 + z1 z3
(b) (z1 + z2) z3 = z1 z3 + z2 z3
4.3.4 Division of two complex numbers Given any two complex numbers z1 and z2,
z1
where z2 ≠ 0 , the quotient z is defined by
2

z1 1
= z1
z2 z2
For example, let z1 = 6 + 3i and z2 = 2 – i

z1  1   2 − ( −1) 
=  (6 + 3i) ×  + 
2−i (
Then  = 6 + 3i )  22 + ( −1)
i 2 
z2  
2
2 2
+ ( −1) 

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 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 79

 2+i  1 1
= ( 6 + 3i )   = 12 − 3 + i ( 6 + 6 )  = ( 9 + 12i )
 5  5 5
4.3.5 Power of i we know that

( )
2
i 3 = i 2 i = ( −1) i = −i , = ( −1) = 1
2
i4 = i2

( ) ( )
2 3
i = ( −1) i = i , = ( − 1) = −1 , etc.
2 3
i5 = i 2 i6 = i2

1 i i 1 1
Also, we have i −1 = × = = − i, i− 2 = = = − 1,
i i −1 i 2
−1

1 1 i i 1 1
i −3 =
= × = = i , i −4 = 4 = = 1
i 3
−i i 1 i 1
4k 4k + 1 4k + 2 4k + 3
In general, for any integer k, i = 1, i = i, i = –1, i =–i
4.3.6 The square roots of a negative real number
Note that i2 = –1 and ( – i)2 = i2 = – 1
Therefore, the square roots of – 1 are i, – i. However, by the symbol −1 , we would
mean i only.
Now, we can see that i and –i both are the solutions of the equation x2 + 1 = 0 or
2
x = –1.

( 3 i) = ( 3)
2 2
Similarly i2 = 3 (– 1) = – 3

( − 3 i) = (− 3 )
2 2
i2 = – 3

Therefore, the square roots of –3 are 3 i and − 3 i .

Again, the symbol −3 is meant to represent 3 i only, i.e., −3 = 3i .
Generally, if a is a positive real number, −a = a −1 = a i,
We already know that a × b = ab for all positive real number a and b. This
result also holds true when either a > 0, b < 0 or a < 0, b > 0. What if a < 0, b < 0?
Let us examine.
Note that

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80 MATHEMATICS

i 2 = −1 −1 = ( −1) ( −1) (by assuming a× b = ab for all real numbers)

2
= 1 = 1, which is a contradiction to the fact that i = −1 .
Therefore, a × b ≠ ab if both a and b are negative real numbers.
Further, if any of a and b is zero, then, clearly, a × b = ab = 0.
4.3.7 Identities We prove the following identity

( z1 + z2 )
2
= z12 + z22 + 2 z1 z2 , for all complex numbers z1 and z2.

Proof We have, (z1 + z2)2 = (z1 + z2) (z1 + z2),

= (z1 + z2) z1 + (z1 + z2) z2 (Distributive law)
= z12 + z2 z1 + z1 z2 + z22 (Distributive law)

= z12 + z1 z2 + z1 z2 + z22 (Commutative law of multiplication)

= z12 + 2 z1 z2 + z22
Similarly, we can prove the following identities:

( z1 − z2 )
2
(i) = z12 − 2 z1 z2 + z22

( z1 + z2 )
3
(ii) = z13 + 3 z12 z2 + 3z1 z22 + z23

( z1 − z2 )
3
(iii) = z13 − 3z12 z2 + 3 z1 z22 − z23

(iv) z12 – z 22 = ( z1 + z 2 ) ( z1 – z 2 )
In fact, many other identities which are true for all real numbers, can be proved
to be true for all complex numbers.
Example 2 Express the following in the form of a + bi:
3
1   1 
(i) ( −5i )  i  (ii) ( −i ) ( 2i ) − i
8   8 

−5 2 −5
( −5i ) 
1  5 5
Solution (i) i = i = ( −1) = = + i0
8  8 8 8 8
3
 1  1 1 2
( ) 1
2
(ii) ( −i ) ( 2i )  − i  = 2 × × i5 = i i= i.
 8  8× 8×8 256 256

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 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 81

Example 3 Express (5 – 3i)3 in the form a + ib.

Solution We have, (5 – 3i)3 = 53 – 3 × 52 × (3i) + 3 × 5 (3i)2 – (3i)3
= 125 – 225i – 135 + 27i = – 10 – 198i.

( )( )
Example 4 Express − 3 + −2 2 3 − i in the form of a + ib

(
Solution We have, − 3 + −2 ) (2 3 −i ) = (− 3 + 2i ) (2 3 − i)
= −6 + 3i + 2 6i − 2 i 2 = ( −6 + 2 ) + 3 (1 + 2 2 ) i

4.4 The Modulus and the Conjugate of a Complex Number

Let z = a + ib be a complex number. Then, the modulus of z, denoted by | z |, is defined
to be the non-negative real number a 2 + b 2 , i.e., | z | = a 2 + b 2 and the conjugate
of z, denoted as z , is the complex number a – ib, i.e., z = a – ib.

For example, 3 + i = 32 + 12 = 10 , 2 − 5i = 22 + ( − 5)2 = 29 ,

and 3 + i = 3 − i , 2 − 5 i = 2 + 5 i , −3i − 5 = 3i – 5
Observe that the multiplicative inverse of the non-zero complex number z is
given by
1 a −b a − ib z
z–1 = = 2 +i 2 2 = =
a + ib a +b 2
a +b a 2 + b2 z
2

2
or z z= z
Furthermore, the following results can easily be derived.
For any two compex numbers z1 and z2 , we have

z1 z
(i) z1 z2 = z1 z2 (ii) = 1 provided z ≠ 0
z2 z2 2

 z1  z1
(iii) z1 z2 = z1 z2 (iv) z1 ± z2 = z1 ± z2 (v)  z  = z provided z2 ≠ 0.
 2 2

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82 MATHEMATICS

Example 5 Find the multiplicative inverse of 2 – 3i.

Solution Let z = 2 – 3i
2
Then z = 2 + 3i and z = 22 + ( − 3) 2 = 13
Therefore, the multiplicative inverse of 2 − 3i is given by
z 2 + 3i 2 3
z–1 = 2
= = + i
z 13 13 13

The above working can be reproduced in the following manner also,

1 2 + 3i
z–1 = =
2 − 3i (2 − 3i )(2 + 3i)

2 + 3i 2 + 3i 2 3
= = = + i
2 − (3i)
2 2
13 13 13
Example 6 Express the following in the form a + ib
5 + 2i
(i) (ii) i–35
1 − 2i

5 + 2i 5 + 2i 1 + 2i 5 + 5 2i + 2i − 2
Solution (i) We have, = × =
( 2i )
2
1 − 2i 1 − 2i 1 + 2i 1−

3 + 6 2i 3(1 + 2 2i )
= = = 1 + 2 2i .
1+ 2 3

−35 1 1 1 i i
(ii) i = = = × = 2 =i
(i ) −i i −i
35 17
i 2
i

EXERCISE 4.1
Express each of the complex number given in the Exercises 1 to 10 in the
form a + ib.

( 5i )  −
3 
1. i 2. i 9 + i 19 3. i −39
 5 

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 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 83

4. 3(7 + i7) + i (7 + i7) 5. (1 – i) – ( –1 + i6)

1 2  5  1 7   1   4 
6.  + i  −4+i  7.  3 + i 3  +  4 + i 3   −  − 3 + i 
5 5  2      
3 3
1   1 
8. (1 – i) 4
9.  + 3i  10.  −2 − i 
 3   3 
Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the complex numbers given in the
Exercises 11 to 13.
11. 4 – 3i 12. 5 + 3i 13. – i
14. Express the following expression in the form of a + ib :

(3 + i 5 ) (3 − i 5 )
( 3 + 2 i) − ( 3 − i 2 )
4.5 Argand Plane and Polar Representation
We already know that corresponding to
each ordered pair of real numbers
(x, y), we get a unique point in the XY-
plane and vice-versa with reference to a
set of mutually perpendicular lines known
as the x-axis and the y-axis. The complex
number x + iy which corresponds to the
ordered pair (x, y) can be represented
geometrically as the unique point P(x, y)
in the XY-plane and vice-versa.
Some complex numbers such as
2 + 4i, – 2 + 3i, 0 + 1i, 2 + 0i, – 5 –2i and
Fig 4.1
1 – 2i which correspond to the ordered
pairs (2, 4), ( – 2, 3), (0, 1), (2, 0), ( –5, –2), and (1, – 2), respectively, have been
represented geometrically by the points A, B, C, D, E, and F, respectively in
the Fig 4.1.
The plane having a complex number assigned to each of its point is called the
complex plane or the Argand plane.

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84 MATHEMATICS

Obviously, in the Argand plane, the modulus of the complex number

x + iy = x 2 + y 2 is the distance between the point P(x, y) and the origin O (0, 0)
(Fig 4.2). The points on the x-axis corresponds to the complex numbers of the form
a + i 0 and the points on the y-axis corresponds to the complex numbers of the form

Fig 4.2

0 + i b. The x-axis and y-axis in the Argand plane are called, respectively, the real axis
and the imaginary axis.
The representation of a complex number z = x + iy and its conjugate
z = x – iy in the Argand plane are, respectively, the points P (x, y) and Q (x, – y).
Geometrically, the point (x, – y) is the mirror image of the point (x, y) on the real
axis (Fig 4.3).

Fig 4.3

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 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 85

Miscellaneous Examples

(3 − 2i ) (2 + 3i )
Example 7 Find the conjugate of
(1 + 2i) (2 − i ) .

(3 − 2i)(2 + 3i )
Solution We have , (1 + 2i )(2 − i )

6 + 9i − 4i + 6 12 + 5i 4 − 3i
= = ×
2 − i + 4i + 2 4 + 3i 4 − 3i

48 − 36i + 20i +15 63 −16i 63 16

= = = − i
16 + 9 25 25 25

(3 − 2i ) (2 + 3i ) 63 16
Therefore, conjugate of (1 + 2i) (2 − i ) is 25 + 25 i .

a + ib
2 2
Example 8 If x + iy =
a − ib , prove that x + y = 1.

Solution We have,
(a + ib) (a + ib) a 2 − b 2 + 2abi a2 − b2 2ab
x + iy = ( a − ib) ( a + ib) = = 2 2 + 2 2i
a +b
2 2
a +b a +b

a2 − b2 2ab
So that, x – iy = − 2 2i
a +b a +b
2 2

Therefore,

( a 2 − b 2 )2 4a 2b 2 (a 2 + b 2 ) 2
2 2
x + y = (x + iy) (x – iy) = + = 2 2 2 =1
(a 2 + b 2 ) 2 (a 2 + b 2 ) 2 (a + b )

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 4

3
 18  1  25 
1. Evaluate:  i +    .
  i  
2. For any two complex numbers z1 and z2, prove that
Re (z1 z2) = Re z1 Re z2 – Imz1 Imz2.

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86 MATHEMATICS

 1 2   3 − 4i 
3. Reduce  −   to the standard form .
 1 − 4i 1 + i   5 + i 

a − ib 2 2 a +b
2 2
4. If x − iy =
c − id
( )
prove that x + y = 2 2 .
2
c +d

z1 + z2 +1
5. If z1 = 2 – i, z2 = 1 + i, find z – z +1 .
1 2

( x 2 + 1) 2
( x + i )2
6. If a + ib =
2 x2 + 1 ( )
, prove that a2 + b2 = 2 x 2 + 1 2 .

7. Let z1 = 2 – i, z2 = –2 + i. Find

 z1 z2   1 
(i) Re  z  , (ii) Im  .
 1   z1 z1 
8. Find the real numbers x and y if (x – iy) (3 + 5i) is the conjugate of –6 – 24i.
1+ i 1− i
9. Find the modulus of −
1 − i 1+ i .
u v
10. If (x + iy)3 = u + iv, then show that + = 4( x 2 – y 2 ) .
x y

β–α
11. If α and β are different complex numbers with β = 1 , then find 1 – α β .

x
12. Find the number of non-zero integral solutions of the equation 1 – i = 2x .
13. If (a + ib) (c + id) (e + if) (g + ih) = A + iB, then show that
(a2 + b2) (c2 + d2) (e2 + f 2) (g2 + h2) = A2 + B2
m
1+ i 
14. If   = 1 , then find the least positive integral value of m.
1 – i 

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 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 87

Summary

® A number of the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers, is called a
complex number, a is called the real part and b is called the imaginary part
of the complex number.
® Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id. Then
(i) z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i (b + d)
(ii) z1 z2 = (ac – bd) + i (ad + bc)
® For any non-zero complex number z = a + ib (a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0), there exists the
a −b 1
complex number +i 2 2 , denoted by or z –1, called the
a +b
2 2
a +b z
a −b
multiplicative inverse of z such that (a + ib) +i 2 = 1 + i0
a +b
2 2
a + b2
=1
® For any integer k, i4k = 1, i4k + 1 = i, i4k + 2 = – 1, i4k + 3 = – i
® The conjugate of the complex number z = a + ib, denoted by z , is given by
z = a – ib.

Historical Note
The fact that square root of a negative number does not exist in the real number
system was recognised by the Greeks. But the credit goes to the Indian
mathematician Mahavira (850) who first stated this difficulty clearly. “He
mentions in his work ‘Ganitasara Sangraha’ as in the nature of things a negative
(quantity) is not a square (quantity)’, it has, therefore, no square root”.
Bhaskara, another Indian mathematician, also writes in his work Bijaganita,
written in 1150. “There is no square root of a negative quantity, for it is not a
square.” Cardan (1545) considered the problem of solving
x + y = 10, xy = 40.

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88 MATHEMATICS

He obtained x = 5 + −15 and y = 5 – −15 as the solution of it, which

was discarded by him by saying that these numbers are ‘useless’. Albert
Girard (about 1625) accepted square root of negative numbers and said that
this will enable us to get as many roots as the degree of the polynomial equation.
Euler was the first to introduce the symbol i for −1 and W.R. Hamilton
(about 1830) regarded the complex number a + ib as an ordered pair of real
numbers (a, b) thus giving it a purely mathematical definition and avoiding use
of the so called ‘imaginary numbers’.

—v —

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 Chapter 5
LINEAR INEQUALITIES

vMathematics is the art of saying many things in many

different ways. – MAXWELLv

5.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, we have studied equations in one variable and two variables and also
solved some statement problems by translating them in the form of equations. Now a
natural question arises: ‘Is it always possible to translate a statement problem in the
form of an equation? For example, the height of all the students in your class is less
than 160 cm. Your classroom can occupy atmost 60 tables or chairs or both. Here we
get certain statements involving a sign ‘<’ (less than), ‘>’ (greater than), ‘≤’ (less than
or equal) and ≥ (greater than or equal) which are known as inequalities.
In this Chapter, we will study linear inequalities in one and two variables. The
study of inequalities is very useful in solving problems in the field of science, mathematics,
statistics, economics, psychology, etc.

5.2 Inequalities
Let us consider the following situations:
(i) Ravi goes to market with ` 200 to buy rice, which is available in packets of 1kg. The
price of one packet of rice is ` 30. If x denotes the number of packets of rice, which he
buys, then the total amount spent by him is ` 30x. Since, he has to buy rice in packets
only, he may not be able to spend the entire amount of ` 200. (Why?) Hence
30x < 200 ... (1)
Clearly the statement (i) is not an equation as it does not involve the sign of equality.
(ii) Reshma has ` 120 and wants to buy some registers and pens. The cost of one
register is ` 40 and that of a pen is ` 20. In this case, if x denotes the number of
registers and y, the number of pens which Reshma buys, then the total amount spent by
her is ` (40x + 20y) and we have
40x + 20y ≤ 120 ... (2)

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90 MATHEMATICS

Since in this case the total amount spent may be upto ` 120. Note that the statement (2)
consists of two statements
40x + 20y < 120 ... (3)
and 40x + 20y = 120 ... (4)
Statement (3) is not an equation, i.e., it is an inequality while statement (4) is an equation.

Definition 1 Two real numbers or two algebraic expressions related by the symbol
‘<’, ‘>’, ‘≤’ or ‘≥’ form an inequality.
Statements such as (1), (2) and (3) above are inequalities.
3 < 5; 7 > 5 are the examples of numerical inequalities while
x < 5; y > 2; x ≥ 3, y ≤ 4 are some examples of literal inequalities.
3 < 5 < 7 (read as 5 is greater than 3 and less than 7), 3 < x < 5 (read as x is greater
than or equal to 3 and less than 5) and 2 < y < 4 are the examples of double inequalities.
Some more examples of inequalities are:
ax + b < 0 ... (5)
ax + b > 0 ... (6)
ax + b ≤ 0 ... (7)
ax + b ≥ 0 ... (8)
ax + by < c ... (9)
ax + by > c ... (10)
ax + by ≤ c ... (11)
ax + by ≥ c ... (12)
ax + bx + c ≤ 0
2
... (13)
ax2 + bx + c > 0 ... (14)
Inequalities (5), (6), (9), (10) and (14) are strict inequalities while inequalities (7), (8),
(11), (12), and (13) are slack inequalities. Inequalities from (5) to (8) are linear
inequalities in one variable x when a ≠ 0, while inequalities from (9) to (12) are linear
inequalities in two variables x and y when a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0.
Inequalities (13) and (14) are not linear (in fact, these are quadratic inequalities
in one variable x when a ≠ 0).
In this Chapter, we shall confine ourselves to the study of linear inequalities in one
and two variables only.

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 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 91

5.3 Algebraic Solutions of Linear Inequalities in One Variable and their

Graphical Representation
Let us consider the inequality (1) of Section 6.2, viz, 30x < 200
Note that here x denotes the number of packets of rice.
Obviously, x cannot be a negative integer or a fraction. Left hand side (L.H.S.) of this
inequality is 30x and right hand side (RHS) is 200. Therefore, we have
For x = 0, L.H.S. = 30 (0) = 0 < 200 (R.H.S.), which is true.
For x = 1, L.H.S. = 30 (1) = 30 < 200 (R.H.S.), which is true.
For x = 2, L.H.S. = 30 (2) = 60 < 200, which is true.
For x = 3, L.H.S. = 30 (3) = 90 < 200, which is true.
For x = 4, L.H.S. = 30 (4) = 120 < 200, which is true.
For x = 5, L.H.S. = 30 (5) = 150 < 200, which is true.
For x = 6, L.H.S. = 30 (6) = 180 < 200, which is true.
For x = 7, L.H.S. = 30 (7) = 210 < 200, which is false.
In the above situation, we find that the values of x, which makes the above
inequality a true statement, are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6. These values of x, which make above
inequality a true statement, are called solutions of inequality and the set {0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
is called its solution set.
Thus, any solution of an inequality in one variable is a value of the variable
which makes it a true statement.
We have found the solutions of the above inequality by trial and error method
which is not very efficient. Obviously, this method is time consuming and sometimes
not feasible. We must have some better or systematic techniques for solving inequalities.
Before that we should go through some more properties of numerical inequalities and
follow them as rules while solving the inequalities.
You will recall that while solving linear equations, we followed the following rules:
Rule 1 Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from) both sides of an equation.
Rule 2 Both sides of an equation may be multiplied (or divided) by the same non-zero
number.
In the case of solving inequalities, we again follow the same rules except with a
difference that in Rule 2, the sign of inequality is reversed (i.e., ‘<‘ becomes ‘>’, ≤’
becomes ‘≥’ and so on) whenever we multiply (or divide) both sides of an inequality by
a negative number. It is evident from the facts that
3 > 2 while – 3 < – 2,
– 8 < – 7 while (– 8) (– 2) > (– 7) (– 2) , i.e., 16 > 14.

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92 MATHEMATICS

Thus, we state the following rules for solving an inequality:

Rule 1 Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from) both sides of an inequality
without affecting the sign of inequality.
Rule 2 Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied (or divided) by the same positive
number. But when both sides are multiplied or divided by a negative number, then the
sign of inequality is reversed.
Now, let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Solve 30 x < 200 when
(i) x is a natural number, (ii) x is an integer.
Solution We are given 30 x < 200
30 x 200
or < (Rule 2), i.e., x < 20 / 3.
30 30
(i) When x is a natural number, in this case the following values of x make the
statement true.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
The solution set of the inequality is {1,2,3,4,5,6}.
(ii) When x is an integer, the solutions of the given inequality are
..., – 3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
The solution set of the inequality is {...,–3, –2,–1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Example 2 Solve 5x – 3 < 3x +1 when
(i) x is an integer, (ii) x is a real number.
Solution We have, 5x –3 < 3x + 1
or 5x –3 + 3 < 3x +1 +3 (Rule 1)
or 5x < 3x +4
or 5x – 3x < 3x + 4 – 3x (Rule 1)
or 2x < 4
or x < 2 (Rule 2)
(i) When x is an integer, the solutions of the given inequality are
..., – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1
(ii) When x is a real number, the solutions of the inequality are given by x < 2,
i.e., all real numbers x which are less than 2. Therefore, the solution set of
the inequality is x ∈ (– ∞, 2).
We have considered solutions of inequalities in the set of natural numbers, set of
integers and in the set of real numbers. Henceforth, unless stated otherwise, we shall
solve the inequalities in this Chapter in the set of real numbers.

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 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 93

Example 3 Solve 4x + 3 < 6x +7.

Solution We have, 4x + 3 < 6x + 7
or 4x – 6x < 6x + 4 – 6x
or – 2x < 4 or x > – 2
i.e., all the real numbers which are greater than –2, are the solutions of the given
inequality. Hence, the solution set is (–2, ∞).

5 – 2x x
Example 4 Solve ≤ –5.
3 6
Solution We have
5 – 2x x
≤ –5
3 6
or 2 (5 – 2x) ≤ x – 30.
or 10 – 4x ≤ x – 30
or – 5x ≤ – 40, i.e., x ≥ 8
Thus, all real numbers x which are greater than or equal to 8 are the solutions of the
given inequality, i.e., x ∈ [8, ∞).
Example 5 Solve 7x + 3 < 5x + 9. Show the graph of the solutions on number line.
Solution We have 7x + 3 < 5x + 9 or
2x < 6 or x < 3
The graphical representation of the solutions are given in Fig 5.1.

Fig 5.1

3x − 4 x + 1
Example 6 Solve ≥ −1 . Show the graph of the solutions on number line.
2 4
Solution We have
3x − 4 x + 1
≥ −1
2 4
3x − 4 x − 3
or ≥
2 4
or 2 (3x – 4) ≥ (x – 3)

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94 MATHEMATICS

or 6x – 8 ≥ x – 3
or 5x ≥ 5 or x ≥ 1
The graphical representation of solutions is given in Fig 5.2.

Fig 5.2

Example 7 The marks obtained by a student of Class XI in first and second terminal
examination are 62 and 48, respectively. Find the minimum marks he should get in the
annual examination to have an average of at least 60 marks.
Solution Let x be the marks obtained by student in the annual examination. Then
62 + 48 + x
≥ 60
3
or 110 + x ≥ 180
or x ≥ 70
Thus, the student must obtain a minimum of 70 marks to get an average of at least
60 marks.
Example 8 Find all pairs of consecutive odd natural numbers, both of which are larger
than 10, such that their sum is less than 40.
Solution Let x be the smaller of the two consecutive odd natural number, so that the
other one is x +2. Then, we should have
x > 10 ... (1)
and x + ( x + 2) < 40 ... (2)
Solving (2), we get
2x + 2 < 40
i.e., x < 19 ... (3)
From (1) and (3), we get
10 < x < 19
Since x is an odd number, x can take the values 11, 13, 15, and 17. So, the required
possible pairs will be
(11, 13), (13, 15), (15, 17), (17, 19)

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 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 95

EXERCISE 5.1
1. Solve 24x < 100, when
(i) x is a natural number. (ii) x is an integer.
2. Solve – 12x > 30, when
(i) x is a natural number. (ii) x is an integer.
3. Solve 5x – 3 < 7, when
(i) x is an integer. (ii) x is a real number.
4. Solve 3x + 8 >2, when
(i) x is an integer. (ii) x is a real number.
Solve the inequalities in Exercises 5 to 16 for real x.
5. 4x + 3 < 5x + 7 6. 3x – 7 > 5x – 1
7. 3(x – 1) ≤ 2 (x – 3) 8. 3 (2 – x) ≥ 2 (1 – x)
x x x x
9. x + + < 11 10. > +1
2 3 3 2
3( x − 2) 5(2 − x) 1  3x  1
11. ≤ 12.  + 4  ≥ ( x − 6)
5 3 2 5  3
13. 2 (2x + 3) – 10 < 6 (x – 2) 14. 37 – (3x + 5) > 9x – 8 (x – 3)
x (5 x − 2) (7 x − 3) (2 x −1) (3 x − 2) (2 − x )
15. < − 16. ≥ −
4 3 5 3 4 5
Solve the inequalities in Exercises 17 to 20 and show the graph of the solution in each
case on number line
17. 3x – 2 < 2x + 1 18. 5x – 3 > 3x – 5
x (5 x – 2) (7 x – 3)
19. 3 (1 – x) < 2 (x + 4) 20. ≥ –
2 3 5
21. Ravi obtained 70 and 75 marks in first two unit test. Find the minimum marks he
should get in the third test to have an average of at least 60 marks.
22. To receive Grade ‘A’ in a course, one must obtain an average of 90 marks or
more in five examinations (each of 100 marks). If Sunita’s marks in first four
examinations are 87, 92, 94 and 95, find minimum marks that Sunita must obtain
in fifth examination to get grade ‘A’ in the course.
23. Find all pairs of consecutive odd positive integers both of which are smaller than
10 such that their sum is more than 11.
24. Find all pairs of consecutive even positive integers, both of which are larger than
5 such that their sum is less than 23.

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96 MATHEMATICS

25. The longest side of a triangle is 3 times the shortest side and the third side is 2 cm
shorter than the longest side. If the perimeter of the triangle is at least 61 cm, find
the minimum length of the shortest side.
26. A man wants to cut three lengths from a single piece of board of length 91cm.
The second length is to be 3cm longer than the shortest and the third length is to
be twice as long as the shortest. What are the possible lengths of the shortest
board if the third piece is to be at least 5cm longer than the second?
[Hint: If x is the length of the shortest board, then x , (x + 3) and 2x are the
lengths of the second and third piece, respectively. Thus, x + (x + 3) + 2x ≤ 91 and
2x ≥ (x + 3) + 5].
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 9 Solve – 8 ≤ 5x – 3 < 7.
Solution In this case, we have two inequalities, – 8 ≤ 5x – 3 and 5x – 3 < 7, which we
will solve simultaneously. We have – 8 ≤ 5x –3 < 7
or –5 ≤ 5x < 10 or –1 ≤ x < 2
5 – 3x
Example 10 Solve – 5 ≤ ≤ 8.
2
5 – 3x
Solution We have –5 ≤ ≤8
2
or –10 ≤ 5 – 3x ≤ 16 or – 15 ≤ – 3x ≤ 11
11
or 5≥x≥–
3
–11
which can be written as ≤ x ≤5
3
Example 11 Solve the system of inequalities:
3x – 7 < 5 + x ... (1)
11 – 5 x ≤ 1 ... (2)
and represent the solutions on the number line.
Solution From inequality (1), we have
3x – 7 < 5 + x
or x<6 ... (3)
Also, from inequality (2), we have
11 – 5 x ≤ 1
or – 5 x ≤ – 10 i.e., x ≥ 2 ... (4)

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 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 97

If we draw the graph of inequalities (3) and (4) on the number line, we see that the
values of x, which are common to both, are shown by bold line in Fig 5.3.

Fig 5.3
Thus, solution of the system are real numbers x lying between 2 and 6 including 2, i.e.,
2≤x<6
Example 12 In an experiment, a solution of hydrochloric acid is to be kept between
30° and 35° Celsius. What is the range of temperature in degree Fahrenheit if conversion
5
formula is given by C = (F – 32), where C and F represent temperature in degree
9
Celsius and degree Fahrenheit, respectively.
Solution It is given that 30 < C < 35.
5
Putting C= (F – 32), we get
9
5
30 < (F – 32) < 35,
9
9 9
or × (30) < (F – 32) < × (35)
5 5
or 54 < (F – 32) < 63
or 86 < F < 95.
Thus, the required range of temperature is between 86° F and 95° F.
Example 13 A manufacturer has 600 litres of a 12% solution of acid. How many litres
of a 30% acid solution must be added to it so that acid content in the resulting mixture
will be more than 15% but less than 18%?
Solution Let x litres of 30% acid solution is required to be added. Then
Total mixture = (x + 600) litres
Therefore 30% x + 12% of 600 > 15% of (x + 600)
and 30% x + 12% of 600 < 18% of (x + 600)
30 x 12 15
or + (600) > (x + 600)
100 100 100

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98 MATHEMATICS

30 x 12 18
and + (600) < (x + 600)
100 100 100
or 30x + 7200 > 15x + 9000
and 30x + 7200 < 18x + 10800
or 15x > 1800 and 12x < 3600
or x > 120 and x < 300,
i.e. 120 < x < 300
Thus, the number of litres of the 30% solution of acid will have to be more than
120 litres but less than 300 litres.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 5

Solve the inequalities in Exercises 1 to 6.
1. 2 ≤ 3x – 4 ≤ 5 2. 6 ≤ – 3 (2x – 4) < 12
7x 3( x − 2 )
3. –3≤4− ≤ 18 4. −15 < ≤0
2 5
3x ( 3x +11 )
5. −12 < 4 − ≤2 6. 7 ≤ ≤ 11 .
−5 2
Solve the inequalities in Exercises 7 to 10 and represent the solution graphically on
number line.
7. 5x + 1 > – 24, 5x – 1 < 24
8. 2 (x – 1) < x + 5, 3 (x + 2) > 2 – x
9. 3x – 7 > 2 (x – 6) , 6 – x > 11 – 2x
10. 5 (2x – 7) – 3 (2x + 3) ≤ 0 , 2x + 19 ≤ 6x + 47 .
11. A solution is to be kept between 68° F and 77° F. What is the range in temperature
in degree Celsius (C) if the Celsius / Fahrenheit (F) conversion formula is given by
9
F= C + 32 ?
5
12. A solution of 8% boric acid is to be diluted by adding a 2% boric acid solution to
it. The resulting mixture is to be more than 4% but less than 6% boric acid. If we
have 640 litres of the 8% solution, how many litres of the 2% solution will have to
be added?

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 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 99

13. How many litres of water will have to be added to 1125 litres of the 45% solution
of acid so that the resulting mixture will contain more than 25% but less than 30%
acid content?
14. IQ of a person is given by the formula
MA
IQ = × 100,
CA
where MA is mental age and CA is chronological age. If 80 ≤ IQ ≤ 140 for a group of
12 years old children, find the range of their mental age.

Summary
® Two real numbers or two algebraic expressions related by the symbols <, >, ≤
or ≥ form an inequality.
® Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from ) both sides of an inequality.
® Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied (or divided ) by the same positive
number. But when both sides are multiplied (or divided) by a negative number,
then the inequality is reversed.
® The values of x, which make an inequality a true statement, are called solutions
of the inequality.
® represent x < a (or x > a) on a number line, put a circle on the number a and
To
dark line to the left (or right) of the number a.
® To represent x ≤ a (or x ≥ a) on a number line, put a dark circle on the number
a and dark the line to the left (or right) of the number x.

—v —

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100 MATHEMATICS

Chapter 6
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

vEvery body of discovery is mathematical in form because there is no

other guidance we can have – DARWINv

6.1 Introduction
Suppose you have a suitcase with a number lock. The number
lock has 4 wheels each labelled with 10 digits from 0 to 9.
The lock can be opened if 4 specific digits are arranged in a
particular sequence with no repetition. Some how, you have
forgotten this specific sequence of digits. You remember only
the first digit which is 7. In order to open the lock, how
many sequences of 3-digits you may have to check with? To
answer this question, you may, immediately, start listing all
possible arrangements of 9 remaining digits taken 3 at a
time. But, this method will be tedious, because the number
Jacob Bernoulli
of possible sequences may be large. Here, in this Chapter, (1654-1705)
we shall learn some basic counting techniques which will
enable us to answer this question without actually listing 3-digit arrangements. In fact,
these techniques will be useful in determining the number of different ways of arranging
and selecting objects without actually listing them. As a first step, we shall examine a
principle which is most fundamental to the learning of these techniques.

6.2 Fundamental Principle of Counting

Let us consider the following problem. Mohan has 3 pants and 2 shirts. How many
different pairs of a pant and a shirt, can he dress up with? There are 3 ways in which
a pant can be chosen, because there are 3 pants available. Similarly, a shirt can be
chosen in 2 ways. For every choice of a pant, there are 2 choices of a shirt. Therefore,
there are 3 × 2 = 6 pairs of a pant and a shirt.

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 101

Let us name the three pants as P1, P2 , P3 and the two shirts as S1, S2. Then,
these six possibilities can be illustrated in the Fig. 6.1.
Let us consider another problem
of the same type.
Sabnam has 2 school bags, 3 tiffin boxes
and 2 water bottles. In how many ways
can she carry these items (choosing one
each).
A school bag can be chosen in 2
different ways. After a school bag is
chosen, a tiffin box can be chosen in 3
different ways. Hence, there are
2 × 3 = 6 pairs of school bag and a tiffin
box. For each of these pairs a water
bottle can be chosen in 2 different ways. Fig 6.1
Hence, there are 6 × 2 = 12 different ways in which, Sabnam can carry these items to
school. If we name the 2 school bags as B1, B2, the three tiffin boxes as T1, T2, T3 and
the two water bottles as W1, W2, these possibilities can be illustrated in the Fig. 6.2.

Fig 6.2

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102 MATHEMATICS

In fact, the problems of the above types are solved by applying the following
principle known as the fundamental principle of counting, or, simply, the multiplication
principle, which states that
“If an event can occur in m different ways, following which another event
can occur in n different ways, then the total number of occurrence of the events
in the given order is m×n.”
The above principle can be generalised for any finite number of events. For
example, for 3 events, the principle is as follows:
‘If an event can occur in m different ways, following which another event can
occur in n different ways, following which a third event can occur in p different ways,
then the total number of occurrence to ‘the events in the given order is m × n × p.”
In the first problem, the required number of ways of wearing a pant and a shirt
was the number of different ways of the occurence of the following events in succession:
(i) the event of choosing a pant
(ii) the event of choosing a shirt.
In the second problem, the required number of ways was the number of different
ways of the occurence of the following events in succession:
(i) the event of choosing a school bag
(ii) the event of choosing a tiffin box
(iii) the event of choosing a water bottle.
Here, in both the cases, the events in each problem could occur in various possible
orders. But, we have to choose any one of the possible orders and count the number of
different ways of the occurence of the events in this chosen order.
Example 1 Find the number of 4 letter words, with or without meaning, which can be
formed out of the letters of the word ROSE, where the repetition of the letters is not
allowed.
Solution There are as many words as there are ways of filling in 4 vacant places
by the 4 letters, keeping in mind that the repetition is not allowed. The
first place can be filled in 4 different ways by anyone of the 4 letters R,O,S,E. Following
which, the second place can be filled in by anyone of the remaining 3 letters in 3
different ways, following which the third place can be filled in 2 different ways; following
which, the fourth place can be filled in 1 way. Thus, the number of ways in which the
4 places can be filled, by the multiplication principle, is 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24. Hence, the
required number of words is 24.

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 103

ANote If the repetition of the letters was allowed, how many words can be formed?
One can easily understand that each of the 4 vacant places can be filled in succession
in 4 different ways. Hence, the required number of words = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 256.

Example 2 Given 4 flags of different colours, how many different signals can be
generated, if a signal requires the use of 2 flags one below the other?
Solution There will be as many signals as there are ways of filling in 2 vacant places

in succession by the 4 flags of different colours. The upper vacant place can
be filled in 4 different ways by anyone of the 4 flags; following which, the lower vacant
place can be filled in 3 different ways by anyone of the remaining 3 different flags.
Hence, by the multiplication principle, the required number of signals = 4 × 3 = 12.
Example 3 How many 2 digit even numbers can be formed from the digits
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 if the digits can be repeated?
Solution There will be as many ways as there are ways of filling 2 vacant places
in succession by the five given digits. Here, in this case, we start filling in unit’s
place, because the options for this place are 2 and 4 only and this can be done in 2
ways; following which the ten’s place can be filled by any of the 5 digits in 5 different
ways as the digits can be repeated. Therefore, by the multiplication principle, the required
number of two digits even numbers is 2 × 5, i.e., 10.
Example 4 Find the number of different signals that can be generated by arranging at
least 2 flags in order (one below the other) on a vertical staff, if five different flags are
available.
Solution A signal can consist of either 2 flags, 3 flags, 4 flags or 5 flags. Now, let us
count the possible number of signals consisting of 2 flags, 3 flags, 4 flags and 5 flags
separately and then add the respective numbers.
There will be as many 2 flag signals as there are ways of filling in 2 vacant places

in succession by the 5 flags available. By Multiplication rule, the number of

ways is 5 × 4 = 20.
Similarly, there will be as many 3 flag signals as there are ways of filling in 3

vacant places in succession by the 5 flags.

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104 MATHEMATICS

The number of ways is 5 × 4 × 3 = 60.

Continuing the same way, we find that
The number of 4 flag signals = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 = 120
and the number of 5 flag signals = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
Therefore, the required no of signals = 20 + 60 + 120 + 120 = 320.

EXERCISE 6.1
1. How many 3-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
assuming that
(i) repetition of the digits is allowed?
(ii) repetition of the digits is not allowed?
2. How many 3-digit even numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 if the
digits can be repeated?
3. How many 4-letter code can be formed using the first 10 letters of the English
alphabet, if no letter can be repeated?
4. How many 5-digit telephone numbers can be constructed using the digits 0 to 9 if
each number starts with 67 and no digit appears more than once?
5. A coin is tossed 3 times and the outcomes are recorded. How many possible
outcomes are there?
6. Given 5 flags of different colours, how many different signals can be generated if
each signal requires the use of 2 flags, one below the other?
6.3 Permutations
In Example 1 of the previous Section, we are actually counting the different possible
arrangements of the letters such as ROSE, REOS, ..., etc. Here, in this list, each
arrangement is different from other. In other words, the order of writing the letters is
important. Each arrangement is called a permutation of 4 different letters taken all
at a time. Now, if we have to determine the number of 3-letter words, with or without
meaning, which can be formed out of the letters of the word NUMBER, where the
repetition of the letters is not allowed, we need to count the arrangements NUM,
NMU, MUN, NUB, ..., etc. Here, we are counting the permutations of 6 different
letters taken 3 at a time. The required number of words = 6 × 5 × 4 = 120 (by using
multiplication principle).
If the repetition of the letters was allowed, the required number of words would
be 6 × 6 × 6 = 216.

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 105

Definition 1 A permutation is an arrangement in a definite order of a number of

objects taken some or all at a time.
In the following sub-section, we shall obtain the formula needed to answer these
questions immediately.
6.3.1 Permutations when all the objects are distinct
Theorem 1 The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time,
where 0 < r ≤ n and the objects do not repeat is n ( n – 1) ( n – 2). . .( n – r + 1),
which is denoted by nPr.
Proof There will be as many permutations as there are ways of filling in r vacant
places ... by
← r vacant places →
the n objects. The first place can be filled in n ways; following which, the second place
can be filled in (n – 1) ways, following which the third place can be filled in (n – 2)
ways,..., the rth place can be filled in (n – (r – 1)) ways. Therefore, the number of
ways of filling in r vacant places in succession is n(n – 1) (n – 2) . . . (n – (r – 1)) or
n ( n – 1) (n – 2) ... (n – r + 1)
This expression for nPr is cumbersome and we need a notation which will help to
reduce the size of this expression. The symbol n! (read as factorial n or n factorial )
comes to our rescue. In the following text we will learn what actually n! means.
6.3.2 Factorial notation The notation n! represents the product of first n natural
numbers, i.e., the product 1 × 2 × 3 × . . . × (n – 1) × n is denoted as n!. We read this
symbol as ‘n factorial’. Thus, 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 . . . × (n – 1) × n = n !
1=1!
1×2=2!
1× 2 × 3 = 3 !
1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 4 ! and so on.
We define 0 ! = 1
We can write 5 ! = 5 × 4 ! = 5 × 4 × 3 ! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 !
= 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1!
Clearly, for a natural number n
n ! = n (n – 1) !
= n (n – 1) (n – 2) ! [provided (n ≥ 2)]
= n (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) ! [provided (n ≥ 3)]
and so on.

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106 MATHEMATICS

Example 5 Evaluate (i) 5 ! (ii) 7 ! (iii) 7 ! – 5!

Solution (i) 5 ! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 = 120
(ii) 7 ! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 ×7 = 5040
and (iii) 7 ! – 5! = 5040 – 120 = 4920.
7! 12!
Example 6 Compute (i)
5! ( )
(ii) 10! (2!)

7! 7 × 6 × 5!
Solution (i) We have = = 7 × 6 = 42
5! 5!

12! 12 × 11 × (10!)
and (ii) = = 6 × 11 = 66.
(10!) ( 2!) (10!) × ( 2 )
n!
( )
Example 7 Evaluate r ! n − r ! , when n = 5, r = 2.

5!
Solution
( )
We have to evaluate 2! 5 − 2 ! (since n = 5, r = 2)

5! 5! 5× 4
= = 10 .
We have 2 !( 5 − 2 )! 2! × 3!
= 2

1 1 x
Example 8 If + =
8! 9! 10! , find x.

1 1 x
Solution We have 8! + 9 × 8! = 10 × 9 × 8!

1 x 10 x
Therefore 1+ = or =
9 10 × 9 9 10 × 9
So x = 100.

EXERCISE 6.2
1. Evaluate
(i) 8 ! (ii) 4 ! – 3 !

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 107

8! 1 1 x
2. Is 3 ! + 4 ! = 7 ! ? 3. Compute 4. If + = , find x
6! × 2! 6! 7! 8!

n!
5.
( )
Evaluate n − r ! , when

(i) n = 6, r = 2 (ii) n = 9, r = 5.
6.3.3 Derivation of the formula for nPr

n n!
Pr = ,0≤r≤n
( r )!
n −
Let us now go back to the stage where we had determined the following formula:
n
Pr = n (n – 1) (n – 2) . . . (n – r + 1)
Multiplying numerator and denomirator by (n – r) (n – r – 1) . . . 3 × 2 × 1, we get
n ( n − 1) ( n − 2 ) ...( n − r + 1)( n − r )( n − r − 1) ...3 × 2 × 1 n!
n
Pr = = ,
( n − r )( n − r − 1) ... 3 × 2 × 1 ( n − r )!
n!
n
Pr =
Thus
( n − r )! , where 0 < r ≤ n
This is a much more convenient expression for nPr than the previous one.
n!
In particular, when r = n, n Pn = = n!
0!
Counting permutations is merely counting the number of ways in which some or
all objects at a time are rearranged. Arranging no object at all is the same as leaving
behind all the objects and we know that there is only one way of doing so. Thus, we
can have
n! n!
n
P0 = 1 = = ... (1)
n ! ( n − 0)!

Therefore, the formula (1) is applicable for r = 0 also.

n!
n
Pr = ,0≤r ≤n.
Thus
( n − r )!

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108 MATHEMATICS

Theorem 2 The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time,

where repetition is allowed, is nr.
Proof is very similar to that of Theorem 1 and is left for the reader to arrive at.
Here, we are solving some of the problems of the pervious Section using the
formula for nPr to illustrate its usefulness.
In Example 1, the required number of words = 4P4 = 4! = 24. Here repetition is
not allowed. If repetition is allowed, the required number of words would be 44 = 256.
The number of 3-letter words which can be formed by the letters of the word
6!
NUMBER = P3 = 3! = 4 × 5 × 6 = 120. Here, in this case also, the repetition is not
6

allowed. If the repetition is allowed,the required number of words would be 63 = 216.

The number of ways in which a Chairman and a Vice-Chairman can be chosen
from amongst a group of 12 persons assuming that one person can not hold more than
12!
one position, clearly 12
P2 = = 11 × 12 = 132.
10!

6.3.4 Permutations when all the objects are not distinct objects Suppose we have
to find the number of ways of rearranging the letters of the word ROOT. In this case,
the letters of the word are not all different. There are 2 Os, which are of the same kind.
Let us treat, temporarily, the 2 Os as different, say, O1 and O2. The number of
permutations of 4-different letters, in this case, taken all at a time
is 4!. Consider one of these permutations say, RO 1O2T. Corresponding to this
permutation,we have 2 ! permutations RO1O2T and RO2O1T which will be exactly the
same permutation if O1 and O2 are not treated as different, i.e., if O1 and O2 are the
same O at both places.
4!
Therefore, the required number of permutations = 2! = 3 × 4 = 12 .

Permutations when O1, O2 are Permutations when O1, O2 are

different. the same O.
RO1O 2 T 
RO 2 O1T 
ROOT

T O1O 2 R 
T O2 O1R 
TOOR

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 109

R O1T O2 
R O 2T O1 
ROTO

T O1R O 2 
T O 2 R O1 
TORO

R T O1 O2 
R T O2 O1 
RTOO

T R O1 O2 
T R O 2 O1 
TROO

O1 O 2 R T 
O 2 O1 T R 
OORT

O1 R O 2 T 
O 2 R O1 T 
OROT

O1 T O2 R 
O2 T O1 R 
OTOR

O1 R T O 2 
O 2 R T O1 
ORTO

O1 T R O 2 
O 2 T R O1 
OTRO

O1 O 2 T R 
O 2 O1 T R 
OOTR

Let us now find the number of ways of rearranging the letters of the word
INSTITUTE. In this case there are 9 letters, in which I appears 2 times and T appears
3 times.
Temporarily, let us treat these letters different and name them as I1, I2, T1, T2, T3.
The number of permutations of 9 different letters, in this case, taken all at a time is 9 !.
Consider one such permutation, say, I1 NT1 SI2 T2 U E T3. Here if I1, I2 are not same

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110 MATHEMATICS

and T1, T2, T3 are not same, then I1, I2 can be arranged in 2! ways and T1, T2, T3 can
be arranged in 3! ways. Therefore, 2! × 3! permutations will be just the same permutation
corresponding to this chosen permutation I1NT1SI2T2UET3. Hence, total number of
9!
different permutations will be
2! 3!
We can state (without proof) the following theorems:
Theorem 3 The number of permutations of n objects, where p objects are of the
n!
same kind and rest are all different =
p! .
In fact, we have a more general theorem.
Theorem 4 The number of permutations of n objects, where p1 objects are of one
kind, p2 are of second kind, ..., pk are of kth kind and the rest, if any, are of different
n!
kind is .
p1! p2! ... pk!

Example 9 Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word ALLAHABAD.
Solution Here, there are 9 objects (letters) of which there are 4A’s, 2 L’s and rest are
all different.
9! 5× 6× 7 ×8× 9
Therefore, the required number of arrangements = = = 7560
4! 2! 2

Example 10 How many 4-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 1 to 9 if
repetition of digits is not allowed?
Solution Here order matters for example 1234 and 1324 are two different numbers.
Therefore, there will be as many 4 digit numbers as there are permutations of 9 different
digits taken 4 at a time.
9 9! 9!
Therefore, the required 4 digit numbers = P4 = = = 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 = 3024.
( 9 – 4 )! 5!
Example 11 How many numbers lying between 100 and 1000 can be formed with the
digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, if the repetition of the digits is not allowed?
Solution Every number between 100 and 1000 is a 3-digit number. We, first, have to

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 111

count the permutations of 6 digits taken 3 at a time. This number would be 6P3. But,
these permutations will include those also where 0 is at the 100’s place. For example,
092, 042, . . ., etc are such numbers which are actually 2-digit numbers and hence the
number of such numbers has to be subtracted from 6P3 to get the required number. To
get the number of such numbers, we fix 0 at the 100’s place and rearrange the remaining
5 digits taking 2 at a time. This number is 5P2. So
6! 5!
The required number = 6 P3 − 5 P2 = −
3! 3!
= 4 × 5 × 6 – 4 ×5 = 100
Example 12 Find the value of n such that
n
P4 5
(i) n
P5 = 42 P3 , n > 4
n
(ii) n –1
= ,n>4
P4 3

Solution (i) Given that

n
P5 = 42 n P3
or n (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) (n – 4) = 42 n(n – 1) (n – 2)
Since n>4 so n(n – 1) (n – 2) ≠ 0
Therefore, by dividing both sides by n(n – 1) (n – 2), we get
(n – 3 (n – 4) = 42
or n2 – 7n – 30 = 0
or n2 – 10n + 3n – 30
or (n – 10) (n + 3) = 0
or n – 10 = 0 or n + 3 = 0
or n = 10 or n = – 3
As n cannot be negative, so n = 10.
n
P4 5
(ii) Given that n –1
=
P4 3
Therefore 3n (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) = 5(n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) (n – 4)
or 3n = 5 (n – 4) [as (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) ≠ 0, n > 4]
or n = 10.

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112 MATHEMATICS

Example 13 Find r, if 5 4Pr = 6 5Pr–1 .

Solution We have 5 4 Pr = 6 5 Pr −1

4! 5!
5× = 6×
or
( 4 − r )! ( 5 − r + 1)!
5! 6 × 5!
=
or
( 4 − r )! ( 5 − r + 1) ( 5 − r )( 5 − r − 1)!
or (6 – r) (5 – r) = 6
or r2 – 11r + 24 = 0
or r2 – 8r – 3r + 24 = 0
or (r – 8) (r – 3) = 0
or r = 8 or r = 3.
Hence r = 8, 3.
Example 14 Find the number of different 8-letter arrangements that can be made
from the letters of the word DAUGHTER so that
(i) all vowels occur together (ii) all vowels do not occur together.
Solution (i) There are 8 different letters in the word DAUGHTER, in which there
are 3 vowels, namely, A, U and E. Since the vowels have to occur together, we can for
the time being, assume them as a single object (AUE). This single object together with
5 remaining letters (objects) will be counted as 6 objects. Then we count permutations
of these 6 objects taken all at a time. This number would be 6P6 = 6!. Corresponding to
each of these permutations, we shall have 3! permutations of the three vowels A, U, E
taken all at a time . Hence, by the multiplication principle the required number of
permutations = 6 ! × 3 ! = 4320.
(ii) If we have to count those permutations in which all vowels are never
together, we first have to find all possible arrangments of 8 letters taken all at a time,
which can be done in 8! ways. Then, we have to subtract from this number, the number
of permutations in which the vowels are always together.
Therefore, the required number 8 ! – 6 ! × 3 ! = 6 ! (7×8 – 6)
= 2 × 6 ! (28 – 3)
= 50 × 6 ! = 50 × 720 = 36000
Example 15 In how many ways can 4 red, 3 yellow and 2 green discs be arranged in
a row if the discs of the same colour are indistinguishable ?
Solution Total number of discs are 4 + 3 + 2 = 9. Out of 9 discs, 4 are of the first kind

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 113

(red), 3 are of the second kind (yellow) and 2 are of the third kind (green).
9!
Therefore, the number of arrangements = 1260 .
4! 3! 2!
Example 16 Find the number of arrangements of the letters of the word
INDEPENDENCE. In how many of these arrangements,
(i) do the words start with P
(ii) do all the vowels always occur together
(iii) do the vowels never occur together
(iv) do the words begin with I and end in P?
Solution There are 12 letters, of which N appears 3 times, E appears 4 times and D
appears 2 times and the rest are all different. Therefore
12!
The required number of arrangements = 3! 4! 2! = 1663200

(i) Let us fix P at the extreme left position, we, then, count the arrangements of the
remaining 11 letters. Therefore, the required number of words starting with P
11!
= = 138600 .
3! 2! 4!
(ii) There are 5 vowels in the given word, which are 4 Es and 1 I. Since, they have
to always occur together, we treat them as a single object EEEEI for the time
being. This single object together with 7 remaining objects will account for 8
objects. These 8 objects, in which there are 3Ns and 2 Ds, can be rearranged in
8!
3! 2! ways. Corresponding to each of these arrangements, the 5 vowels E, E, E,

5!
E and I can be rearranged in ways. Therefore, by multiplication principle,
4!
the required number of arrangements
8! 5!
= × = 16800
3! 2! 4!
(iii) The required number of arrangements
= the total number of arrangements (without any restriction) – the number
of arrangements where all the vowels occur together.

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114 MATHEMATICS

= 1663200 – 16800 = 1646400

(iv) Let us fix I and P at the extreme ends (I at the left end and P at the right end).
We are left with 10 letters.
Hence, the required number of arrangements
10!
= = 12600
3! 2! 4!

EXERCISE 6.3
1. How many 3-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 1 to 9 if no digit is
repeated?
2. How many 4-digit numbers are there with no digit repeated?
3. How many 3-digit even numbers can be made using the digits
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, if no digit is repeated?
4. Find the number of 4-digit numbers that can be formed using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4,
5 if no digit is repeated. How many of these will be even?
5. From a committee of 8 persons, in how many ways can we choose a chairman
and a vice chairman assuming one person can not hold more than one position?
6. Find n if n – 1P3 : nP4 = 1 : 9.
7. Find r if (i) 5 Pr = 2 6 Pr−1 (ii) 5 Pr = 6 Pr −1 .
8. How many words, with or without meaning, can be formed using all the letters of
the word EQUATION, using each letter exactly once?
9. How many words, with or without meaning can be made from the letters of the
word MONDAY, assuming that no letter is repeated, if.
(i) 4 letters are used at a time, (ii) all letters are used at a time,
(iii) all letters are used but first letter is a vowel?
10. In how many of the distinct permutations of the letters in MISSISSIPPI do the
four I’s not come together?
11. In how many ways can the letters of the word PERMUTATIONS be arranged if the
(i) words start with P and end with S, (ii) vowels are all together,
(iii) there are always 4 letters between P and S?
6.4 Combinations
Let us now assume that there is a group of 3 lawn tennis players X, Y, Z. A team
consisting of 2 players is to be formed. In how many ways can we do so? Is the team
of X and Y different from the team of Y and X ? Here, order is not important.
In fact, there are only 3 possible ways in which the team could be constructed.

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 115

Fig. 6.3
These are XY, YZ and ZX (Fig 6.3).
Here, each selection is called a combination of 3 different objects taken 2 at a time.
In a combination, the order is not important.
Now consider some more illustrations.
Twelve persons meet in a room and each shakes hand with all the others. How do
we determine the number of hand shakes. X shaking hands with Y and Y with X will
not be two different hand shakes. Here, order is not important. There will be as many
hand shakes as there are combinations of 12 different things taken 2 at a time.
Seven points lie on a circle. How many chords can be drawn by joining these
points pairwise? There will be as many chords as there are combinations of 7 different
things taken 2 at a time.
Now, we obtain the formula for finding the number of combinations of n different
objects taken r at a time, denoted by nCr..
Suppose we have 4 different objects A, B, C and D. Taking 2 at a time, if we have
to make combinations, these will be AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD. Here, AB and BA are
the same combination as order does not alter the combination. This is why we have not
included BA, CA, DA, CB, DB and DC in this list. There are as many as 6 combinations
of 4 different objects taken 2 at a time, i.e., 4C2 = 6.
Corresponding to each combination in the list, we can arrive at 2! permutations as
2 objects in each combination can be rearranged in 2! ways. Hence, the number of
permutations = 4C2 × 2!.
On the other hand, the number of permutations of 4 different things taken 2 at
a time = 4P2.
4!
4
P2 = 4C2 × 2! or = 4C2
Therefore
( 4 − 2 ) ! 2!
Now, let us suppose that we have 5 different objects A, B, C, D, E. Taking 3 at a
time, if we have to make combinations, these will be ABC, ABD, ABE, BCD, BCE,
CDE, ACE, ACD, ADE, BDE. Corresponding to each of these 5C3 combinations, there
are 3! permutations, because, the three objects in each combination can be

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116 MATHEMATICS

rearranged in 3 ! ways. Therefore, the total of permutations = 5 C3 × 3!

5!
5
P3 = 5C3 × 3! = 5 C3
Therefore or
( )
5 − 3 ! 3!
These examples suggest the following theorem showing relationship between
permutaion and combination:
Theorem 5 n Pr = n C r r! , 0 < r ≤ n.

Proof Corresponding to each combination of nCr, we have r ! permutations, because

r objects in every combination can be rearranged in r ! ways.
Hence, the total number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time
is nCr × r!. On the other hand, it is n Pr . Thus
n
Pr = n C r × r! , 0 < r ≤ n .

n! n!
Remarks 1. From above ( n − r )! = C r × r! , i.e., Cr =
n n
r!( n − r )! .

n!
In particular, if r = n , Cn = = 1.
n
n! 0!
2. We define nC0 = 1, i.e., the number of combinations of n different things taken
nothing at all is considered to be 1. Counting combinations is merely counting the
number of ways in which some or all objects at a time are selected. Selecting
nothing at all is the same as leaving behind all the objects and we know that there
is only one way of doing so. This way we define nC0 = 1.
n! n!
3. As = 1 = n C0 , the formula n Cr = is applicable for r = 0 also.
0!( n − 0 )! r ! ( − r )!
n

Hence
n!
n
Cr =
r ! (n − r ) ! , 0 ≤ r ≤ n.

n! n!
4.
n
Cn− r = = n − r !r ! = n C r ,
( n − r )!( n − ( n − r ) )! ( )

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 117

i.e., selecting r objects out of n objects is same as rejecting (n – r) objects.

5. Ca = nCb ⇒ a = b or a = n – b, i.e., n = a + b
n

n +1
Theorem 6 n
C r + n C r −1 = Cr

n! n!
Proof We have
n
Cr + n Cr −1 = +
r!( n − r )! ( r − 1)!( n − r + 1)!

n! n!
= +
r × ( r − 1)!( n − r )! ( r − 1)!( n − r + 1) ( n − r )!

n! 1 1 
+
( r − 1)!( n − r )!  r n − r + 1 

=

n!
×
n − r +1 + r ( n + 1)! = n +1 C
= =
( r − 1)!( n − r )! r ( n − r + 1) r!( n + 1 − r )! r

Example 17 If n C9 = n C8 , find n C17 .

Solution We have n C9 = n C8

n! n!
=
i.e., 9!( n − 9 )! ( n − 8 )! 8!

1 1
or = or n – 8 = 9 or n = 17
9 n −8
Therefore n
C17 = 17 C17 = 1 .
Example 18 A committee of 3 persons is to be constituted from a group of 2 men and
3 women. In how many ways can this be done? How many of these committees would
consist of 1 man and 2 women?
Solution Here, order does not matter. Therefore, we need to count combinations.
There will be as many committees as there are combinations of 5 different persons
5! 4 × 5
taken 3 at a time. Hence, the required number of ways = C3 = = = 10 .
5
3! 2! 2
Now, 1 man can be selected from 2 men in 2C1 ways and 2 women can be
selected from 3 women in 3C2 ways. Therefore, the required number of committees

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118 MATHEMATICS

2! 3!
= C1 × C2 = × = 6.
2 3
1! 1! 2! 1!

Example 19 What is the number of ways of choosing 4 cards from a pack of 52

playing cards? In how many of these
(i) four cards are of the same suit,
(ii) four cards belong to four different suits,
(iii) are face cards,
(iv) two are red cards and two are black cards,
(v) cards are of the same colour?
Solution There will be as many ways of choosing 4 cards from 52 cards as there are
combinations of 52 different things, taken 4 at a time. Therefore
52! 49 × 50 × 51× 52
The required number of ways =
52
C4 = =
4! 48! 2× 3× 4
= 270725
(i) There are four suits: diamond, club, spade, heart and there are 13 cards of each
suit. Therefore, there are 13C4 ways of choosing 4 diamonds. Similarly, there are
13
C4 ways of choosing 4 clubs, 13C4 ways of choosing 4 spades and 13C4 ways of
choosing 4 hearts. Therefore
The required number of ways = 13C4 + 13C4 + 13C4 + 13C4.
13!
= 4× = 2860
4! 9!
(ii) There are13 cards in each suit.
Therefore, there are 13C1 ways of choosing 1 card from 13 cards of diamond,
13
C1 ways of choosing 1 card from 13 cards of hearts, 13C1 ways of choosing 1
card from 13 cards of clubs, 13C1 ways of choosing 1 card from 13 cards of
spades. Hence, by multiplication principle, the required number of ways
= 13C1 × 13C1 × 13C1× 13C1 = 134
(iii) There are 12 face cards and 4 are to be selected out of these 12 cards. This can be
12!
done in 12C4 ways. Therefore, the required number of ways = = 495 .
4! 8!

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 119

(iv) There are 26 red cards and 26 black cards. Therefore, the required number of
ways = 26C2 × 26C2
2
 26! 
 = ( 325) = 105625
2
=
 2! 24! 
26
(v) 4 red cards can be selected out of 26 red cards in C 4 ways.
4 black cards can be selected out of 26 black cards in 26C4ways.
Therefore, the required number of ways = 26C4 + 26C4
26!
= 2× = 29900.
4! 22!

EXERCISE 6.4
1. If nC8 = nC2, find nC2.
2. Determine n if
(i) 2nC3 : nC3 = 12 : 1 (ii) 2nC3 : nC3 = 11 : 1
3. How many chords can be drawn through 21 points on a circle?
4. In how many ways can a team of 3 boys and 3 girls be selected from 5 boys and
4 girls?
5. Find the number of ways of selecting 9 balls from 6 red balls, 5 white balls and 5
blue balls if each selection consists of 3 balls of each colour.
6. Determine the number of 5 card combinations out of a deck of 52 cards if there
is exactly one ace in each combination.
7. In how many ways can one select a cricket team of eleven from 17 players in
which only 5 players can bowl if each cricket team of 11 must include exactly 4
bowlers?
8. A bag contains 5 black and 6 red balls. Determine the number of ways in which
2 black and 3 red balls can be selected.
9. In how many ways can a student choose a programme of 5 courses if 9 courses
are available and 2 specific courses are compulsory for every student?

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 20 How many words, with or without meaning, each of 3 vowels and 2
consonants can be formed from the letters of the word INVOLUTE ?
Solution In the word INVOLUTE, there are 4 vowels, namely, I,O,E,Uand 4
consonants, namely, N, V, L and T.

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120 MATHEMATICS

The number of ways of selecting 3 vowels out of 4 = 4C3 = 4.

The number of ways of selecting 2 consonants out of 4 = 4C2 = 6.
Therefore, the number of combinations of 3 vowels and 2 consonants is
4 × 6 = 24.
Now, each of these 24 combinations has 5 letters which can be arranged among
themselves in 5 ! ways. Therefore, the required number of different words is
24 × 5 ! = 2880.
Example 21 A group consists of 4 girls and 7 boys. In how many ways can a team of
5 members be selected if the team has (i) no girl ? (ii) at least one boy and one girl ?
(iii) at least 3 girls ?
Solution (i) Since, the team will not include any girl, therefore, only boys are to be
selected. 5 boys out of 7 boys can be selected in 7C5 ways. Therefore, the required
7! 6× 7
= C5 = 5! 2! = 2 = 21
7
number of ways

(ii) Since, at least one boy and one girl are to be there in every team. Therefore, the
team can consist of
(a) 1 boy and 4 girls (b) 2 boys and 3 girls
(c) 3 boys and 2 girls (d) 4 boys and 1 girl.
1 boy and 4 girls can be selected in 7C1 × 4C4 ways.
2 boys and 3 girls can be selected in 7C2 × 4C3 ways.
3 boys and 2 girls can be selected in 7C3 × 4C2 ways.
4 boys and 1 girl can be selected in 7C4 × 4C1 ways.
Therefore, the required number of ways
= 7C1 × 4C4 + 7C2 × 4C3 + 7C3 × 4C2 + 7C4 × 4C1
= 7 + 84 + 210 + 140 = 441
(iii) Since, the team has to consist of at least 3 girls, the team can consist of
(a) 3 girls and 2 boys, or (b) 4 girls and 1 boy.
Note that the team cannot have all 5 girls, because, the group has only 4 girls.
3 girls and 2 boys can be selected in 4C3 × 7C2 ways.
4 girls and 1 boy can be selected in 4C4 × 7C1 ways.
Therefore, the required number of ways
= 4C3 × 7C2 + 4C4 × 7C1 = 84 + 7 = 91

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 121

Example 22 Find the number of words with or without meaning which can be made
using all the letters of the word AGAIN. If these words are written as in a dictionary,
what will be the 50th word?
Solution There are 5 letters in the word AGAIN, in which A appears 2 times. Therefore,
5!
the required number of words = = 60 .
2!
To get the number of words starting with A, we fix the letter A at the extreme left
position, we then rearrange the remaining 4 letters taken all at a time. There will be as
many arrangements of these 4 letters taken 4 at a time as there are permutations of 4
different things taken 4 at a time. Hence, the number of words starting with
4!
A = 4! = 24. Then, starting with G, the number of words = = 12 as after placing G
2!
at the extreme left position, we are left with the letters A, A, I and N. Similarly, there
are 12 words starting with the next letter I. Total number of words so far obtained
= 24 + 12 + 12 =48.
The 49th word is NAAGI. The 50th word is NAAIG.
Example 23 How many numbers greater than 1000000 can be formed by using the
digits 1, 2, 0, 2, 4, 2, 4?
Solution Since, 1000000 is a 7-digit number and the number of digits to be used is also
7. Therefore, the numbers to be counted will be 7-digit only. Also, the numbers have to
be greater than 1000000, so they can begin either with 1, 2 or 4.
6! 4 × 5 × 6
The number of numbers beginning with 1 = = = 60, as when 1 is
3! 2! 2
fixed at the extreme left position, the remaining digits to be rearranged will be 0, 2, 2, 2,
4, 4, in which there are 3, 2s and 2, 4s.
Total numbers begining with 2
6! 3× 4 × 5 × 6
= = = 180
2! 2! 2

6!
and total numbers begining with 4 = = 4 × 5 × 6 = 120
3!

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122 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, the required number of numbers = 60 + 180 + 120 = 360.

Alternative Method
7!
The number of 7-digit arrangements, clearly, 3! 2! = 420 . But, this will include those

numbers also, which have 0 at the extreme left position. The number of such
6!
arrangements 3! 2! (by fixing 0 at the extreme left position) = 60.

Therefore, the required number of numbers = 420 – 60 = 360.

A Note If one or more than one digits given in the list is repeated, it will be
understood that in any number, the digits can be used as many times as is given in
the list, e.g., in the above example 1 and 0 can be used only once whereas 2 and 4
can be used 3 times and 2 times, respectively.
Example 24 In how many ways can 5 girls and 3 boys be seated in a row so that no
two boys are together?
Solution Let us first seat the 5 girls. This can be done in 5! ways. For each such
arrangement, the three boys can be seated only at the cross marked places.
× G × G × G × G × G ×.
There are 6 cross marked places and the three boys can be seated in 6P3 ways.
Hence, by multiplication principle, the total number of ways
6!
= 5! × 6P3 = 5!×
3!
= 4 × 5 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 = 14400.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 6

1. How many words, with or without meaning, each of 2 vowels and 3 consonants
can be formed from the letters of the word DAUGHTER ?
2. How many words, with or without meaning, can be formed using all the letters of
the word EQUATION at a time so that the vowels and consonants occur together?
3. A committee of 7 has to be formed from 9 boys and 4 girls. In how many ways
can this be done when the committee consists of:
(i) exactly 3 girls ? (ii) atleast 3 girls ? (iii) atmost 3 girls ?
4. If the different permutations of all the letter of the word EXAMINATION are

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 123

listed as in a dictionary, how many words are there in this list before the first
word starting with E ?
5. How many 6-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9
which are divisible by 10 and no digit is repeated ?
6. The English alphabet has 5 vowels and 21 consonants. How many words with
two different vowels and 2 different consonants can be formed from the
alphabet ?
7. In an examination, a question paper consists of 12 questions divided into two
parts i.e., Part I and Part II, containing 5 and 7 questions, respectively. A student
is required to attempt 8 questions in all, selecting at least 3 from each part. In
how many ways can a student select the questions ?
8. Determine the number of 5-card combinations out of a deck of 52 cards if each
selection of 5 cards has exactly one king.
9. It is required to seat 5 men and 4 women in a row so that the women occupy the
even places. How many such arrangements are possible ?
10. From a class of 25 students, 10 are to be chosen for an excursion party. There
are 3 students who decide that either all of them will join or none of them will
join. In how many ways can the excursion party be chosen ?
11. In how many ways can the letters of the word ASSASSINATION be arranged
so that all the S’s are together ?

Summary
® Fundamental principle of counting If an event can occur in m different
ways, following which another event can occur in n different ways, then the
total number of occurrence of the events in the given order is m × n.
® The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time, where
n!
repetition is not allowed, is denoted by nPr and is given by nPr =
(n − r )! ,
where 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
® n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × ...×n
® n! = n × (n – 1) !
® The number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time, where
repeatition is allowed, is nr.
® The number of permutations of n objects taken all at a time, where p1 objects

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124 MATHEMATICS

are of first kind, p2 objects are of the second kind, ..., pk objects are of the kth
n!
kind and rest, if any, are all different is p ! p !... p ! .
1 2 k

® The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time, denoted by

n!
Cr , is given by nCr = =
r!( n − r )! , 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
n

Historical Note
The concepts of permutations and combinations can be traced back to the advent
of Jainism in India and perhaps even earlier. The credit, however, goes to the
Jains who treated its subject matter as a self-contained topic in mathematics,
under the name Vikalpa.
Among the Jains, Mahavira, (around 850) is perhaps the world’s first
mathematician credited with providing the general formulae for permutations and
combinations.
In the 6th century B.C., Sushruta, in his medicinal work, Sushruta Samhita,
asserts that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes, taken one at a
time, two at a time, etc. Pingala, a Sanskrit scholar around third century B.C.,
gives the method of determining the number of combinations of a given number
of letters, taken one at a time, two at a time, etc. in his work Chhanda Sutra.
Bhaskaracharya (born 1114) treated the subject matter of permutations and
combinations under the name Anka Pasha in his famous work Lilavati. In addition
to the general formulae for nC r and nP r already provided by Mahavira,
Bhaskaracharya gives several important theorems and results concerning the
subject.
Outside India, the subject matter of permutations and combinations had its
humble beginnings in China in the famous book I–King (Book of changes). It is
difficult to give the approximate time of this work, since in 213 B.C., the emperor
had ordered all books and manuscripts in the country to be burnt which fortunately
was not completely carried out. Greeks and later Latin writers also did some
scattered work on the theory of permutations and combinations.
Some Arabic and Hebrew writers used the concepts of permutations and
combinations in studying astronomy. Rabbi ben Ezra, for instance, determined
the number of combinations of known planets taken two at a time, three at a time
and so on. This was around 1140. It appears that Rabbi ben Ezra did not know

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 125

the formula for nCr. However, he was aware that nCr = nCn–r for specific values
n and r. In 1321, Levi Ben Gerson, another Hebrew writer came up with the
formulae for nPr , nPn and the general formula for nCr.
The first book which gives a complete treatment of the subject matter of
permutations and combinations is Ars Conjectandi written by a Swiss, Jacob
Bernoulli (1654 – 1705), posthumously published in 1713. This book contains
essentially the theory of permutations and combinations as is known today.

—v —

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126 MATHEMATICS

Chapter 7
BINOMIAL THEOREM

vMathematics is a most exact science and its conclusions are capable of

absolute proofs. – C.P. STEINMETZv

7.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, we have learnt how to find the squares
and cubes of binomials like a + b and a – b. Using them, we
could evaluate the numerical values of numbers like
(98)2 = (100 – 2)2, (999)3 = (1000 – 1)3, etc. However, for
higher powers like (98)5, (101)6, etc., the calculations become
difficult by using repeated multiplication. This difficulty was
overcome by a theorem known as binomial theorem. It gives
an easier way to expand (a + b)n, where n is an integer or a
rational number. In this Chapter, we study binomial theorem
for positive integral indices only.
Blaise Pascal
7.2 Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Indices (1623-1662)
Let us have a look at the following identities done earlier:
(a+ b)0 = 1 a+b≠0
(a+ b)1 = a + b
(a+ b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a+ b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(a+ b)4 = (a + b)3 (a + b) = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4
In these expansions, we observe that
(i) The total number of terms in the expansion is one more than the index. For
example, in the expansion of (a + b)2 , number of terms is 3 whereas the index of
(a + b)2 is 2.
(ii) Powers of the first quantity ‘a’ go on decreasing by 1 whereas the powers of the
second quantity ‘b’ increase by 1, in the successive terms.
(iii) In each term of the expansion, the sum of the indices of a and b is the same and
is equal to the index of a + b.

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 127

We now arrange the coefficients in these expansions as follows (Fig 7.1):

Fig 7.1
Do we observe any pattern in this table that will help us to write the next row? Yes we
do. It can be seen that the addition of 1’s in the row for index 1 gives rise to 2 in the row
for index 2. The addition of 1, 2 and 2, 1 in the row for index 2, gives rise to 3 and 3 in
the row for index 3 and so on. Also, 1 is present at the beginning and at the end of each
row. This can be continued till any index of our interest.
We can extend the pattern given in Fig 7.2 by writing a few more rows.

Fig 7.2

Pascal’s Triangle
The structure given in Fig 7.2 looks like a triangle with 1 at the top vertex and running
down the two slanting sides. This array of numbers is known as Pascal’s triangle,
after the name of French mathematician Blaise Pascal. It is also known as Meru
Prastara by Pingla.
Expansions for the higher powers of a binomial are also possible by using Pascal’s
triangle. Let us expand (2x + 3y)5 by using Pascal’s triangle. The row for index 5 is
1 5 10 10 5 1
Using this row and our observations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
(2x + 3y)5 = (2x)5 + 5(2x)4 (3y) + 10(2x)3 (3y)2 +10 (2x)2 (3y)3 + 5(2x)(3y)4 +(3y)5
= 32x5 + 240x4y + 720x3y2 + 1080x2y3 + 810xy4 + 243y5.

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128 MATHEMATICS

Now, if we want to find the expansion of (2x + 3y)12, we are first required to get
the row for index 12. This can be done by writing all the rows of the Pascal’s triangle
till index 12. This is a slightly lengthy process. The process, as you observe, will become
more difficult, if we need the expansions involving still larger powers.
We thus try to find a rule that will help us to find the expansion of the binomial for
any power without writing all the rows of the Pascal’s triangle, that come before the
row of the desired index.
For this, we make use of the concept of combinations studied earlier to rewrite
n!
n
Cr =
the numbers in the Pascal’s triangle. We know that
r!(n – r )! , 0 ≤ r ≤ n and
n is a non-negative integer. Also, nC0 = 1 = nCn
The Pascal’s triangle can now be rewritten as (Fig 7.3)

Fig 7.3 Pascal’s triangle

Observing this pattern, we can now write the row of the Pascal’s triangle for any index
without writing the earlier rows. For example, for the index 7 the row would be
7
C0 7C1 7C2 7C3 7C4 7C5 7C6 7C7.
Thus, using this row and the observations (i), (ii) and (iii), we have
(a + b)7 = 7C0 a7 + 7C1a6b + 7C2a5b2 + 7C3a4b3 + 7C4a3b4 + 7C5a2b5 + 7C6ab6 + 7C7b7
An expansion of a binomial to any positive integral index say n can now be visualised
using these observations. We are now in a position to write the expansion of a binomial
to any positive integral index.

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 129

7.2.1 Binomial theorem for any positive integer n,

(a + b)n = nC0an + nC1an–1b + nC2an–2 b2 + ...+ nCn – 1a.bn–1 + nCnbn
Proof The proof is obtained by applying principle of mathematical induction.
Let the given statement be
P(n) : (a + b)n = nC0an + nC1an – 1b + nC2an – 2b2 + ...+ nCn–1a.bn – 1 + nCnbn
For n = 1, we have
P (1) : (a + b)1 = 1C0a1 + 1C1b1 = a + b
Thus, P (1) is true.
Suppose P (k) is true for some positive integer k, i.e.
(a + b)k = kC0ak + kC1ak – 1b + kC2ak – 2b2 + ...+ kCkbk ...
(1)
We shall prove that P(k + 1) is also true, i.e.,
(a + b)k + 1 = k+1
C0 ak + 1 + k+1
C 1 ak b + k+1
C2 ak – 1b2 + ...+ k+1
Ck+1 bk + 1
Now, (a + b)k + 1 = (a + b) (a + b)k
= (a + b) (kC0 ak + kC1ak – 1 b + kC2 ak – 2 b2 +...+ kCk – 1 abk – 1 + kCk bk)
[from (1)]
= kC0 ak + 1 + kC1 akb + kC2ak – 1b2 +...+ kCk – 1 a2bk – 1 + kCk abk + kC0 akb
+ kC1ak – 1b2 + kC2ak – 2b3+...+ kCk-1abk + kCkbk + 1
[by actual multiplication]
= kC0ak + 1 + (kC1+ kC0) akb + (kC2 + kC1)ak – 1b2 + ...
+ (kCk+ kCk–1) abk + kCkbk + 1 [grouping like terms]
= k + 1C0a k + 1 + k + 1C1akb + k + 1C2 ak – 1b2 +...+ k + 1Ckabk + k + 1Ck + 1 bk +1
k+1
(by using C0=1, kCr + kCr–1 = k+1
Cr and k
Ck = 1= k + 1Ck + 1)
Thus, it has been proved that P (k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true. Therefore, by
principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for every positive integer n.
We illustrate this theorem by expanding (x + 2)6:
(x + 2)6 = 6C0x6 + 6C1x5.2 + 6C2x422 + 6C3x3.23 + 6C4x2.24 + 6C5x.25 + 6C6.26.
= x6 + 12x5 + 60x4 + 160x3 + 240x2 + 192x + 64
Thus (x + 2)6 = x6 + 12x5 + 60x4 + 160x3 + 240x2 + 192x + 64.

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130 MATHEMATICS

Observations
n

1. The notation ∑
k =0
n
C k a n− k b k stands for
n
C0a b + C1an–1b1 + ...+ nC ran–rbr + ...+nCnan–nbn, where b0 = 1 = an–n.
n 0 n

Hence the theorem can also be stated as

n
( a + b) n = ∑ n C k a n − k b k .
k =0

2. The coefficients nCr occuring in the binomial theorem are known as binomial
coefficients.
3. There are (n+1) terms in the expansion of (a+b)n, i.e., one more than the index.
4. In the successive terms of the expansion the index of a goes on decreasing by
unity. It is n in the first term, (n–1) in the second term, and so on ending with zero
in the last term. At the same time the index of b increases by unity, starting with
zero in the first term, 1 in the second and so on ending with n in the last term.
5. In the expansion of (a+b)n, the sum of the indices of a and b is n + 0 = n in the
first term, (n – 1) + 1 = n in the second term and so on 0 + n = n in the last term.
Thus, it can be seen that the sum of the indices of a and b is n in every term of the
expansion.
7.2.2 Some special cases In the expansion of (a + b)n,
(i) Taking a = x and b = – y, we obtain
(x – y)n = [x + (–y)]n
= nC0xn + nC1xn – 1(–y) + nC2xn–2(–y)2 + nC3xn–3(–y)3 + ... + nCn (–y)n
= nC0xn – nC1xn – 1y + nC2xn – 2y2 – nC3xn – 3y3 + ... + (–1)n nCn yn
Thus (x–y)n = nC0xn – nC1xn – 1 y + nC2xn – 2 y2 + ... + (–1)n nCn yn
Using this, we have (x–2y)5 = 5
C0x5 – 5C1x4 (2y) + 5C2x3 (2y)2 – 5C3x2 (2y)3 +
5
C4 x(2y)4 – 5C5(2y)5
= x5 –10x4y + 40x3y2 – 80x2y3 + 80xy4 – 32y5.
(ii) Taking a = 1, b = x, we obtain
(1 + x)n = nC0(1)n + nC1(1)n – 1x + nC2(1)n – 2 x2 + ... + nCnxn
= nC0 + nC1x + nC2x2 + nC3x3 + ... + nCnxn
Thus (1 + x)n = nC0 + nC1x + nC2x2 + nC3x3 + ... + nCnxn

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 131

In particular, for x = 1, we have

2n = nC0 + nC1 + nC2 + ... + nCn.
(iii) Taking a = 1, b = – x, we obtain
(1– x)n = nC0 – nC1x + nC2x2 – ... + (– 1)n nCnxn
In particular, for x = 1, we get
0 = nC0 – nC1 + nC2 – ... + (–1)n nCn
4
 2 3
Example 1 Expand  x +  , x ≠ 0
 x
Solution By using binomial theorem, we have
4 2 3 4
3 3  3  3  3
x +
2
= C0(x ) + C1(x )   + 4C2(x2)2   + 4C3(x2)   + 4C4  
4 2 4 4 2 3
x  x  x  x  x
3 9 27 81
= x8 + 4.x6 . + 6.x4 . 2 + 4.x2. 3 + 4
x x x x
108 81
= x8 + 12x5 + 54x2 + + .
x x4
Example 2 Compute (98)5.
Solution We express 98 as the sum or difference of two numbers whose powers are
easier to calculate, and then use Binomial Theorem.
Write 98 = 100 – 2
Therefore, (98)5 = (100 – 2)5
= 5C0 (100)5 – 5C1 (100)4.2 + 5C2 (100)322
– 5C3 (100)2 (2)3 + 5C4 (100) (2)4 – 5C5 (2)5
= 10000000000 – 5 × 100000000 × 2 + 10 × 1000000 × 4 – 10 ×10000
× 8 + 5 × 100 × 16 – 32

= 10040008000 – 1000800032 = 9039207968.

Example 3 Which is larger (1.01)1000000 or 10,000?
Solution Splitting 1.01 and using binomial theorem to write the first few terms we
have

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132 MATHEMATICS

(1.01)1000000 = (1 + 0.01)1000000
1000000 1000000
= C0 + C1(0.01) + other positive terms

= 1 + 1000000 × 0.01 + other positive terms

= 1 + 10000 + other positive terms

> 10000

Hence (1.01)1000000 > 10000

Example 4 Using binomial theorem, prove that 6n–5n always leaves remainder
1 when divided by 25.
Solution For two numbers a and b if we can find numbers q and r such that
a = bq + r, then we say that b divides a with q as quotient and r as remainder. Thus, in
order to show that 6n – 5n leaves remainder 1 when divided by 25, we prove that
6n – 5n = 25k + 1, where k is some natural number.
We have
(1 + a)n = nC0 + nC1a + nC2a2 + ... + nCnan
For a = 5, we get
(1 + 5)n = nC0 + nC15 + nC252 + ... + nCn5n

i.e. (6)n = 1 + 5n + 52.nC2 + 53.nC3 + ... + 5n

i.e. 6n – 5n = 1+52 (nC2 + nC35 + ... + 5n-2)

or 6n – 5n = 1+ 25 (nC2 + 5 .nC3 + ... + 5n-2)

or 6n – 5n = 25k+1 where k = nC2 + 5 .nC3 + ... + 5n–2.

This shows that when divided by 25, 6n – 5n leaves remainder 1.

EXERCISE 7.1
Expand each of the expressions in Exercises 1 to 5.
5
2 x
1. (1–2x)5 2.  –  3. (2x – 3)6
 x 2

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 133

5 6
x 1  1
4.  +  5.  x + 
3 x  x
Using binomial theorem, evaluate each of the following:
6. (96)3 7. (102)5 8. (101)4
9. (99)5
10. Using Binomial Theorem, indicate which number is larger (1.1)10000 or 1000.
11. Find (a + b)4 – (a – b)4. Hence, evaluate ( 3 + 2)4 – ( 3 – 2 )4 .
12. Find (x + 1)6 + (x – 1)6. Hence or otherwise evaluate ( 2 + 1)6 + ( 2 – 1)6.
13. Show that 9n+1 – 8n – 9 is divisible by 64, whenever n is a positive integer.
n

14. Prove that ∑3

r =0
r n
C r = 4n .

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 7

1. If a and b are distinct integers, prove that a – b is a factor of an – bn, whenever
n is a positive integer.
[Hint write an = (a – b + b)n and expand]

( ) −( )
6 6
2. Evaluate 3+ 2 3− 2 .

( ) + (a )
4 4
3. Find the value of a + a − 1 − a2 − 1 .
2 2 2

4. Find an approximation of (0.99)5 using the first three terms of its expansion.
4
 x 2
5. Expand using Binomial Theorem  1 + −  , x ≠ 0 .
 2 x
6. Find the expansion of (3x2 – 2ax + 3a2)3 using binomial theorem.

Summary
® The expansion of a binomial forn anyn positive
n n
integral n is given by Binomial
n – 1 n n – 2 2
Theorem, which is (a + b) = C 0 a + C 1 a b + C 2a b + ...+
n n –1 n n
Cn – 1a.b + Cnb .
® The coefficients of the expansions are arranged in an array. This array is
called Pascal’s triangle.

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134 MATHEMATICS

Historical Note
The ancient Indian mathematicians knew about the coefficients in the
expansions of (x + y)n, 0 ≤ n ≤ 7. The arrangement of these coefficients was in
the form of a diagram called Meru-Prastara, provided by Pingla in his book
Chhanda shastra (200B.C.). This triangular arrangement is also found in the
work of Chinese mathematician Chu-shi-kie in 1303. The term binomial coefficients
was first introduced by the German mathematician, Michael Stipel (1486-1567) in
approximately 1544. Bombelli (1572) also gave the coefficients in the expansion of
(a + b)n, for n = 1,2 ...,7 and Oughtred (1631) gave them for n = 1, 2,..., 10. The
arithmetic triangle, popularly known as Pascal’s triangle and similar to the Meru-
Prastara of Pingla was constructed by the French mathematician Blaise Pascal
(1623-1662) in 1665.
The present form of the binomial theorem for integral values of n appeared in
Trate du triange arithmetic, written by Pascal and published posthumously in
1665.

—v —

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 Chapter 8
SEQUENCES AND SERIES

vNatural numbers are the product of human spirit. – DEDEKIND v

8.1 Introduction
In mathematics, the word, “sequence” is used in much the
same way as it is in ordinary English. When we say that a
collection of objects is listed in a sequence, we usually mean
that the collection is ordered in such a way that it has an
identified first member, second member, third member and
so on. For example, population of human beings or bacteria
at different times form a sequence. The amount of money
deposited in a bank, over a number of years form a sequence.
Depreciated values of certain commodity occur in a
sequence. Sequences have important applications in several Fibonacci
spheres of human activities. (1175-1250)
Sequences, following specific patterns are called progressions. In previous class,
we have studied about arithmetic progression (A.P). In this Chapter, besides discussing
more about A.P.; arithmetic mean, geometric mean, relationship between A.M.
and G.M., special series in forms of sum to n terms of consecutive natural numbers,
sum to n terms of squares of natural numbers and sum to n terms of cubes of
natural numbers will also be studied.
8.2 Sequences
Let us consider the following examples:
Assume that there is a generation gap of 30 years, we are asked to find the
number of ancestors, i.e., parents, grandparents, great grandparents, etc. that a person
might have over 300 years.

Here, the total number of generations = 300 = 10

30

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136 MATHEMATICS

The number of person’s ancestors for the first, second, third, …, tenth generations are
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …, 1024. These numbers form what we call a sequence.
Consider the successive quotients that we obtain in the division of 10 by 3 at
different steps of division. In this process we get 3,3.3,3.33,3.333, ... and so on. These
quotients also form a sequence. The various numbers occurring in a sequence are
called its terms. We denote the terms of a sequence by a1, a2, a3, …, an, …, etc., the
subscripts denote the position of the term. The nth term is the number at the nth position
of the sequence and is denoted by an. The nth term is also called the general term of the
sequence.
Thus, the terms of the sequence of person’s ancestors mentioned above are:
a1 = 2, a2 = 4, a3 = 8, …, a10 = 1024.
Similarly, in the example of successive quotients
a1 = 3, a2 = 3.3, a3 = 3.33, …, a6 = 3.33333, etc.
A sequence containing finite number of terms is called a finite sequence. For
example, sequence of ancestors is a finite sequence since it contains 10 terms (a fixed
number).
A sequence is called infinite, if it is not a finite sequence. For example, the
sequence of successive quotients mentioned above is an infinite sequence, infinite in
the sense that it never ends.
Often, it is possible to express the rule, which yields the various terms of a sequence
in terms of algebraic formula. Consider for instance, the sequence of even natural
numbers 2, 4, 6, …
Here a1 = 2 = 2 × 1 a2 = 4 = 2 × 2
a3 = 6 = 2 × 3 a4 = 8 = 2 × 4
.... .... .... .... .... ....
.... .... .... .... .... ....
a23 = 46 = 2 × 23, a24 = 48 = 2 × 24, and so on.
In fact, we see that the nth term of this sequence can be written as an = 2n,
where n is a natural number. Similarly, in the sequence of odd natural numbers 1,3,5, …,
the nth term is given by the formula, an = 2n – 1, where n is a natural number.
In some cases, an arrangement of numbers such as 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,.. has no visible
pattern, but the sequence is generated by the recurrence relation given by
a1 = a2 = 1
a3 = a1 + a2
an = an – 2 + an – 1, n > 2
This sequence is called Fibonacci sequence.

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 SEQUENCES AND SERIES 137

In the sequence of primes 2,3,5,7,…, we find that there is no formula for the nth
prime. Such sequence can only be described by verbal description.
In every sequence, we should not expect that its terms will necessarily be given
by a specific formula. However, we expect a theoretical scheme or a rule for generating
the terms a1, a2, a3,…,an,… in succession.
In view of the above, a sequence can be regarded as a function whose domain
is the set of natural numbers or some subset of it. Sometimes, we use the functional
notation a(n) for an.
8.3 Series
Let a1, a2, a3,…,an, be a given sequence. Then, the expression
a1 + a2 + a3 +,…+ an + ...
is called the series associated with the given sequence .The series is finite or infinite
according as the given sequence is finite or infinite. Series are often represented in
compact form, called sigma notation, using the Greek letter ∑ (sigma) as means of
indicating the summation involved. Thus, the series a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an is abbreviated

n
as ∑ ak .
k =1

Remark When the series is used, it refers to the indicated sum not to the sum itself.
For example, 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 is a finite series with four terms. When we use the phrase
“sum of a series,” we will mean the number that results from adding the terms, the
sum of the series is 16.
We now consider some examples.
Example 1 Write the first three terms in each of the following sequences defined by
the following:
n−3
(i) an = 2n + 5, (ii) an = .
4
Solution (i) Here an = 2n + 5
Substituting n = 1, 2, 3, we get
a1 = 2(1) + 5 = 7, a2 = 9, a3 = 11
Therefore, the required terms are 7, 9 and 11.
n−3 1− 3 1 1
(ii) Here an = . Thus, a1 = = − , a2 = − , a3 = 0
4 4 2 4

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138 MATHEMATICS

Hence, the first three terms are – 1 , – 1 and 0.

2 4
Example 2 What is the 20th term of the sequence defined by
an = (n – 1) (2 – n) (3 + n) ?
Solution Putting n = 20 , we obtain
a20 = (20 – 1) (2 – 20) (3 + 20)
= 19 × (– 18) × (23) = – 7866.
Example 3 Let the sequence an be defined as follows:
a1 = 1, an = an – 1 + 2 for n ≥ 2.
Find first five terms and write corresponding series.
Solution We have
a1 = 1, a2 = a1 + 2 = 1 + 2 = 3, a3 = a2 + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5,
a4 = a3 + 2 = 5 + 2 = 7, a5 = a4 + 2 = 7 + 2 = 9.
Hence, the first five terms of the sequence are 1,3,5,7 and 9. The corresponding series
is 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 +...

EXERCISE 8.1
Write the first five terms of each of the sequences in Exercises 1 to 6 whose nth
terms are:
n
1. an = n (n + 2) 2. an = 3. an = 2n
n +1

2n − 3 n2 + 5
4. an = 5. an = (–1)n–1 5n+1 6. a n = n .
6 4
Find the indicated terms in each of the sequences in Exercises 7 to 10 whose nth
terms are:

n2
7. an = 4n – 3; a17, a24 8. an = 2n ; a7
n(n – 2)
9. an = (–1)n – 1n3; a9 10. an = ; a20 .
n+3

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 SEQUENCES AND SERIES 139

Write the first five terms of each of the sequences in Exercises 11 to 13 and obtain the
corresponding series:
an −1
11. a1 = 3, an = 3an – 1 + 2 for all n > 1 12. a1 = – 1, an = ,n≥2
n
13. a1 = a2 = 2, an = an – 1–1, n > 2
14. The Fibonacci sequence is defined by
1 = a1 = a2 and an = an – 1 + an – 2, n > 2.
an +1
Find
an , for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

8.4 Geometric Progression (G. P.)

Let us consider the following sequences:
1 –1 1 –1
(i) 2,4,8,16,..., (ii) , , , (iii) .01,.0001,.000001,...
9 27 81 243 ...
In each of these sequences, how their terms progress? We note that each term, except
the first progresses in a definite order.

a2 a a
In (i), we have a1 = 2, = 2, 3 = 2, 4 = 2 and so on.
a1 a2 a3

1 a 1 a 1 a 1
In (ii), we observe, a1 = , 2 = , 3 = , 4 = and so on.
9 a1 3 a2 3 a3 3
Similarly, state how do the terms in (iii) progress? It is observed that in each case,
every term except the first term bears a constant ratio to the term immediately preceding
1
it. In (i), this constant ratio is 2; in (ii), it is – 3 and in (iii), the constant ratio is 0.01.
Such sequences are called geometric sequence or geometric progression abbreviated
as G.P.
A sequence a1, a2, a3, …, an, … is called geometric progression, if each term is
ak + 1
non-zero and = r (constant), for k ≥ 1.
ak
By letting a1 = a, we obtain a geometric progression, a, ar, ar2, ar3,…., where a
is called the first term and r is called the common ratio of the G.P. Common ratio in
1
geometric progression (i), (ii) and (iii) above are 2, – and 0.01, respectively.
3

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140 MATHEMATICS

As in case of arithmetic progression, the problem of finding the nth term or sum of n
terms of a geometric progression containing a large number of terms would be difficult
without the use of the formulae which we shall develop in the next Section. We shall
use the following notations with these formulae:
a = the first term, r = the common ratio, l = the last term,
n = the numbers of terms,
Sn = the sum of first n terms.
8.4.1 General term of a G .P. Let us consider a G.P. with first non-zero term ‘a’ and
common ratio ‘r’. Write a few terms of it. The second term is obtained by multiplying
a by r, thus a2 = ar. Similarly, third term is obtained by multiplying a2 by r. Thus,
a3 = a2r = ar2, and so on.
We write below these and few more terms.
1 term = a1 = a = ar1–1, 2nd term = a2 = ar = ar2–1, 3rd term = a3 = ar2 = ar3–1
st

4th term = a4 = ar3 = ar4–1, 5th term = a5 = ar4 = ar5–1

Do you see a pattern? What will be 16th term?
a16 = ar16–1 = ar15
Therefore, the pattern suggests that the nth term of a G.P. is given by
an = ar n–1.
Thus, a, G.P. can be written as a, ar, ar2, ar3, … arn – 1; a, ar, ar2,...,arn – 1... ;according
as G.P. is finite or infinite, respectively.
The series a + ar + ar2 + ... + arn–1 or a + ar + ar2 + ... + arn–1 +...are called
finite or infinite geometric series, respectively.
8.4.2. Sum to n terms of a G .P. Let the first term of a G.P. be a and the common
ratio be r. Let us denote by Sn the sum to first n terms of G.P. Then
Sn = a + ar + ar2 +...+ arn–1 ... (1)
Case 1 If r = 1, we have Sn = a + a + a + ... + a (n terms) = na
Case 2 If r ≠ 1, multiplying (1) by r, we have
rSn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + ... + arn ... (2)
Subtracting (2) from (1), we get (1 – r) Sn = a – arn = a(1 – rn)

a( r n −1)
This gives or Sn =
r −1
Example 4 Find the 10th and nth terms of the G.P. 5, 25,125,… .
Solution Here a = 5 and r = 5. Thus, a10 = 5(5)10–1 = 5(5)9 = 510
and an = arn–1 = 5(5)n–1 = 5n .

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 SEQUENCES AND SERIES 141

Example 5 Which term of the G.P., 2,8,32, ... up to n terms is 131072?

Solution Let 131072 be the nth term of the given G.P. Here a = 2 and r = 4.
Therefore 131072 = an = 2(4)n – 1 or 65536 = 4n – 1
This gives 48 = 4n – 1.
So that n – 1 = 8, i.e., n = 9. Hence, 131072 is the 9th term of the G.P.
Example 6 In a G.P., the 3rd term is 24 and the 6th term is 192.Find the 10th term.
Solution Here, a3 = ar 2 = 24 ... (1)
and a6 = ar = 192
5
... (2)
Dividing (2) by (1), we get r = 2. Substituting r = 2 in (1), we get a = 6.
Hence a10 = 6 (2)9 = 3072.
Example 7 Find the sum of first n terms and the sum of first 5 terms of the geometric
2 4
series 1 + + + ...
3 9
2
Solution Here a = 1 and r = . Therefore
3

  2 n 
1 −     n

a (1 − r n )   3   3 1−  2  
Sn = = =  
1− r 2   3  
1−
3

  2 5  211 211
In particular, S5 = 3 1 −    = 3 × = .
  3  
243 81

3 3
Example 8 How many terms of the G.P. 3, , ,... are needed to give the
2 4
3069
sum 512 ?

1 3069
Solution Let n be the number of terms needed. Given that a = 3, r = and Sn =
2 512
a (1 – r n )
Since Sn =
1− r

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142 MATHEMATICS

1
3(1 − )
Therefore 3069
= 2n = 6  1− 1 
1  n 
512 1−  2 
2

3069 1
or = 1− n
3072 2
1 3069 3 1
or = 1− = =
2n 3072 3072 1024
or 2n = 1024 = 210, which gives n = 10.
13
Example 9 The sum of first three terms of a G.P. is and their product is – 1.
12
Find the common ratio and the terms.
a
Solution Let , a, ar be the first three terms of the G.P. Then
r
a 13
+ ar + a = ... (1)
r 12

a ... (2)

and   (a ) (ar ) = – 1
r
From (2), we get a3 = – 1, i.e., a = – 1 (considering only real roots)
Substituting a = –1 in (1), we have
1 13
– –1 – r = or 12r2 + 25r + 12 = 0.
r 12

3 4
This is a quadratic in r, solving, we get r = –or – .
4 3
4 3 –3 3 4 –4
Thus, the three terms of G.P. are : , – 1, for r = and , – 1, for r = ,
3 4 4 4 3 3

Example10 Find the sum of the sequence 7, 77, 777, 7777, ... to n terms.
Solution This is not a G.P., however, we can relate it to a G.P. by writing the terms as
Sn = 7 + 77 + 777 + 7777 + ... to n terms

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 SEQUENCES AND SERIES 143

7
= [9 + 99 + 999 + 9999 + ...to n term]
9
7
= [(10 − 1) + (102 − 1) + (103 −1) + (104 − 1) + ...n terms]
9
7
= [(10 + 102 + 103 + ...n terms) – (1+1+1+...n terms)]
9

7  10(10n − 1)  7  10 (10n − 1) 
=  − n  =  − n .
9  10 − 1  9 9 
Example 11 A person has 2 parents, 4 grandparents, 8 great grandparents, and so on.
Find the number of his ancestors during the ten generations preceding his own.
Solution Here a = 2, r = 2 and n = 10
a (r n −1)
Using the sum formula Sn =
r −1
We have S10 = 2(210 – 1) = 2046
Hence, the number of ancestors preceding the person is 2046.
8.4.3 Geometric Mean (G .M.) The geometric mean of two positive numbers a

and b is the number ab . Therefore, the geometric mean of 2 and 8 is 4. We

observe that the three numbers 2,4,8 are consecutive terms of a G.P. This leads to a
generalisation of the concept of geometric means of two numbers.
Given any two positive numbers a and b, we can insert as many numbers as
we like between them to make the resulting sequence in a G.P.
Let G1, G2,…, Gn be n numbers between positive numbers a and b such that
a,G1,G2,G3,…,Gn,b is a G.P. Thus, b being the (n + 2)th term,we have

1
n +1  b n + 1 .
b = ar , or r= 
a
1
 b  n+1 2 3
Hence G1 = ar = a   ,  b  n+1  b  n +1
a G 2 = ar = a   , G 3 = ar = a   ,
2 3
a a
n
 b  n +1
G n = ar n = a  
a

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144 MATHEMATICS

Example12 Insert three numbers between 1 and 256 so that the resulting sequence
is a G.P.
Solution Let G1, G2,G3 be three numbers between 1 and 256 such that
1, G1,G2,G3 ,256 is a G.P.
Therefore 256 = r4 giving r = ± 4 (Taking real roots only)
For r = 4, we have G1 = ar = 4, G2 = ar2 = 16, G3 = ar3 = 64
Similarly, for r = – 4, numbers are – 4,16 and – 64.
Hence, we can insert 4, 16, 64 between 1 and 256 so that the resulting sequences are
in G.P.
8.5 Relationship Between A.M. and G.M.
Let A and G be A.M. and G.M. of two given positive real numbers a and b, respectively.
Then
a+b
A= and G = ab
2
Thus, we have
a +b a + b − 2 ab
A–G= − ab =
2 2

( )
2
a− b
= ≥0 ... (1)
2
From (1), we obtain the relationship A ≥ G.
Example 13 If A.M. and G.M. of two positive numbers a and b are 10 and 8,
respectively, find the numbers.
a+b
Solution Given that A.M. = =10 ... (1)
2
and G.M. = ab = 8 ... (2)

From (1) and (2), we get

a + b = 20 ... (3)
ab = 64 ... (4)
Putting the value of a and b from (3), (4) in the identity (a – b) = (a + b)2 – 4ab,
2

we get
(a – b)2 = 400 – 256 = 144
or a – b = ± 12 ... (5)

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 SEQUENCES AND SERIES 145

Solving (3) and (5), we obtain

a = 4, b = 16 or a = 16, b = 4
Thus, the numbers a and b are 4, 16 or 16, 4 respectively.

EXERCISE 8.2

5 5 5
1. Find the 20th and nth terms of the G.P. , , , ...
2 4 8
2. Find the 12th term of a G.P. whose 8th term is 192 and the common ratio is 2.
3. The 5 th, 8 th and 11 th terms of a G.P. are p, q and s, respectively. Show
that q2 = ps.
4. The 4th term of a G.P. is square of its second term, and the first term is – 3.
Determine its 7th term.
5. Which term of the following sequences:
(a) 2, 2 2 , 4,... is 128 ? (b) 3 ,3,3 3 ,... is729 ?
1 1 1 1
(c) , , ,... is ?
3 9 27 19683

2 7
6. For what values of x, the numbers – , x, – are in G.P.?
7 2
Find the sum to indicated number of terms in each of the geometric progressions in
Exercises 7 to 10:
7. 0.15, 0.015, 0.0015, ... 20 terms.
8. 7 , 21 , 3 7 , ... n terms.
9. 1, – a, a2, – a3, ... n terms (if a ≠ – 1).
10. x3, x5, x7, ... n terms (if x ≠ ± 1).

11
11. Evaluate ∑ (2 + 3k ) .
k =1

39
12. The sum of first three terms of a G.P. is and their product is 1. Find the
10
common ratio and the terms.
13. How many terms of G.P. 3, 32, 33, … are needed to give the sum 120?
14. The sum of first three terms of a G.P. is 16 and the sum of the next three terms is
128. Determine the first term, the common ratio and the sum to n terms of the G.P.
15. Given a G.P. with a = 729 and 7th term 64, determine S7.

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146 MATHEMATICS

16. Find a G.P. for which sum of the first two terms is – 4 and the fifth term is
4 times the third term.
17. If the 4th, 10th and 16th terms of a G.P. are x, y and z, respectively. Prove that x,
y, z are in G.P.
18. Find the sum to n terms of the sequence, 8, 88, 888, 8888… .
19. Find the sum of the products of the corresponding terms of the sequences 2, 4, 8,

1
16, 32 and 128, 32, 8, 2, .
2
20. Show that the products of the corresponding terms of the sequences a, ar, ar2,
…arn – 1 and A, AR, AR2, … ARn – 1 form a G.P, and find the common ratio.
21. Find four numbers forming a geometric progression in which the third term is
greater than the first term by 9, and the second term is greater than the 4th by 18.
22. If the pth, qth and rth terms of a G.P. are a, b and c, respectively. Prove that
aq – r br – pcP – q = 1.
23. If the first and the nth term of a G.P. are a and b, respectively, and if P is the
product of n terms, prove that P2 = (ab)n.
24. Show that the ratio of the sum of first n terms of a G.P. to the sum of terms from

1
(n + 1)th to (2n)th term is .
rn
25. If a, b, c and d are in G.P. show that
(a2 + b2 + c2) (b2 + c2 + d2) = (ab + bc + cd)2 .
26. Insert two numbers between 3 and 81 so that the resulting sequence is G.P.

a n+1 + b n+1
27. Find the value of n so that may be the geometric mean between
a n + bn
a and b.
28. The sum of two numbers is 6 times their geometric mean, show that numbers

( )(
are in the ratio 3 + 2 2 : 3 − 2 2 . )
29. If A and G be A.M. and G.M., respectively between two positive numbers,

prove that the numbers are A ± ( A + G )( A − G ) .

30. The number of bacteria in a certain culture doubles every hour. If there were 30
bacteria present in the culture originally, how many bacteria will be present at the
end of 2nd hour, 4th hour and nth hour ?

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 SEQUENCES AND SERIES 147

31. What will Rs 500 amounts to in 10 years after its deposit in a bank which pays
annual interest rate of 10% compounded annually?
32. If A.M. and G.M. of roots of a quadratic equation are 8 and 5, respectively, then
obtain the quadratic equation.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 14 If a, b, c, d and p are different real numbers such that
(a2 + b2 + c2)p2 – 2(ab + bc + cd) p + (b2 + c2 + d2) ≤ 0, then show that a, b, c and d
are in G.P.
Solution Given that
(a2 + b2 + c2) p2 – 2 (ab + bc + cd) p + (b2 + c2 + d2) ≤ 0 ... (1)
But L.H.S.
= (a2p2 – 2abp + b2) + (b2p2 – 2bcp + c2) + (c2p2 – 2cdp + d2),
which gives (ap – b)2 + (bp – c)2 + (cp – d)2 ≥ 0 ... (2)
Since the sum of squares of real numbers is non negative, therefore, from (1) and (2),
we have, (ap – b)2 + (bp – c)2 + (cp – d)2 = 0
or ap – b = 0, bp – c = 0, cp – d = 0

b c d
This implies that = = =p
a b c
Hence a, b, c and d are in G.P.

Miscellaneous Exercise On Chapter 8

1. If f is a function satisfying f (x +y) = f(x) f(y) for all x, y ∈ N such that
n
f(1) = 3 and ∑ f (x) = 120 , find the value of n.
x =1

2. The sum of some terms of G.P. is 315 whose first term and the common ratio are
5 and 2, respectively. Find the last term and the number of terms.
3. The first term of a G.P. is 1. The sum of the third term and fifth term is 90.
Find the common ratio of G.P.
4. The sum of three numbers in G.P. is 56. If we subtract 1, 7, 21 from these
numbers in that order, we obtain an arithmetic progression. Find the numbers.
5. A G.P. consists of an even number of terms. If the sum of all the terms is 5 times
the sum of terms occupying odd places, then find its common ratio.

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148 MATHEMATICS

a + bx b + cx c + dx
6. If = = ( x ≠ 0) , then show that a, b, c and d are in G.P.
a − bx b − cx c − dx
7. Let S be the sum, P the product and R the sum of reciprocals of n terms in a G.P.
Prove that P2Rn = Sn.
8. If a, b, c, d are in G.P, prove that (an + bn), (bn + cn), (cn + dn) are in G.P.
9. If a and b are the roots of x2 – 3x + p = 0 and c, d are roots of x2 – 12x + q = 0,
where a, b, c, d form a G.P. Prove that (q + p) : (q – p) = 17:15.
10. The ratio of the A.M. and G.M. of two positive numbers a and b, is m : n. Show

( )(
that a : b = m + m2 – n 2 : m – m2 – n 2 . )
11. Find the sum of the following series up to n terms:
(i) 5 + 55 +555 + … (ii) .6 +. 66 +. 666+…
12. Find the 20th term of the series 2 × 4 + 4 × 6 + 6 × 8 + ... + n terms.
13. A farmer buys a used tractor for Rs 12000. He pays Rs 6000 cash and agrees to
pay the balance in annual instalments of Rs 500 plus 12% interest on the unpaid
amount. How much will the tractor cost him?
14. Shamshad Ali buys a scooter for Rs 22000. He pays Rs 4000 cash and agrees to
pay the balance in annual instalment of Rs 1000 plus 10% interest on the unpaid
amount. How much will the scooter cost him?
15. A person writes a letter to four of his friends. He asks each one of them to copy
the letter and mail to four different persons with instruction that they move the
chain similarly. Assuming that the chain is not broken and that it costs 50 paise to
mail one letter. Find the amount spent on the postage when 8th set of letter is
mailed.
16. A man deposited Rs 10000 in a bank at the rate of 5% simple interest annually.
Find the amount in 15th year since he deposited the amount and also calculate the
total amount after 20 years.
17. A manufacturer reckons that the value of a machine, which costs him Rs. 15625,
will depreciate each year by 20%. Find the estimated value at the end of 5 years.
18. 150 workers were engaged to finish a job in a certain number of days. 4 workers
dropped out on second day, 4 more workers dropped out on third day and so on.
It took 8 more days to finish the work. Find the number of days in which the work
was completed.

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 SEQUENCES AND SERIES 149

Summary
® By a sequence, we mean an arrangement of number in definite order according
to some rule. Also, we define a sequence as a function whose domain is the
set of natural numbers or some subsets of the type {1, 2, 3, ....k}. A sequence
containing a finite number of terms is called a finite sequence. A sequence is
called infinite if it is not a finite sequence.
® Let a1, a2, a3, ... be the sequence, then the sum expressed as a1 + a2 + a3 + ...
is called series. A series is called finite series if it has got finite number of
terms.
® A sequence is said to be a geometric progression or G.P., if the ratio of any
term to its preceding term is same throughout. This constant factor is called
the common ratio. Usually, we denote the first term of a G.P. by a and its
common ratio by r. The general or the nth term of G.P. is given by an= arn – 1.
The sum Sn of the first n terms of G.P. is given by

Sn =
(
a rn – 1 ) or a (1– r ) , if r ≠ 1
n

r –1 1–r

® The geometric mean (G.M.) of any two positive numbers a and b is given by
ab i.e., the sequence a, G, b is G.P.

Historical Note
Evidence is found that Babylonians, some 4000 years ago, knew of arithmetic and
geometric sequences. According to Boethius (510), arithmetic and geometric
sequences were known to early Greek writers. Among the Indian mathematician,
Aryabhatta (476) was the first to give the formula for the sum of squares and cubes
of natural numbers in his famous work Aryabhatiyam, written around
499. He also gave the formula for finding the sum to n terms of an arithmetic
sequence starting with p th term. Noted Indian mathematicians Brahmgupta

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150 MATHEMATICS

(598), Mahavira (850) and Bhaskara (1114-1185) also considered the sum of squares
and cubes. Another specific type of sequence having important applications in
mathematics, called Fibonacci sequence, was discovered by Italian mathematician
Leonardo Fibonacci (1170-1250). Seventeenth century witnessed the classification
of series into specific forms. In 1671 James Gregory used the term infinite series in
connection with infinite sequence. It was only through the rigorous development of
algebraic and set theoretic tools that the concepts related to sequence and series
could be formulated suitably.

—v —

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 Chapter 9
STRAIGHT LINES

vG eometry, as a logical system, is a means and even the most powerful

means to make children feel the strength of the human spirit that is
of their own spirit. – H. FREUDENTHALv

9.1 Introduction
We are familiar with two-dimensional coordinate geometry
from earlier classes. Mainly, it is a combination of algebra
and geometry. A systematic study of geometry by the use
of algebra was first carried out by celebrated French
philosopher and mathematician René Descartes, in his book
‘La Géométry, published in 1637. This book introduced the
notion of the equation of a curve and related analytical
methods into the study of geometry. The resulting
combination of analysis and geometry is referred now as
analytical geometry. In the earlier classes, we initiated
the study of coordinate geometry, where we studied about René Descartes
coordinate axes, coordinate plane, plotting of points in a (1596 -1650)
plane, distance between two points, section formulae, etc. All these concepts are the
basics of coordinate geometry.
Let us have a brief recall of coordinate geometry done in earlier classes. To
recapitulate, the location of the points (6, – 4) and
(3, 0) in the XY-plane is shown in Fig 9.1.
We may note that the point (6, – 4) is at 6 units
distance from the y-axis measured along the positive
x-axis and at 4 units distance from the x-axis
measured along the negative y-axis. Similarly, the
point (3, 0) is at 3 units distance from the y-axis
measured along the positive x-axis and has zero
distance from the x-axis.
We also studied there following important Fig 9.1
formulae:

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152 MATHEMATICS

I. Distance between the points P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) is

(x – x1 ) + ( y2 – y1 )
2
PQ =
2
2

For example, distance between the points (6, – 4) and (3, 0) is

( 3 − 6 )2 + ( 0 + 4 )2 = 9 + 16 = 5 units.
II. The coordinates of a point dividing the line segment joining the points (x1, y1)
 m x 2 + n x1 m y 2 + n y1 
and (x2, y2) internally, in the ratio m: n are  , .
 m+n m + n 
For example, the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining
1.( − 3) + 3.1
A (1, –3) and B (–3, 9) internally, in the ratio 1: 3 are given by x = =0
1+ 3
1.9 + 3. ( –3)
and y = = 0.
1+ 3
III. In particular, if m = n, the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment
 x1 + x2 y1 + y 2 
joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are  , .
 2 2 
IV. Area of the triangle whose vertices are (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is
1
x1 ( y 2 − y 3 ) + x 2 ( y 3 − y 1) + x 3 ( y1 − y 2 ) .
2
For example, the area of the triangle, whose vertices are (4, 4), (3, – 2) and (– 3, 16) is
1 − 54
4( −2 − 16) + 3(16 − 4) + (−3)(4 + 2) = = 27.
2 2
Remark If the area of the triangle ABC is zero, then three points A, B and C lie on
a line, i.e., they are collinear.
In the this Chapter, we shall continue the study of coordinate geometry to study
properties of the simplest geometric figure – straight line. Despite its simplicity, the
line is a vital concept of geometry and enters into our daily experiences in numerous
interesting and useful ways. Main focus is on representing the line algebraically, for
which slope is most essential.
9.2 Slope of a Line
A line in a coordinate plane forms two angles with the x-axis, which are supplementary.

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 STRAIGHT LINES 153

The angle (say) θ made by the line l with positive

direction of x-axis and measured anti clockwise
is called the inclination of the line. Obviously
0° ≤ θ ≤ 180° (Fig 9.2).
We observe that lines parallel to x-axis, or
coinciding with x-axis, have inclination of 0°. The
inclination of a vertical line (parallel to or
coinciding with y-axis) is 90°.
Definition 1 If θ is the inclination of a line
l, then tan θ is called the slope or gradient of
the line l. Fig 9.2
The slope of a line whose inclination is 90° is not
defined.
The slope of a line is denoted by m.
Thus, m = tan θ, θ ≠ 90°
It may be observed that the slope of x-axis is zero and slope of y-axis is not defined.
9.2.1 Slope of a line when coordinates of any two points on the line are given
We know that a line is completely determined when we are given two points on it.
Hence, we proceed to find the slope of a
line in terms of the coordinates of two points
on the line.
Let P(x 1, y 1 ) and Q(x 2, y 2 ) be two
points on non-vertical line l whose inclination
is θ. Obviously, x1 ≠ x2, otherwise the line
will become perpendicular to x-axis and its
slope will not be defined. The inclination of
the line l may be acute or obtuse. Let us
take these two cases.
Draw perpendicular QR to x-axis and
PM perpendicular to RQ as shown in
Figs. 9.3 (i) and (ii).
Fig 9. 3 (i)
Case 1 When angle θ is acute:
In Fig 9.3 (i), ∠MPQ = θ. ... (1)
Therefore, slope of line l = m = tan θ.
MQ y2 − y1
But in ∆MPQ, we have tan θ = = . ... (2)
MP x2 − x1

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154 MATHEMATICS

From equations (1) and (2), we have

y2 − y1
m= .
x2 − x1

Case II When angle θ is obtuse:

In Fig 9.3 (ii), we have
∠MPQ = 180° – θ.
Therefore, θ = 180° – ∠MPQ.
Now, slope of the line l
Fig 9. 3 (ii)

m = tan θ
= tan ( 180° – ∠MPQ) = – tan ∠MPQ

MQ y −y y2 − y1
= − =− 2 1 = .
MP x1 − x2 x2 − x1
Consequently, we see that in both the cases the slope m of the line through the points
y2 − y1
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by m = .
x2 − x1

9.2.2 Conditions for parallelism and perpendicularity of lines in terms of their

slopes In a coordinate plane, suppose that non-vertical lines l1 and l2 have slopes m1
and m2, respectively. Let their inclinations be α and
β, respectively.
If the line l1 is parallel to l2 (Fig 9.4), then their
inclinations are equal, i.e.,
α = β, and hence, tan α = tan β
Therefore m1 = m2, i.e., their slopes are equal.
Conversely, if the slope of two lines l1 and l2
is same, i.e.,
m1 = m2.
Fig 9. 4
Then tan α = tan β.
By the property of tangent function (between 0° and 180°), α = β.
Therefore, the lines are parallel.

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 STRAIGHT LINES 155

Hence, two non vertical lines l1 and l2 are parallel if and only if their slopes
are equal.
If the lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular (Fig 9.5), then β = α + 90°.
Therefore, tan β = tan (α + 90°)
1
= – cot α = −
tan α
1
i.e., m2 = − m or m1 m2 = – 1
1

Conversely, if m1 m2 = – 1, i.e., tan α tan β = – 1.

Then tan α = – cot β = tan (β + 90°) or tan (β – 90°)
Fig 9. 5
Therefore, α and β differ by 90°.
Thus, lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular to each other.
Hence, two non-vertical lines are perpendicular to each other if and only if
their slopes are negative reciprocals of each other,
1
i.e., m2= − or, m1 m2 = – 1.
m1
Let us consider the following example.

Example 1 Find the slope of the lines:

(a) Passing through the points (3, – 2) and (–1, 4),
(b) Passing through the points (3, – 2) and (7, – 2),
(c) Passing through the points (3, – 2) and (3, 4),
(d) Making inclination of 60° with the positive direction of x-axis.

Solution (a) The slope of the line through (3, – 2) and (– 1, 4) is

4 − ( −2) 6 3
m= = =− .
−1 − 3 −4 2
(b) The slope of the line through the points (3, – 2) and (7, – 2) is
–2 – (–2) 0
m= = = 0.
7–3 4
(c) The slope of the line through the points (3, – 2) and (3, 4) is

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156 MATHEMATICS

4 – (–2) 6
m = = , which is not defined.
3–3 0
(d) Here inclination of the line α = 60°. Therefore, slope of the line is
m = tan 60° = 3.

9.2.3 Angle between two lines When we think about more than one line in a plane,
then we find that these lines are either intersecting or parallel. Here we will discuss the
angle between two lines in terms of their slopes.
Let L1 and L2 be two non-vertical lines with slopes m1 and m2, respectively. If α1
and α2 are the inclinations of lines L1 and L2, respectively. Then
m1 = tan α1 and m2 = tan α2 .
We know that when two lines intersect each other, they make two pairs of
vertically opposite angles such that sum of any two adjacent angles is 180°. Let θ and
φ be the adjacent angles between the lines L1 and L2 (Fig 9.6). Then
θ = α2 – α1 and α1, α2 ≠ 90°.
tan α 2 − tan α1 m − m1
Therefore tan θ = tan (α2 – α1) = = 2 (as 1 + m1m2 ≠ 0)
1 + tan α1 tan α 2 1 + m1m2
and φ = 180° – θ so that
m2 − m1
tan φ = tan (180° – θ ) = – tan θ = – , as 1 + m1m2 ≠ 0
1 + m1m2

Fig 9. 6
Now, there arise two cases:

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 STRAIGHT LINES 157

m 2 – m1
Case I If is positive, then tan θ will be positive and tan φ will be negative,
1 + m1m 2
which means θ will be acute and φ will be obtuse.
m 2 – m1
Case II If is negative, then tan θ will be negative and tan φ will be positive,
1 + m1m 2
which means that θ will be obtuse and φ will be acute.
Thus, the acute angle (say θ) between lines L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2,
respectively, is given by
m 2 − m1
tan θ = , as 1 + m1m 2 ≠ 0 ... (1)
1 + m1m 2
The obtuse angle (say φ) can be found by using φ =1800 – θ.
π 1
Example 2 If the angle between two lines is and slope of one of the lines is , find
4 2
the slope of the other line.
Solution We know that the acute angle θ between two lines with slopes m1 and m2
m2 − m1
is given by tan θ = ... (1)
1 + m1m 2

1 π
Let m1 = , m2 = m and θ = .
2 4
Now, putting these values in (1), we get

1 1
m− m−
π 2 2
tan = or 1 = ,
4 1 1
1+ m 1+ m
2 2

1 1
m− m−
2 = 1 or 2 = –1.
which gives 1 1
1+ m 1+ m
2 2

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158 MATHEMATICS

1
Therefore m = 3 or m = − .
3
Hence, slope of the other line is
1
3 or − . Fig 9.7 explains the
3
reason of two answers.

Fig 9.7

Example 3 Line through the points (–2, 6) and (4, 8) is perpendicular to the line
through the points (8, 12) and (x, 24). Find the value of x.

Solution Slope of the line through the points (– 2, 6) and (4, 8) is

8−6 2 1
m1 = = =
4 − ( −2 ) 6 3
Slope of the line through the points (8, 12) and (x, 24) is
24 − 12 12
m2 = =
x−8 x −8
Since two lines are perpendicular,
m1 m2 = –1, which gives
1 12
× = −1 or x = 4 .
3 x −8

EXERCISE 9.1
1. Draw a quadrilateral in the Cartesian plane, whose vertices are (– 4, 5), (0, 7),
(5, – 5) and (– 4, –2). Also, find its area.
2. The base of an equilateral triangle with side 2a lies along the y-axis such that the
mid-point of the base is at the origin. Find vertices of the triangle.

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3. Find the distance between P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) when : (i) PQ is parallel to the
y-axis, (ii) PQ is parallel to the x-axis.
4. Find a point on the x-axis, which is equidistant from the points (7, 6) and (3, 4).
5. Find the slope of a line, which passes through the origin, and the mid-point of the
line segment joining the points P (0, – 4) and B (8, 0).
6. Without using the Pythagoras theorem, show that the points (4, 4), (3, 5) and
(–1, –1) are the vertices of a right angled triangle.
7. Find the slope of the line, which makes an angle of 30° with the positive direction
of y-axis measured anticlockwise.
8. Without using distance formula, show that points (– 2, – 1), (4, 0), (3, 3) and
(–3, 2) are the vertices of a parallelogram.
9. Find the angle between the x-axis and the line joining the points (3,–1) and (4,–2).
10. The slope of a line is double of the slope of another line. If tangent of the angle
1
between them is , find the slopes of the lines.
3
11. A line passes through (x1, y1) and (h, k). If slope of the line is m, show that
k – y1 = m (h – x1).
9.3 Various Forms of the Equation of a Line
We know that every line in a plane contains infinitely many points on it. This relationship
between line and points leads us to find the solution of the following problem:
How can we say that a given point lies on the given line? Its answer may be that
for a given line we should have a definite condition on the points lying on the line.
Suppose P (x, y) is an arbitrary point in the XY-plane and L is the given line. For the
equation of L, we wish to construct a statement or condition for the point P that is
true, when P is on L, otherwise false. Of course the statement is merely an algebraic
equation involving the variables x and y. Now, we will discuss the equation of a line
under different conditions.
9.3.1 Horizontal and vertical lines If a horizontal line L is at a distance a from the x-
axis then ordinate of every point lying on the line is either a or – a [Fig 9.8 (a)].
Therefore, equation of the line L is either y = a or y = – a. Choice of sign will depend
upon the position of the line according as the line is above or below the y-axis. Similarly,
the equation of a vertical line at a distance b from the y-axis is either x = b or
x = – b [Fig 9.8(b)].

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160 MATHEMATICS

Fig 9.8

Example 4 Find the equations of the lines

parallel to axes and passing through
(– 2, 3).
Solution Position of the lines is shown in the
Fig 9.9. The y-coordinate of every point on the
line parallel to x-axis is 3, therefore, equation
of the line parallel tox-axis and passing through
(– 2, 3) is y = 3. Similarly, equation of the line
parallel to y-axis and passing through (– 2, 3)
is x = – 2.
9.3.2 Point-slope form Suppose that Fig 9.9
P0 (x0, y0) is a fixed point on a non-vertical
line L, whose slope is m. Let P (x, y) be an
arbitrary point on L (Fig 9.10).
Then, by the definition, the slope of L is given
by
y − y0
m= , i.e., y − y 0 = m ( x − x 0 )
x − x0
...(1)
Since the point P0 (x0 , y0) along with
all points (x, y) on L satisfies (1) and no other
point in the plane satisfies (1). Equation (1)
is indeed the equation for the given line L. Fig 9.10

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 STRAIGHT LINES 161

Thus, the point (x, y) lies on the line with slope m through the fixed point (x0, y0),
if and only if, its coordinates satisfy the equation
y – y0 = m (x – x0)
Example 5 Find the equation of the line through (– 2, 3) with slope – 4.
Solution Here m = – 4 and given point (x0 , y0) is (– 2, 3).
By slope-intercept form formula
(1) above, equation of the given
line is
y – 3 = – 4 (x + 2) or
4x + y + 5 = 0, which is the
required equation.
9.3.3 Two-point form Let the
line L passes through two given
points P1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2).
Let P (x, y) be a general point
on L (Fig 9.11).
The three points P1, P2 and P are Fig 9.11
collinear, therefore, we have
slope of P1P = slope of P1P2
y − y1 y 2 − y1 y − y1
i.e., = , or y − y 1 = 2 ( x − x1 ).
x − x1 x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1
Thus, equation of the line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by
y 2 − y1
y − y1 = ( x − x1) ... (2)
x 2 − x1
Example 6 Write the equation of the line through the points (1, –1) and (3, 5).
Solution Here x1 = 1, y1 = – 1, x2 = 3 and y2 = 5. Using two-point form (2) above
for the equation of the line, we have
5 – ( –1)
y – ( –1) = ( x – 1)
3 –1
or –3x + y + 4 = 0, which is the required equation.
9.3.4 Slope-intercept form Sometimes a line is known to us with its slope and an
intercept on one of the axes. We will now find equations of such lines.

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162 MATHEMATICS

Case I Suppose a line L with slope m cuts

the y-axis at a distance c from the origin
(Fig 9.12). The distance c is called the y-
intercept of the line L. Obviously,
coordinates of the point where the line meet
the y-axis are (0, c). Thus, L has slope m
and passes through a fixed point (0, c).
Therefore, by point-slope form, the equation
of L is
Fig 9.12
y − c = m ( x − 0 ) or y = mx + c
Thus, the point (x, y) on the line with slope m and y-intercept c lies on the line if and
only if
y = mx +c ...(3)
Note that the value of c will be positive or negative according as the intercept is made
on the positive or negative side of the y-axis, respectively.
Case II Suppose line L with slope m makes x-intercept d. Then equation of L is
y = m(x – d) ... (4)
Students may derive this equation themselves by the same method as in Case I.
1
Example 7 Write the equation of the lines for which tan θ = , where θ is the
2
3
inclination of the line and (i) y-intercept is – (ii) x-intercept is 4.
2
1 3
Solution (i) Here, slope of the line is m = tan θ = and y - intercept c = – .
2 2
Therefore, by slope-intercept form (3) above, the equation of the line is
1 3
y= x − or 2 y − x + 3 = 0 ,
2 2
which is the required equation.
1
(ii) Here, we have m = tan θ = and d = 4.
2
Therefore, by slope-intercept form (4) above, the equation of the line is
1
y= ( x − 4) or 2 y − x + 4 = 0 ,
2
which is the required equation.

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 STRAIGHT LINES 163

9.3.5 Intercept - form Suppose a line L makes x-intercept a and y-intercept b on the
axes. Obviously L meets x-axis at the point
(a, 0) and y-axis at the point (0, b) (Fig .9.13).
By two-point form of the equation of the line,
we have
b−0
y−0= (x − a) or ay = −bx + ab ,
0−a
x y
i.e., + = 1.
a b
Thus, equation of the line making intercepts
Fig 9.13
a and b on x-and y-axis, respectively, is
x y
+ =1 ... (5)
a b
Example 8 Find the equation of the line, which makes intercepts –3 and 2 on the
x- and y-axes respectively.
Solution Here a = –3 and b = 2. By intercept form (5) above, equation of the line is
x y
+ = 1 or 2 x − 3 y + 6 = 0 .
−3 2
Any equation of the form Ax + By + C = 0, where A and B are not zero simultaneously
is called general linear equation or general equation of a line.

EXERCISE 9.2
In Exercises 1 to 8, find the equation of the line which satisfy the given conditions:
1. Write the equations for the x-and y-axes.
1
2. Passing through the point (– 4, 3) with slope .
2
3. Passing through (0, 0) with slope m.
( )
4. Passing through 2, 2 3 and inclined with the x-axis at an angle of 75o.
5. Intersecting the x-axis at a distance of 3 units to the left of origin with slope –2.
6. Intersecting the y-axis at a distance of 2 units above the origin and making an
angle of 30o with positive direction of the x-axis.

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164 MATHEMATICS

7. Passing through the points (–1, 1) and (2, – 4).

8. The vertices of ∆ PQR are P (2, 1), Q (–2, 3) and R (4, 5). Find equation of the
median through the vertex R.
9. Find the equation of the line passing through (–3, 5) and perpendicular to the line
through the points (2, 5) and (–3, 6).
10. A line perpendicular to the line segment joining the points (1, 0) and (2, 3) divides
it in the ratio 1: n. Find the equation of the line.
11. Find the equation of a line that cuts off equal intercepts on the coordinate axes
and passes through the point (2, 3).
12. Find equation of the line passing through the point (2, 2) and cutting off intercepts
on the axes whose sum is 9.
2π
13. Find equation of the line through the point (0, 2) making an angle with the
3
positive x-axis. Also, find the equation of line parallel to it and crossing the y-axis
at a distance of 2 units below the origin.
14. The perpendicular from the origin to a line meets it at the point (–2, 9), find the
equation of the line.
15. The length L (in centimetre) of a copper rod is a linear function of its Celsius
temperature C. In an experiment, if L = 124.942 when C = 20 and L= 125.134
when C = 110, express L in terms of C.
16. The owner of a milk store finds that, he can sell 980 litres of milk each week at
Rs 14/litre and 1220 litres of milk each week at Rs 16/litre. Assuming a linear
relationship between selling price and demand, how many litres could he sell
weekly at Rs 17/litre?
17. P (a, b) is the mid-point of a line segment between axes. Show that equation
x y
of the line is + = 2.
a b
18. Point R (h, k) divides a line segment between the axes in the ratio 1: 2. Find
equation of the line.
19. By using the concept of equation of a line, prove that the three points (3, 0),
(– 2, – 2) and (8, 2) are collinear.
9.4 Distance of a Point From a Line
The distance of a point from a line is the length of the perpendicular drawn from the
point to the line. Let L : Ax + By + C = 0 be a line, whose distance from the point
P (x1, y1) is d. Draw a perpendicular PM from the point P to the line L (Fig 9.14). If the

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 STRAIGHT LINES 165

Fig 9.14

line meets the x-and y-axes at the points Q and R, respectively. Then, coordinates of
 C   C
the points are Q  − , 0  and R  0 , −  . Thus, the area of the triangle PQR is
 A   B
given by
1 2 area (∆PQR)
area (∆PQR) = PM.QR , which gives PM = ... (1)
2 QR

1  C   C  C 
Also, area (∆PQR) = x1  0 +  +  −  − − y1  + 0 ( y 1 − 0 )
2  B   A  B 

1 C C C2
= x1 + y 1 +
2 B A AB

C
or 2 area (∆PQR) = . A x1 + B y 1 + C , and
AB

( )
2 2
 C C C
QR =  0 +  + − 0 = A +B
2 2
 A B AB
Substituting the values of area (∆PQR) and QR in (1), we get
A x1 + B y1 + C
PM =
A +B
2 2

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166 MATHEMATICS

A x1 + B y1 + C
or d= .
A +B
2 2

Thus, the perpendicular distance (d) of a line Ax + By+ C = 0 from a point (x1, y1)
is given by
A x1 + B y1 + C
d= .
A +B
2 2

9.4.1 Distance between two

parallel lines We know that slopes of
two parallel lines are equal.
Therefore, two parallel lines can be
taken in the form
y = mx + c1 ... (1)
and y = mx + c2 ... (2)
Line (1) will intersect x-axis at the point
 c1 
A  − m , 0  as shown in Fig 9.15.
  Fig 9.15
Distance between two lines is equal to the length of the perpendicular from point
A to line (2). Therefore, distance between the lines (1) and (2) is

( −m)  −
c1 
 + ( −c2 ) c1 − c2
 m .
or d =
1 + m2 1 + m2

Thus, the distance d between two parallel lines y = mx + c1 and y = mx + c2 is given by

c1 − c2
d= .
1 + m2
If lines are given in general form, i.e., Ax + By + C1 = 0 and Ax + By + C2 = 0,
C1 − C 2
then above formula will take the form d =
A 2 + B2
Students can derive it themselves.

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 STRAIGHT LINES 167

Example 9 Find the distance of the point (3, – 5) from the line 3x – 4y –26 = 0.
Solution Given line is 3x – 4y –26 = 0 ... (1)
Comparing (1) with general equation of line Ax + By + C = 0, we get
A = 3, B = – 4 and C = – 26.
Given point is (x1, y1) = (3, –5). The distance of the given point from given line is

Ax1 + By1 + C 3.3 + ( –4 )( –5 ) – 26 3

d= = = .
A 2 + B2 32 + ( –4 ) 5
2

Example 10 Find the distance between the parallel lines 3x – 4y +7 = 0 and

3x – 4y + 5 = 0
Solution Here A = 3, B = –4, C1 = 7 and C2 = 5. Therefore, the required distance is
7–5 2
d= = .
3 + ( –4 ) 5
2 2

EXERCISE 9.3
1. Reduce the following equations into slope - intercept form and find their slopes
and the y - intercepts.
(i) x + 7y = 0, (ii) 6x + 3y – 5 = 0, (iii) y = 0.
2. Reduce the following equations into intercept form and find their intercepts on
the axes.
(i) 3x + 2y – 12 = 0, (ii) 4x – 3y = 6, (iii) 3y + 2 = 0.
3. Find the distance of the point (–1, 1) from the line 12(x + 6) = 5(y – 2).
x y
4. Find the points on the x-axis, whose distances from the line + = 1 are 4 units.
3 4
5. Find the distance between parallel lines
(i) 15x + 8y – 34 = 0 and 15x + 8y + 31 = 0 (ii) l (x + y) + p = 0 and l (x + y) – r = 0.
6. Find equation of the line parallel to the line 3 x − 4 y + 2 = 0 and passing through
the point (–2, 3).
7. Find equation of the line perpendicular to the line x – 7y + 5 = 0 and having
x intercept 3.
8. Find angles between the lines 3 x + y = 1and x + 3 y = 1.
9. The line through the points (h, 3) and (4, 1) intersects the line 7 x − 9 y − 19 = 0.
at right angle. Find the value of h.

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168 MATHEMATICS

10. Prove that the line through the point (x1, y1) and parallel to the line Ax + By + C = 0 is
A (x –x1) + B (y – y1) = 0.
11. Two lines passing through the point (2, 3) intersects each other at an angle of 60o.
If slope of one line is 2, find equation of the other line.
12. Find the equation of the right bisector of the line segment joining the points (3, 4)
and (–1, 2).
13. Find the coordinates of the foot of perpendicular from the point (–1, 3) to the
line 3x – 4y – 16 = 0.
14. The perpendicular from the origin to the line y = mx + c meets it at the point
(–1, 2). Find the values of m and c.
15. If p and q are the lengths of perpendiculars from the origin to the
lines x cos θ − y sin θ = k cos 2θ and x sec θ + y cosec θ = k, respectively, prove
that p2 + 4q2 = k2.
16. In the triangle ABC with vertices A (2, 3), B (4, –1) and C (1, 2), find the equation
and length of altitude from the vertex A.
17. If p is the length of perpendicular from the origin to the line whose intercepts on
1 1 1
the axes are a and b, then show that 2
= 2 + 2.
p a b

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 11 If the lines 2 x + y − 3 = 0 , 5 x + ky − 3 = 0 and 3 x − y − 2 = 0 are
concurrent, find the value of k.
Solution Three lines are said to be concurrent, if they pass through a common point,
i.e., point of intersection of any two lines lies on the third line. Here given lines are
2x + y – 3 = 0 ... (1)
5x + ky – 3 = 0 ... (2)
3x – y – 2 = 0 ... (3)
Solving (1) and (3) by cross-multiplication method, we get
x y 1
= = or x = 1, y = 1 .
–2 – 3 –9 + 4 –2 – 3
Therefore, the point of intersection of two lines is (1, 1). Since above three lines are
concurrent, the point (1, 1) will satisfy equation (2) so that
5.1 + k .1 – 3 = 0 or k = – 2.

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 STRAIGHT LINES 169

Example 12 Find the distance of the line 4x – y = 0 from the point P (4, 1) measured
along the line making an angle of 135° with the positive x-axis.
Solution Given line is 4x – y = 0 ... (1)
In order to find the distance of the
line (1) from the point P (4, 1) along
another line, we have to find the point
of intersection of both the lines. For
this purpose, we will first find the (1, 4)
equation of the second line
(Fig 9.16). Slope of second line is
tan 135° = –1. Equation of the line
with slope – 1 through the point
P (4, 1) is

Fig 9.16
y – 1 = – 1 (x – 4) or x + y – 5 = 0 ... (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get x = 1 and y = 4 so that point of intersection of the two lines
is Q (1, 4). Now, distance of line (1) from the point P (4, 1) along the line (2)
= the distance between the points P (4, 1) and Q (1, 4).

= (1 − 4)2 + ( 4 − 1)2 = 3 2 units .

Example 13 Assuming that straight lines work as the plane mirror for a point, find
the image of the point (1, 2) in the line x – 3y + 4 = 0.
Solution Let Q (h, k) is the image of the point P (1, 2) in the line
x – 3y + 4 = 0 ... (1)
Therefore, the line (1) is the perpendicular bisector of line segment PQ (Fig 9.17).

Fig 9.17

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170 MATHEMATICS

−1
Hence Slope of line PQ = ,
Slope of line x − 3 y + 4 = 0

so that k − 2 = −1 or 3h + k = 5 ... (2)

h −1 1
3

 h +1 k + 2 
and the mid-point of PQ, i.e., point  ,  will satisfy the equation (1) so that
 2 2 
h +1  k + 2  ... (3)
− 3  + 4 = 0 or h − 3k = −3
2  2 
6 7
Solving (2) and (3), we get h = and k = .
5 5
6 7
Hence, the image of the point (1, 2) in the line (1) is  ,  .
5 5
Example 14 Show that the area of the triangle formed by the lines

(c –c )
2
1 2
y = m x + c , y = m x + c and x = 0 is .
1 1 2 2
2 m1 − m 2
Solution Given lines are
y = m1 x + c1 ... (1)
y = m2 x + c2 ... (2)
x=0 ... (3)
We know that line y = mx + c meets
the line x = 0 (y-axis) at the point
(0, c). Therefore, two vertices of the
triangle formed by lines (1) to (3) are
P (0, c1) and Q (0, c2) (Fig 9.18).
Third vertex can be obtained by solving
equations (1) and (2). Solving (1) and
(2), we get

Fig 9.18

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 STRAIGHT LINES 171

x=
( c2 − c1 ) and y =
( m1c2 − m2c1 )
( m1 − m2 ) ( m1 − m2 )
 ( c2 − c1 ) ( m1c2 − m2 c1 ) 
Therefore, third vertex of the triangle is R  m − m , 
( 1 2) ( m1 − m2 )  .
Now, the area of the triangle is

( )
2

1  m c − m2 c1  c −c  m c − m2 c1  c 2 − c1
= 0  1 2 − c2  + 2 1 ( c2 − c1 ) + 0  c1 − 1 2  =
2  m1 − m2  m1 − m2  m1 − m2  2 m1 − m 2
Example 15 A line is such that its segment
between the lines
5x – y + 4 = 0 and 3x + 4y – 4 = 0 is bisected at
the point (1, 5). Obtain its equation.
Solution Given lines are
5x – y + 4 = 0 ... (1)
3x + 4y – 4 = 0 ... (2)
Let the required line intersects the lines (1) and
(2) at the points, (α1, β1) and (α2, β2), respectively
(Fig 9.19). Therefore
5α1 – β1 + 4 = 0 and
3 α2 + 4 β 2 – 4 = 0
4 – 3α 2
or β1 = 5α1 + 4 and β 2 = .
4 Fig 9.19
We are given that the mid point of the segment of
the required line between (α1, β1) and (α2, β2) is (1, 5). Therefore

α1 + α 2 β + β2
= 1 and 1 = 5,
2 2
4 – 3α 2
5α1 + 4 +
or α1 + α 2 = 2 and 4 = 5,
2
or α1 + α2 = 2 and 20 α1 – 3 α2 = 20 ... (3)
Solving equations in (3) for α1 and α2, we get

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172 MATHEMATICS

26 20 26 222
α1 = and α 2 = and hence, β1 = 5. +4 = .
23 23 23 23
Equation of the required line passing through (1, 5) and (α1, β1) is
222
β −5 −5
y −5 = 1 ( x − 1) or y − 5 = 23 (x − 1)
α1 − 1 26
−1
23
or 107x – 3y – 92 = 0,
which is the equation of required line.
Example 16 Show that the path of a moving point such that its distances from two
lines 3x – 2y = 5 and 3x + 2y = 5 are equal is a straight line.
Solution Given lines are
3x – 2y = 5 … (1)
and 3x + 2y = 5 … (2)
Let (h, k) is any point, whose distances from the lines (1) and (2) are equal. Therefore
3h − 2k − 5 3h + 2k − 5
= or 3h − 2k − 5 = 3h + 2k − 5 ,
9+4 9+4
which gives 3h – 2k – 5 = 3h + 2k – 5 or – (3h – 2k – 5) = 3h + 2k – 5.
5
Solving these two relations we get k = 0 or h = . Thus, the point (h, k) satisfies the
3
5
equations y = 0 or x = , which represent straight lines. Hence, path of the point
3
equidistant from the lines (1) and (2) is a straight line.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 9

1. Find the values of k for which the line (k–3) x – (4 – k2) y + k2 –7k + 6 = 0 is
(a) Parallel to the x-axis,
(b) Parallel to the y-axis,
(c) Passing through the origin.
2. Find the equations of the lines, which cut-off intercepts on the axes whose sum
and product are 1 and – 6, respectively.

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 STRAIGHT LINES 173

x y
3. What are the points on the y-axis whose distance from the line + = 1 is
3 4
4 units.
4. Find perpendicular distance from the origin to the line joining the points (cosθ, sin θ)
and (cos φ, sin φ).
5. Find the equation of the line parallel to y-axis and drawn through the point of
intersection of the lines x – 7y + 5 = 0 and 3x + y = 0.
x y
6. Find the equation of a line drawn perpendicular to the line + = 1 through the
4 6
point, where it meets the y-axis.
7. Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines y – x = 0, x + y = 0 and x – k = 0.
8. Find the value of p so that the three lines 3x + y – 2 = 0, px + 2 y – 3 = 0 and
2x – y – 3 = 0 may intersect at one point.
9. If three lines whose equations are y = m1x + c1, y = m2x + c2 and y = m3x + c3 are
concurrent, then show that m1(c2 – c3) + m2 (c3 – c1) + m3 (c1 – c2) = 0.
10. Find the equation of the lines through the point (3, 2) which make an angle of 45o
with the line x – 2y = 3.
11. Find the equation of the line passing through the point of intersection of the lines
4x + 7y – 3 = 0 and 2x – 3y + 1 = 0 that has equal intercepts on the axes.
12. Show that the equation of the line passing through the origin and making an angle
y m ± tan ‚
θ with the line y = mx + c is x = 1 ∓ m tan ‚ .

13. In what ratio, the line joining (–1, 1) and (5, 7) is divided by the line x + y = 4?
14. Find the distance of the line 4x + 7y + 5 = 0 from the point (1, 2) along the line
2x – y = 0.
15. Find the direction in which a straight line must be drawn through the point (–1, 2)
so that its point of intersection with the line x + y = 4 may be at a distance of
3 units from this point.
16. The hypotenuse of a right angled triangle has its ends at the points (1, 3) and
(– 4, 1). Find an equation of the legs (perpendicular sides) of the triangle which
are parallel to the axes.
17. Find the image of the point (3, 8) with respect to the line x +3y = 7 assuming the
line to be a plane mirror.
18. If the lines y = 3x +1 and 2y = x + 3 are equally inclined to the line y = mx + 4, find
the value of m.
19. If sum of the perpendicular distances of a variable point P (x, y) from the lines
x + y – 5 = 0 and 3x – 2y +7 = 0 is always 10. Show that P must move on a line.

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174 MATHEMATICS

20. Find equation of the line which is equidistant from parallel lines 9x + 6y – 7 = 0
and 3x + 2y + 6 = 0.
21. A ray of light passing through the point (1, 2) reflects on the x-axis at point A and the
reflected ray passes through the point (5, 3). Find the coordinates of A.
22. Prove that the product of the lengths of the perpendiculars drawn from the

points ( ) ( ) x
a 2 − b 2 ,0 and − a 2 − b2 ,0 to the line
a
y
cosθ + sin θ = 1is b 2 .
b
23. A person standing at the junction (crossing) of two straight paths represented by
the equations 2x – 3y + 4 = 0 and 3x + 4y – 5 = 0 wants to reach the path whose
equation is 6x – 7y + 8 = 0 in the least time. Find equation of the path that he
should follow.

Summary
® Slope (m) of a non-vertical line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
y 2 − y1 y1 − y 2
is given by m = = , x 1 ≠ x 2.
x 2 − x1 x1 − x 2
® If a line makes an angle á with the positive direction of x-axis, then the
slope of the line is given by m = tan α, α ≠ 90°.
® Slope of horizontal line is zero and slope of vertical line is undefined.
® An acute angle (say θ) between lines L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2 is
m2 – m1
given by tanθ = 1 + m m ,1 + m1 m2 ≠ 0 .
1 2

® Two lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal.
® Two lines are perpendicular if and only if product of their slopes is –1.
® Three points A, B and C are collinear, if and only if slope of AB = slope of BC.
® Equation of the horizontal line having distance a from the x-axis is either
y = a or y = – a.
® Equation of the vertical line having distance b from the y-axis is either
x = b or x = – b.
® The point (x, y) lies on the line with slope m and through the fixed point (xo, yo),
if and only if its coordinates satisfy the equation y – y o = m (x – xo).
® Equation of the line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by
y 2 − y1
y − y1 = ( x − x1).
x 2 − x1

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 STRAIGHT LINES 175

® The point (x, y) on the line with slope m and y-intercept c lies on the line if and
only if y = mx + c.
® If a line with slope m makes x-intercept d. Then equation of the line is
y = m (x – d).
® Equation of a line making intercepts a and b on the x-and y-axis,
x y
respectively, is + = 1.
a b
® Any equation of the form Ax + By + C = 0, with A and B are not zero,
simultaneously, is called the general linear equation or general equation of
a line.
® The perpendicular distance (d) of a line Ax + By+ C = 0 from a point (x1, y1)
Ax1 + B y1 + C
is given by d = .
A +B
2 2

® Distance between the parallel lines Ax + By + C1 = 0 and Ax + By + C2 = 0,

C1 − C 2
is given by d = .
A +B
2 2

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176 MATHEMATICS

Chapter 10
CONIC SECTIONS

vLet the relation of knowledge to real life be very visible to your pupils
and let them understand how by knowledge the world could be
transformed. – BERTRAND RUSSELL v

10.1 Introduction
In the preceding Chapter 10, we have studied various forms
of the equations of a line. In this Chapter, we shall study
about some other curves, viz., circles, ellipses, parabolas
and hyperbolas. The names parabola and hyperbola are
given by Apollonius. These curves are in fact, known as
conic sections or more commonly conics because they
can be obtained as intersections of a plane with a double
napped right circular cone. These curves have a very wide
range of applications in fields such as planetary motion, Apollonius
design of telescopes and antennas, reflectors in flashlights (262 B.C. -190 B.C.)

and automobile headlights, etc. Now, in the subsequent sections we will see how the
intersection of a plane with a double napped right circular cone
results in different types of curves.

10.2 Sections of a Cone

Let l be a fixed vertical line and m be another line intersecting it at
a fixed point V and inclined to it at an angle α (Fig10.1).
Suppose we rotate the line m around the line l in such a way
that the angle α remains constant. Then the surface generated is
a double-napped right circular hollow cone herein after referred as Fig 10. 1

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 CONIC SECTIONS 177

Fig 10. 2 Fig 10. 3

cone and extending indefinitely far in both directions (Fig10.2).
The point V is called the vertex; the line l is the axis of the cone. The rotating line
m is called a generator of the cone. The vertex separates the cone into two parts
called nappes.
If we take the intersection of a plane with a cone, the section so obtained is called
a conic section. Thus, conic sections are the curves obtained by intersecting a right
circular cone by a plane.
We obtain different kinds of conic sections depending on the position of the
intersecting plane with respect to the cone and by the angle made by it with the vertical
axis of the cone. Let β be the angle made by the intersecting plane with the vertical
axis of the cone (Fig10.3).
The intersection of the plane with the cone can take place either at the vertex of
the cone or at any other part of the nappe either below or above the vertex.
10.2.1 Circle, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola When the plane cuts the nappe (other
than the vertex) of the cone, we have the following situations:
(a) When β = 90o, the section is a circle (Fig10.4).
(b) When α < β < 90o, the section is an ellipse (Fig10.5).
(c) When β = α; the section is a parabola (Fig10.6).
(In each of the above three situations, the plane cuts entirely across one nappe of
the cone).
(d) When 0 ≤ β < α; the plane cuts through both the nappes and the curves of
intersection is a hyperbola (Fig10.7).

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178 MATHEMATICS

Fig 10. 4 Fig 10. 5

Fig 10. 7
Fig 10. 6
10.2.2 Degenerated conic sections
When the plane cuts at the vertex of the cone, we have the following different cases:
(a) When α < β ≤ 90o, then the section is a point (Fig10.8).
(b) When β = α, the plane contains a generator of the cone and the section is a
straight line (Fig10.9).
It is the degenerated case of a parabola.
(c) When 0 ≤ β < α, the section is a pair of intersecting straight lines (Fig10.10).
It is the degenerated case of a hyperbola.

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 CONIC SECTIONS 179

In the following sections, we shall obtain the equations of each of these conic
sections in standard form by defining them based on geometric properties.

Fig 10. 8
Fig 10. 9

Fig 10. 10
10.3 Circle
Definition 1 A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed
point in the plane.
The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the distance from the centre
to a point on the circle is called the radius of the circle (Fig 10.11).

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180 MATHEMATICS

Fig 10. 11 Fig 10. 12

The equation of the circle is simplest if the centre of the circle is at the origin.
However, we derive below the equation of the circle with a given centre and radius
(Fig 10.12).
Given C (h, k) be the centre and r the radius of circle. Let P(x, y) be any point on
the circle (Fig10.12). Then, by the definition, | CP | = r . By the distance formula,
we have
(x – h) 2 + (y – k ) 2 = r
i.e. (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
This is the required equation of the circle with centre at (h,k) and radius r .
Example 1 Find an equation of the circle with centre at (0,0) and radius r.
Solution Here h = k = 0. Therefore, the equation of the circle is x2 + y2 = r2.
Example 2 Find the equation of the circle with centre (–3, 2) and radius 4.
Solution Here h = –3, k = 2 and r = 4. Therefore, the equation of the required circle is
(x + 3)2 + (y –2)2 = 16
Example 3 Find the centre and the radius of the circle x2 + y2 + 8x + 10y – 8 = 0
Solution The given equation is
(x2 + 8x) + (y2 + 10y) = 8
Now, completing the squares within the parenthesis, we get
(x2 + 8x + 16) + (y2 + 10y + 25) = 8 + 16 + 25
i.e. (x + 4)2 + (y + 5)2 = 49
i.e. {x – (– 4)}2 + {y – (–5)}2 = 72
Therefore, the given circle has centre at (– 4, –5) and radius 7.

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 CONIC SECTIONS 181

Example 4 Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (2, – 2), and
(3,4) and whose centre lies on the line x + y = 2.
Solution Let the equation of the circle be (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2.
Since the circle passes through (2, – 2) and (3,4), we have
(2 – h)2 + (–2 – k)2 = r2 ... (1)
and (3 – h)2 + (4 – k)2 = r2 ... (2)
Also since the centre lies on the line x + y = 2, we have
h+k=2 ... (3)
Solving the equations (1), (2) and (3), we get
h = 0.7, k = 1.3 and r2 = 12.58
Hence, the equation of the required circle is
(x – 0.7)2 + (y – 1.3)2 = 12.58.

EXERCISE 10.1
In each of the following Exercises 1 to 5, find the equation of the circle with
1. centre (0,2) and radius 2 2. centre (–2,3) and radius 4
1 1 1
3. centre ( , ) and radius 4. centre (1,1) and radius 2
2 4 12

5. centre (–a, –b) and radius a2 − b2 .

In each of the following Exercises 6 to 9, find the centre and radius of the circles.
6. (x + 5)2 + (y – 3)2 = 36 7. x2 + y2 – 4x – 8y – 45 = 0
8. x2 + y2 – 8x + 10y – 12 = 0 9. 2x2 + 2y2 – x = 0
10. Find the equation of the circle passing through the points (4,1) and (6,5) and
whose centre is on the line 4x + y = 16.
11. Find the equation of the circle passing through the points (2,3) and (–1,1) and
whose centre is on the line x – 3y – 11 = 0.
12. Find the equation of the circle with radius 5 whose centre lies on x-axis and
passes through the point (2,3).
13. Find the equation of the circle passing through (0,0) and making intercepts a and
b on the coordinate axes.
14. Find the equation of a circle with centre (2,2) and passes through the point (4,5).
15. Does the point (–2.5, 3.5) lie inside, outside or on the circle x2 + y2 = 25?

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182 MATHEMATICS

10.4 Parabola
Definition 2 A parabola is the set of all points
in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed line
and a fixed point (not on the line) in the plane.
The fixed line is called the directrix of
the parabola and the fixed point F is called the
focus (Fig 10.13). (‘Para’ means ‘for’ and
‘bola’ means ‘throwing’, i.e., the shape
described when you throw a ball in the air).

A Note If the fixed point lies on the fixed

line, then the set of points in the plane, which Fig 10. 13
are equidistant from the fixed point and the
fixed line is the straight line through the fixed
point and perpendicular to the fixed line. We
call this straight line as degenerate case of
the parabola.
A line through the focus and perpendicular
to the directrix is called the axis of the
parabola. The point of intersection of parabola
with the axis is called the vertex of the parabola
(Fig10.14).
10.4.1 Standard equations of parabola Fig 10.14
The equation of a parabola is simplest if the
vertex is at the origin and the axis of symmetry is along the x-axis or y-axis. The four
possible such orientations of parabola are shown below in Fig10.15 (a) to (d).

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 CONIC SECTIONS 183

Fig 10.15 (a) to (d)

We will derive the equation for the parabola shown above in Fig 10.15 (a) with
focus at (a, 0) a > 0; and directricx x = – a as below:
Let F be the focus and l the directrix. Let
FM be perpendicular to the directrix and bisect
FM at the point O. Produce MO to X. By the
definition of parabola, the mid-point O is on the
parabola and is called the vertex of the parabola.
Take O as origin, OX the x-axis and OY
perpendicular to it as the y-axis. Let the distance
from the directrix to the focus be 2a. Then, the
coordinates of the focus are (a, 0), and the
equation of the directrix is x + a = 0 as in Fig10.16.
Let P(x, y) be any point on the parabola such that Fig 10.16
PF = PB, ... (1)
where PB is perpendicular to l. The coordinates of B are (– a, y). By the distance
formula, we have
PF = (x – a) 2 + y 2 and PB = (x + a) 2
Since PF = PB, we have

(x – a ) 2 + y 2 = (x + a )2
i.e. (x – a)2 + y2 = (x + a)2
or x2 – 2ax + a2 + y2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
or y2 = 4ax ( a > 0).

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184 MATHEMATICS

Hence, any point on the parabola satisfies

y2 = 4ax. ... (2)
Conversely, let P(x, y) satisfy the equation (2)

PF = (x – a) 2 + y 2 = (x – a ) 2 + 4ax

= (x + a) 2 = PB ... (3)
and so P(x,y) lies on the parabola.
Thus, from (2) and (3) we have proved that the equation to the parabola with
vertex at the origin, focus at (a,0) and directrix x = – a is y2 = 4ax.
Discussion In equation (2), since a > 0, x can assume any positive value or zero but
no negative value and the curve extends indefinitely far into the first and the fourth
quadrants. The axis of the parabola is the positive x-axis.
Similarly, we can derive the equations of the parabolas in:
Fig 11.15 (b) as y2 = – 4ax,
Fig 11.15 (c) as x2 = 4ay,
Fig 11.15 (d) as x2 = – 4ay,
These four equations are known as standard equations of parabolas.

A Note The standard equations of parabolas have focus on one of the coordinate
axis; vertex at the origin and thereby the directrix is parallel to the other coordinate
axis. However, the study of the equations of parabolas with focus at any point and
any line as directrix is beyond the scope here.
From the standard equations of the parabolas, Fig10.15, we have the following
observations:
1. Parabola is symmetric with respect to the axis of the parabola.If the equation
has a y2 term, then the axis of symmetry is along the x-axis and if the
equation has an x2 term, then the axis of symmetry is along the y-axis.
2. When the axis of symmetry is along the x-axis the parabola opens to the
(a) right if the coefficient of x is positive,
(b) left if the coefficient of x is negative.
3. When the axis of symmetry is along the y-axis the parabola opens
(c) upwards if the coefficient of y is positive.
(d) downwards if the coefficient of y is negative.

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 CONIC SECTIONS 185

10.4.2 Latus rectum

Definition 3 Latus rectum of a parabola is a line segment perpendicular to the axis of
the parabola, through the focus and whose end points lie on the parabola (Fig10.17).
To find the Length of the latus rectum of the parabola y2 = 4ax (Fig 10.18).
By the definition of the parabola, AF = AC.
But AC = FM = 2a
Hence AF = 2a.
And since the parabola is symmetric with respect to x-axis AF = FB and so
AB = Length of the latus rectum = 4a.

Fig 10.17 Fig 10.18

Example 5 Find the coordinates of the focus, axis,

the equation of the directrix and latus rectum of
the parabola y2 = 8x.
Solution The given equation involves y2, so the
axis of symmetry is along the x-axis.
The coefficient of x is positive so the parabola opens
to the right. Comparing with the given equation
y2 = 4ax, we find that a = 2. Fig 10.19
Thus, the focus of the parabola is (2, 0) and the equation of the directrix of the parabola
is x = – 2 (Fig 10.19).
Length of the latus rectum is 4a = 4 × 2 = 8.

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186 MATHEMATICS

Example 6 Find the equation of the parabola with focus (2,0) and directrix x = – 2.
Solution Since the focus (2,0) lies on the x-axis, the x-axis itself is the axis of the
parabola. Hence the equation of the parabola is of the form either
y2 = 4ax or y2 = – 4ax. Since the directrix is x = – 2 and the focus is (2,0), the parabola
is to be of the form y 2 = 4ax with a = 2. Hence the required equation is
y2 = 4(2)x = 8x
Example 7 Find the equation of the parabola with vertex at (0, 0) and focus at (0, 2).
Solution Since the vertex is at (0,0) and the focus is at (0,2) which lies on y-axis, the
y-axis is the axis of the parabola. Therefore, equation of the parabola is of the form
x2 = 4ay. thus, we have
x2 = 4(2)y, i.e., x2 = 8y.

Example 8 Find the equation of the parabola which is symmetric about the y-axis, and
passes through the point (2,–3).
Solution Since the parabola is symmetric about y-axis and has its vertex at the origin,
the equation is of the form x2 = 4ay or x2 = – 4ay, where the sign depends on whether
the parabola opens upwards or downwards. But the parabola passes through (2,–3)
which lies in the fourth quadrant, it must open downwards. Thus the equation is of
the form x2 = – 4ay.
Since the parabola passes through ( 2,–3), we have

1
22 = – 4a (–3), i.e., a =
3
Therefore, the equation of the parabola is
1
x2 = − 4   y, i.e., 3x2 = – 4y.
 3

EXERCISE 10.2
In each of the following Exercises 1 to 6, find the coordinates of the focus, axis of the
parabola, the equation of the directrix and the length of the latus rectum.
1. y2 = 12x 2. x2 = 6y 3. y2 = – 8x
4. x2 = – 16y 5. y2 = 10x 6. x2 = – 9y
In each of the Exercises 7 to 12, find the equation of the parabola that satisfies the
given conditions:

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 CONIC SECTIONS 187

7. Focus (6,0); directrix x = – 6 8. Focus (0,–3); directrix y = 3

9. Vertex (0,0); focus (3,0) 10. Vertex (0,0); focus (–2,0)
11. Vertex (0,0) passing through (2,3) and axis is along x-axis.
12. Vertex (0,0), passing through (5,2) and symmetric with respect to y-axis.
10. 5 Ellipse
Definition 4 An ellipse is the set of all points in
a plane, the sum of whose distances from two
fixed points in the plane is a constant.
The two fixed points are called the foci (plural
of ‘focus’) of the ellipse (Fig10.20).

A Note The constant which is the sum of

the distances of a point on the ellipse from the
two fixed points is always greater than the Fig 10.20
distance between the two fixed points.
The mid point of the line segment joining the foci is called the centre of the
ellipse. The line segment through the foci of the ellipse is called the major axis and the
line segment through the centre and perpendicular to the major axis is called the minor
axis. The end points of the major axis are called the vertices of the ellipse(Fig 10.21).

Fig 10.21 Fig 10.22

We denote the length of the major axis by 2a, the length of the minor axis by 2b
and the distance between the foci by 2c. Thus, the length of the semi major axis is a
and semi-minor axis is b (Fig10.22).

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188 MATHEMATICS

10.5.1 Relationship between semi-major

axis, semi-minor axis and the distance of
the focus from the centre of the ellipse
(Fig 10.23).
Take a point P at one end of the major axis.
Sum of the distances of the point P to the
foci is F1 P + F2P = F1O + OP + F2P
(Since, F1P = F1O + OP)
= c + a + a – c = 2a Fig 10.23

Take a point Q at one end of the minor axis.

Sum of the distances from the point Q to the foci is

F1Q + F2Q = b2 + c2 + b2 + c2 = 2 b2 + c 2
Since both P and Q lies on the ellipse.
By the definition of ellipse, we have

2 b 2 + c 2 = 2a, i.e., a = b2 + c 2

or a 2 = b2 + c2 , i.e., c = a 2 − b2 .

10.5.2 Eccentricity
Definition 5 The eccentricity of an ellipse is the ratio of the distances from the centre
of the ellipse to one of the foci and to one of the vertices of the ellipse (eccentricity is
c
denoted by e) i.e., e = .
a
Then since the focus is at a distance of c from the centre, in terms of the eccentricity
the focus is at a distance of ae from the centre.
10.5.3 Standard equations of an ellipse The equation of an ellipse is simplest if the
centre of the ellipse is at the origin and the foci are on the x-axis or y-axis. The two
such possible orientations are shown in Fig 10.24.
We will derive the equation for the ellipse shown above in Fig 10.24 (a) with foci
on the x-axis.

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 CONIC SECTIONS 189

(a)
Fig 10.24

Let F1 and F2 be the foci and O be the mid-point of the line segment F1F2. Let O
be the origin and the line from O through F 2 be the positive
x-axis and that through F1as the negative x-axis.
Let, the line through O perpendicular to the
x-axis be the y-axis. Let the coordinates of F1 be
(– c, 0) and F2 be (c, 0) (Fig 10.25).
Let P(x, y) be any point on the ellipse such
that the sum of the distances from P to the two
foci be 2a so given
PF1 + PF2 = 2a. ... (1)
Using the distance formula, we have
x2 y 2
( x + c) + y + ( x − c) + y
2 2 2 2
= 2a + =1
a 2 b2
Fig 10.25
i.e., ( x + c )2 + y 2 = 2a – ( x − c )2 + y 2
Squaring both sides, we get

(x + c)2 + y2 = 4a2 – 4a ( x − c) 2 + y 2 + ( x − c) 2 + y 2

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190 MATHEMATICS

which on simplification gives

c
( x − c) 2 + y 2 = a − x
a
Squaring again and simplifying, we get
x2 y2
+ =1
a2 a2 − c2

x2 y2
i.e., + =1 (Since c2 = a2 – b2)
a2 b2
Hence any point on the ellipse satisfies
x2 y2
+ = 1. ... (2)
a2 b2
Conversely, let P (x, y) satisfy the equation (2) with 0 < c < a. Then
 x2 

y =b  1 − 
a 2 
2 2

Therefore, PF1 = ( x + c) 2 + y 2

 a2 − x2 
= ( x + c) 2 + b 2  2

 a 

 a2 − x 2 
= ( x + c) 2 + ( a 2 − c 2 )  2  (since b2 = a2 – c2)
 a 
2
 cx  c
= a+  =a+ x
 a a

c
Similarly PF2 = a − x
a
c c
Hence PF1 + PF2 = a + x + a – x = 2a ... (3)
a a

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 CONIC SECTIONS 191

x2 y2
So, any point that satisfies + = 1, satisfies the geometric condition and so
a2 b2
P(x, y) lies on the ellipse.
Hence from (2) and (3), we proved that the equation of an ellipse with centre of
the origin and major axis along the x-axis is
x2 y 2
+ = 1.
a 2 b2
Discussion From the equation of the ellipse obtained above, it follows that for every
point P (x, y) on the ellipse, we have
x2 y2
= 1 − ≤ 1, i.e., x2 ≤ a2, so – a ≤ x ≤ a.
a2 b2
Therefore, the ellipse lies between the lines x = – a and x = a and touches these lines.
Similarly, the ellipse lies between the lines y = – b and y = b and touches these
lines.
x2 y 2
Similarly, we can derive the equation of the ellipse in Fig 10.24 (b) as + =1 .
b2 a 2
These two equations are known as standard equations of the ellipses.

ANote The standard equations of ellipses have centre at the origin and the
major and minor axis are coordinate axes. However, the study of the ellipses with
centre at any other point, and any line through the centre as major and the minor
axes passing through the centre and perpendicular to major axis are beyond the
scope here.
From the standard equations of the ellipses (Fig10.24), we have the following
observations:
1. Ellipse is symmetric with respect to both the coordinate axes since if
(x, y) is a point on the ellipse, then (– x, y), (x, –y) and (– x, –y) are also points on
the ellipse.
2. The foci always lie on the major axis. The major axis can be determined by
finding the intercepts on the axes of symmetry. That is, major axis is along the x-axis
if the coefficient of x2 has the larger denominator and it is along the y-axis if the
coefficient of y2 has the larger denominator.

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192 MATHEMATICS

10.5.4 Latus rectum

Definition 6 Latus rectum of an ellipse is a

line segment perpendicular to the major axis
through any of the foci and whose end points
lie on the ellipse (Fig 10.26).
To find the length of the latus rectum
x2 y 2
of the ellipse + =1
a 2 b2
Let the length of AF2 be l. Fig 10. 26
Then the coordinates of A are (c, l ),i.e.,
(ae, l )
x2 y 2
Since A lies on the ellipse + = 1 , we have
a 2 b2

(ae) 2 l 2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
⇒ l2 = b2 (1 – e2)
c2 a 2 – b 2 b2
But e2 = = = 1 –
a2 a2 a2

b4 b2
Therefore l2 = , i.e., l =
a2 a
Since the ellipse is symmetric with respect to y-axis (of course, it is symmetric w.r.t.
2b2
both the coordinate axes), AF2 = F2B and so length of the latus rectum is .
a
Example 9 Find the coordinates of the foci, the vertices, the length of major axis, the
minor axis, the eccentricity and the latus rectum of the ellipse
x2 y 2
+ =1
25 9
x2 y2
Solution Since denominator of is larger than the denominator of , the major
25 9

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 CONIC SECTIONS 193

x2 y 2
axis is along the x-axis. Comparing the given equation with + = 1 , we get
a 2 b2
a = 5 and b = 3. Also
c = a 2 – b 2 = 25 – 9 = 4
Therefore, the coordinates of the foci are (– 4,0) and (4,0), vertices are (– 5, 0) and
(5, 0). Length of the major axis is 10 units length of the minor axis 2b is 6 units and the
4 2b 2 18
eccentricity is and latus rectum is = .
5 a 5
Example 10 Find the coordinates of the foci, the vertices, the lengths of major and
minor axes and the eccentricity of the ellipse 9x2 + 4y2 = 36.
Solution The given equation of the ellipse can be written in standard form as
x2 y2
+ =1
4 9
y2 x2
Since the denominator of is larger than the denominator of , the major axis is
9 4
along the y-axis. Comparing the given equation with the standard equation
x2 y2
+ = 1 , we have b = 2 and a = 3.
b2 a 2

Also c= a2 – b2 = 9–4= 5

c 5
and e= =
a 3
Hence the foci are (0, 5 ) and (0, – 5 ), vertices are (0,3) and (0, –3), length of the
major axis is 6 units, the length of the minor axis is 4 units and the eccentricity of the
5
ellipse is .
3
Example 11 Find the equation of the ellipse whose vertices are (± 13, 0) and foci are
(± 5, 0).
Solution Since the vertices are on x-axis, the equation will be of the form
x2 y 2
+ = 1 , where a is the semi-major axis.
a 2 b2

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194 MATHEMATICS

Given that a = 13, c = ± 5.

Therefore, from the relation c2 = a2 – b2, we get
25 = 169 – b2 , i.e., b = 12

x2 y2
Hence the equation of the ellipse is + = 1.
169 144
Example 12 Find the equation of the ellipse, whose length of the major axis is 20 and
foci are (0, ± 5).
Solution Since the foci are on y-axis, the major axis is along the y-axis. So, equation
x2 y2
of the ellipse is of the form + =1.
b2 a 2
Given that
20
a = semi-major axis = = 10
2
and the relation c 2 = a2 – b2 gives
52 = 102 – b2 i.e., b2 = 75
Therefore, the equation of the ellipse is
x2 y2
+ =1
75 100
Example 13 Find the equation of the ellipse, with major axis along the x-axis and
passing through the points (4, 3) and (– 1,4).

x2 y2
Solution The standard form of the ellipse is + = 1. Since the points (4, 3)
a2 b2
and (–1, 4) lie on the ellipse, we have
16 9
2
+ 2 =1 ... (1)
a b
1 16
and 2
+ 2 =1 ….(2)
a b
247 247
Solving equations (1) and (2), we find that a = and b =
2 2
.
7 15
Hence the required equation is

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 CONIC SECTIONS 195

x2 y2
+ = 1 , i.e., 7x2 + 15y2 = 247.
 247  247
 
 7  15

EXERCISE 10.3
In each of the Exercises 1 to 9, find the coordinates of the foci, the vertices, the length
of major axis, the minor axis, the eccentricity and the length of the latus rectum of the
ellipse.
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
1. + =1 2. + =1 3. + =1
36 16 4 25 16 9

x2 y2 x2 y 2 x2 y2
4. + =1 5. + =1 6. + =1
25 100 49 36 100 400
7. 36x2 + 4y2 = 144 8. 16x2 + y2 = 16 9. 4x2 + 9y2 = 36
In each of the following Exercises 10 to 20, find the equation for the ellipse that satisfies
the given conditions:
10. Vertices (± 5, 0), foci (± 4, 0)
11. Vertices (0, ± 13), foci (0, ± 5)
12. Vertices (± 6, 0), foci (± 4, 0)
13. Ends of major axis (± 3, 0), ends of minor axis (0, ± 2)

14. Ends of major axis (0, ± 5 ), ends of minor axis (± 1, 0)

15. Length of major axis 26, foci (± 5, 0)
16. Length of minor axis 16, foci (0, ± 6).
17. Foci (± 3, 0), a = 4
18. b = 3, c = 4, centre at the origin; foci on the x axis.
19. Centre at (0,0), major axis on the y-axis and passes through the points (3, 2) and
(1,6).
20. Major axis on the x-axis and passes through the points (4,3) and (6,2).
10.6 Hyperbola
Definition 7 A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose
distances from two fixed points in the plane is a constant.

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196 MATHEMATICS

Fig 10.27
The term “difference” that is used in the definition means the distance to the
farther point minus the distance to the closer point. The two fixed points are called the
foci of the hyperbola. The mid-point of the line segment joining the foci is called the
centre of the hyperbola. The line through the foci is called the transverse axis and
the line through the centre and perpendicular to the transverse axis is called the conjugate
axis. The points at which the hyperbola
intersects the transverse axis are called the
vertices of the hyperbola (Fig 10.27).
We denote the distance between the
two foci by 2c, the distance between two
vertices (the length of the transverse axis)
by 2a and we define the quantity b as
b = c2 – a2
Also 2b is the length of the conjugate axis
Fig 10.28
(Fig 10.28).
To find the constant P1F2 – P1F1 :
By taking the point P at A and B in the Fig 10.28, we have
BF1 – BF2 = AF2 – AF1 (by the definition of the hyperbola)
BA +AF1– BF2 = AB + BF2– AF1
i.e., AF1 = BF2
So that, BF1 – BF2 = BA + AF1– BF2 = BA = 2a

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 CONIC SECTIONS 197

10.6.1 Eccentricity
c
Definition 8 Just like an ellipse, the ratio e = is called the eccentricity of the
a
hyperbola. Since c ≥ a, the eccentricity is never less than one. In terms of the
eccentricity, the foci are at a distance of ae from the centre.
10.6.2 Standard equation of Hyperbola The equation of a hyperbola is simplest if
the centre of the hyperbola is at the origin and the foci are on the x-axis or y-axis. The
two such possible orientations are shown in Fig10.29.

(a) (b)

Fig 10.29

We will derive the equation for the hyperbola shown in Fig 10.29(a) with foci on
the x-axis.
Let F1 and F2 be the foci and O be the mid-point of the line segment F1F2. Let O
be the origin and the line through O
through F2 be the positive x-axis and
that through F 1 as the negative
x-axis. The line through O
perpendicular to the x-axis be the
y-axis. Let the coordinates of F1 be
(– c,0) and F2 be (c,0) (Fig 10.30).
Let P(x, y) be any point on the
hyperbola such that the difference
of the distances from P to the farther
point minus the closer point be 2a.
So given, PF1 – PF2 = 2a Fig 10.30

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198 MATHEMATICS

Using the distance formula, we have

(x + c ) 2 + y 2 – (x – c ) 2 + y 2 = 2a

i.e., (x + c ) 2 + y 2 = 2a + (x – c) 2 + y 2
Squaring both side, we get
(x + c)2 + y2 = 4a2 + 4a (x – c ) 2 + y 2 + (x – c)2 + y2
and on simplifying, we get
cx
–a= (x – c) 2 + y 2
a
On squaring again and further simplifying, we get
x2 y2
– =1
a 2 c2 – a2

x2 y 2
i.e., – =1 (Since c2 – a2 = b2)
a 2 b2

x2 y 2
Hence any point on the hyperbola satisfies – = 1 1.
a 2 b2
Conversely, let P(x, y) satisfy the above equation with 0 < a < c. Then
 x2 – a 2 
y2
= b 2  2 
 a 

Therefore, PF1 = + (x + c ) 2 + y 2

 x2 – a2  c
= + (x + c )2 + b 2  2  = a+ x
 a  a
a
Similarly, PF2 = a – x
c
c
In hyperbola c > a; and since P is to the right of the line x = a, x > a, x > a. Therefore,
a
c c
a– x becomes negative. Thus, PF2 = x – a.
a a

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 CONIC SECTIONS 199

c cx
Therefore PF1 – PF2 = a + x – + a = 2a
a a
Also, note that if P is to the left of the line x = – a, then
 c  c
PF1 = –  a + x  , PF2 = a – x .
 a  a

x2 y 2
In that case P F2 – PF1 = 2a. So, any point that satisfies – = 1 , lies on the
a 2 b2
hyperbola.
Thus, we proved that the equation of hyperbola with origin (0,0) and transverse axis
x2 y 2
along x-axis is – =1.
a 2 b2

ANote A hyperbola in which a = b is called an equilateral hyperbola.

Discussion From the equation of the hyperbola we have obtained, it follows that, we
x2 y2
have for every point (x, y) on the hyperbola, 2 = 1 + ≥ 1.
a b2

x
i.e, ≥ 1, i.e., x ≤ – a or x ≥ a. Therefore, no portion of the curve lies between the
a
lines x = + a and x = – a, (i.e. no real intercept on the conjugate axis).

y 2 x2
Similarly, we can derive the equation of the hyperbola in Fig 11.31 (b) as − =1
a 2 b2
These two equations are known as the standard equations of hyperbolas.

A Note The standard equations of hyperbolas have transverse and conjugate

axes as the coordinate axes and the centre at the origin. However, there are
hyperbolas with any two perpendicular lines as transverse and conjugate axes, but
the study of such cases will be dealt in higher classes.

From the standard equations of hyperbolas (Fig10.27), we have the following

observations:
1. Hyperbola is symmetric with respect to both the axes, since if (x, y) is a point on
the hyperbola, then (– x, y), (x, – y) and (– x, – y) are also points on the hyperbola.

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200 MATHEMATICS

2. The foci are always on the transverse axis. It is the positive term whose
x2 y2
denominator gives the transverse axis. For example, – =1
9 16
y 2 x2
has transverse axis along x-axis of length 6, while – =1
25 16
has transverse axis along y-axis of length 10.

10.6.3 Latus rectum

Definition 9 Latus rectum of hyperbola is a line segment perpendicular to the transverse
axis through any of the foci and whose end points lie on the hyperbola.
2b 2
As in ellipse, it is easy to show that the length of the latus rectum in hyperbola is
.
a
Example 14 Find the coordinates of the foci and the vertices, the eccentricity,the
length of the latus rectum of the hyperbolas:
x2 y2
(i) – = 1 , (ii) y2 – 16x2 = 16
9 16
x2 y 2
Solution (i) Comparing the equation – = 1 with the standard equation
9 16

x2 y 2
– =1
a 2 b2
Here, a = 3, b = 4 and c = a 2 + b 2 = 9 + 16 = 5

Therefore, the coordinates of the foci are (± 5, 0) and that of vertices are (± 3, 0).Also,
c 5 2b 2 32
The eccentricity e = = . The latus rectum = =
a 3 a 3
y 2 x2
(ii) Dividing the equation by 16 on both sides, we have – =1
16 1

y 2 x2
Comparing the equation with the standard equation – = 1 , we find that
a 2 b2

a = 4, b = 1 and c = a 2 + b2 = 16 + 1 = 17 .

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 CONIC SECTIONS 201

Therefore, the coordinates of the foci are (0, ± 17 ) and that of the vertices are
(0, ± 4). Also,
c 17 2b2 1
The eccentricity e = = . The latus rectum = = .
a 4 a 2
Example 15 Find the equation of the hyperbola with foci (0, ± 3) and vertices
11
(0, ± ).
2
Solution Since the foci is on y-axis, the equation of the hyperbola is of the form
y 2 x2
– =1
a 2 b2
11 11
Since vertices are (0, ± ), a =
2 2
25
Also, since foci are (0, ± 3); c = 3 and b2 = c2 – a2 = .
4
Therefore, the equation of the hyperbola is

y2 x2
– = 1, i.e., 100 y2 – 44 x2 = 275.
 11   25 
   
4  4 

Example 16 Find the equation of the hyperbola where foci are (0, ±12) and the length
of the latus rectum is 36.
Solution Since foci are (0, ± 12), it follows that c = 12.

2b 2
Length of the latus rectum = = 36 or b2 = 18a
a
Therefore c2 = a2 + b2; gives
144 = a2 + 18a
i.e., a2 + 18a – 144 = 0,
So a = – 24, 6.
Since a cannot be negative, we take a = 6 and so b2 = 108.
y2 x2
Therefore, the equation of the required hyperbola is – = 1 , i.e., 3y2 – x2 = 108
36 108

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202 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 10.4
In each of the Exercises 1 to 6, find the coordinates of the foci and the vertices, the
eccentricity and the length of the latus rectum of the hyperbolas.
x2 y2 y 2 x2
1. – =1 2. – =1 3. 9y2 – 4x2 = 36
16 9 9 27
4. 16x2 – 9y2 = 576 5. 5y2 – 9x2 = 36 6. 49y2 – 16x2 = 784.
In each of the Exercises 7 to 15, find the equations of the hyperbola satisfying the given
conditions.
7. Vertices (± 2, 0), foci (± 3, 0)
8. Vertices (0, ± 5), foci (0, ± 8)
9. Vertices (0, ± 3), foci (0, ± 5)
10. Foci (± 5, 0), the transverse axis is of length 8.
11. Foci (0, ±13), the conjugate axis is of length 24.
12. Foci (± 3 5 , 0), the latus rectum is of length 8.
13. Foci (± 4, 0), the latus rectum is of length 12

4
14. vertices (± 7,0), e = .
3
15. Foci (0, ± 10 ), passing through (2,3)

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 17 The focus of a parabolic mirror as shown in Fig 10.31 is at a distance of
5 cm from its vertex. If the mirror is 45 cm deep, find
the distance AB (Fig 10.31).
Solution Since the distance from the focus to the
vertex is 5 cm. We have, a = 5. If the origin is taken at
the vertex and the axis of the mirror lies along the
positive x-axis, the equation of the parabolic section is
y2 = 4 (5) x = 20 x
Note that x = 45. Thus
y2 = 900
Therefore y = ± 30
Hence AB = 2y = 2 × 30 = 60 cm.
Example 18 A beam is supported at its ends by Fig 10.31
supports which are 12 metres apart. Since the load is concentrated at its centre, there

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 CONIC SECTIONS 203

is a deflection of 3 cm at the centre and the deflected beam is in the shape of a

parabola. How far from the centre is the deflection 1 cm?
Solution Let the vertex be at the lowest point and the axis vertical. Let the coordinate
axis be chosen as shown in Fig 10.32.

Fig 10.32
The equation of the parabola takes the form x2 = 4ay. Since it passes through
 3   3  36 ×100
 6,  , we have (6)2 = 4a   , i.e., a = = 300 m
 100   100  12
1 2
Let AB be the deflection of the beam which is m. Coordinates of B are (x, ).
100 100
2
Therefore x 2 = 4 × 300 × = 24
100
i.e. x= 24 = 2 6 metres

Example 19 A rod AB of length 15 cm rests in between two coordinate axes in such

a way that the end point A lies on x-axis and end point B lies on
y-axis. A point P(x, y) is taken on the rod in such a way
that AP = 6 cm. Show that the locus of P is an ellipse.
Solution Let AB be the rod making an angle θ with
OX as shown in Fig 10.33 and P (x, y) the point on it
such that AP = 6 cm.
Since AB = 15 cm, we have
PB = 9 cm.
From P draw PQ and PR perpendiculars on y-axis and
x-axis, respectively. Fig 10.33

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204 MATHEMATICS

x
From ∆ PBQ, cos θ =
9

y
From ∆ PRA, sin θ =
6
Since cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
2 2
 x  y
  +   =1
9 6

x2 y2
or + =1
81 36
Thus the locus of P is an ellipse.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 10

1. If a parabolic reflector is 20 cm in diameter and 5 cm deep, find the focus.
2. An arch is in the form of a parabola with its axis vertical. The arch is 10 m high
and 5 m wide at the base. How wide is it 2 m from the vertex of the parabola?
3. The cable of a uniformly loaded suspension bridge hangs in the form of a parabola.
The roadway which is horizontal and 100 m long is supported by vertical wires
attached to the cable, the longest wire being 30 m and the shortest being 6 m.
Find the length of a supporting wire attached to the roadway 18 m from the
middle.
4. An arch is in the form of a semi-ellipse. It is 8 m wide and 2 m high at the centre.
Find the height of the arch at a point 1.5 m from one end.
5. A rod of length 12 cm moves with its ends always touching the coordinate axes.
Determine the equation of the locus of a point P on the rod, which is 3 cm from
the end in contact with the x-axis.
6. Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines joining the vertex of the parabola
x2 = 12y to the ends of its latus rectum.
7. A man running a racecourse notes that the sum of the distances from the two flag
posts from him is always 10 m and the distance between the flag posts is 8 m.
Find the equation of the posts traced by the man.
8. An equilateral triangle is inscribed in the parabola y2 = 4 ax, where one vertex is
at the vertex of the parabola. Find the length of the side of the triangle.

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Summary

In this Chapter the following concepts and generalisations are studied.

® A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point
in the plane.
® The equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and the radius r is
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2.

® A parabola is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed
line and a fixed point in the plane.
® The equation of the parabola with focus at (a, 0) a > 0 and directrix x = – a is
y2 = 4ax.
® Latus rectum of a parabola is a line segment perpendicular to the axis of the
parabola, through the focus and whose end points lie on the parabola.
® Length of the latus rectum of the parabola y2 = 4ax is 4a.
® An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from
two fixed points in the plane is a constant.

x2 y 2
® The equation of an ellipse with foci on the x-axis is + =1.
a 2 b2

® Latus rectum of an ellipse is a line segment perpendicular to the major axis

through any of the foci and whose end points lie on the ellipse.

x2 y 2 2b 2
® Length of the latus rectum of the ellipse + = 1 is .
a 2 b2 a

® The eccentricity of an ellipse is the ratio between the distances from the centre
of the ellipse to one of the foci and to one of the vertices of the ellipse.
® A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose distances
from two fixed points in the plane is a constant.

x2 y 2
® The equation of a hyperbola with foci on the x-axis is : a 2 − b 2 = 1

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206 MATHEMATICS

® Latus rectum of hyperbola is a line segment perpendicular to the transverse

axis through any of the foci and whose end points lie on the hyperbola.

x2 y 2 2b2
® Length of the latus rectum of the hyperbola : − = 1 is : .
a 2 b2 a

® The eccentricity of a hyperbola is the ratio of the distances from the centre of
the hyperbola to one of the foci and to one of the vertices of the hyperbola.

Historical Note
Geometry is one of the most ancient branches of mathematics. The Greek
geometers investigated the properties of many curves that have theoretical and
practical importance. Euclid wrote his treatise on geometry around 300 B.C. He
was the first who organised the geometric figures based on certain axioms
suggested by physical considerations. Geometry as initially studied by the ancient
Indians and Greeks, who made essentially no use of the process of algebra. The
synthetic approach to the subject of geometry as given by Euclid and in
Sulbasutras, etc., was continued for some 1300 years. In the 200 B.C., Apollonius
wrote a book called ‘The Conic’ which was all about conic sections with many
important discoveries that have remained unsurpassed for eighteen centuries.
Modern analytic geometry is called ‘Cartesian’ after the name of Rene
Descartes (1596-1650) whose relevant ‘La Geometrie’ was published in 1637.
But the fundamental principle and method of analytical geometry were already
discovered by Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). Unfortunately, Fermats treatise on
the subject, entitled Ad Locus Planos et So LIDOS Isagoge (Introduction to
Plane and Solid Loci) was published only posthumously in
1679. So, Descartes came to be regarded as the unique inventor of the analytical
geometry.
Isaac Barrow avoided using cartesian method. Newton used method of
undetermined coefficients to find equations of curves. He used several types of
coordinates including polar and bipolar. Leibnitz used the terms ‘abscissa’,
‘ordinate’ and ‘coordinate’. L’ Hospital (about 1700) wrote an important textbook
on analytical geometry.
Clairaut (1729) was the first to give the distance formula although in clumsy
form. He also gave the intercept form of the linear equation. Cramer (1750)

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 CONIC SECTIONS 207

made formal use of the two axes and gave the equation of a circle as
( y – a)2 + (b – x)2 = r
He gave the best exposition of the analytical geometry of his time. Monge
(1781) gave the modern ‘point-slope’ form of equation of a line as
y – y′ = a (x – x′)
and the condition of perpendicularity of two lines as aa′ + 1 = 0.
S.F. Lacroix (1765–1843) was a prolific textbook writer, but his contributions
to analytical geometry are found scattered. He gave the ‘two-point’ form of
equation of a line as
β′ – β
y –β= (x – α)
α′ – α
(β – a – b )
and the length of the perpendicular from (α, β) on y = ax + b as .
1 + a2

 a′ – a 
His formula for finding angle between two lines was tan θ =  1 + aa′  . It is, of
 
course, surprising that one has to wait for more than 150 years after the invention
of analytical geometry before finding such essential basic formula. In 1818, C.
Lame, a civil engineer, gave mE + m′E′ = 0 as the curve passing through the
points of intersection of two loci E = 0 and E′ = 0.
Many important discoveries, both in Mathematics and Science, have been
linked to the conic sections. The Greeks particularly Archimedes (287–212 B.C.)
and Apollonius (200 B.C.) studied conic sections for their own beauty. These
curves are important tools for present day exploration of outer space and also for
research into behaviour of atomic particles.

—v —

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208 MATHEMATICS

Chapter 11

INTRODUCTION TO THREE
DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

vMathematics is both the queen and the hand-maiden of

all sciences – E.T. BELLv

11.1 Introduction
You may recall that to locate the position of a point in a
plane, we need two intersecting mutually perpendicular lines
in the plane. These lines are called the coordinate axes
and the two numbers are called the coordinates of the
point with respect to the axes. In actual life, we do not
have to deal with points lying in a plane only. For example,
consider the position of a ball thrown in space at different
points of time or the position of an aeroplane as it flies
from one place to another at different times during its flight.
Similarly, if we were to locate the position of the Leonhard Euler
lowest tip of an electric bulb hanging from the ceiling of a (1707-1783)
room or the position of the central tip of the ceiling fan in a room, we will not only
require the perpendicular distances of the point to be located from two perpendicular
walls of the room but also the height of the point from the floor of the room. Therefore,
we need not only two but three numbers representing the perpendicular distances of
the point from three mutually perpendicular planes, namely the floor of the room and
two adjacent walls of the room. The three numbers representing the three distances
are called the coordinates of the point with reference to the three coordinate
planes. So, a point in space has three coordinates. In this Chapter, we shall study the
basic concepts of geometry in three dimensional space.*

* For various activities in three dimensional geometry one may refer to the Book, “A Hand Book for
designing Mathematics Laboratory in Schools”, NCERT, 2005.

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 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 209

11.2 Coordinate Axes and Coordinate Planes in Three Dimensional Space

Consider three planes intersecting at a point O
such that these three planes are mutually
perpendicular to each other (Fig 11.1). These
three planes intersect along the lines X′OX, Y′OY
and Z′OZ, called the x, y and z-axes, respectively.
We may note that these lines are mutually
perpendicular to each other. These lines constitute
the rectangular coordinate system. The planes
XOY, YOZ and ZOX, called, respectively the
XY-plane, YZ-plane and the ZX-plane, are
known as the three coordinate planes. We take Fig 11.1
the XOY plane as the plane of the paper and the
line Z′OZ as perpendicular to the plane XOY. If the plane of the paper is considered
as horizontal, then the line Z′OZ will be vertical. The distances measured from
XY-plane upwards in the direction of OZ are taken as positive and those measured
downwards in the direction of OZ′ are taken as negative. Similarly, the distance
measured to the right of ZX-plane along OY are taken as positive, to the left of
ZX-plane and along OY′ as negative, in front of the YZ-plane along OX as positive
and to the back of it along OX′ as negative. The point O is called the origin of the
coordinate system. The three coordinate planes divide the space into eight parts known
as octants. These octants could be named as XOYZ, X′OYZ, X′OY′Z, XOY′Z, XOYZ′,
X′OYZ′, X′OY′Z′ and XOY′Z′. and denoted by I, II, III, ..., VIII , respectively.
11.3 Coordinates of a Point in Space
Having chosen a fixed coordinate system in the
space, consisting of coordinate axes, coordinate
planes and the origin, we now explain, as to how,
given a point in the space, we associate with it three
coordinates (x,y,z) and conversely, given a triplet
of three numbers (x, y, z), how, we locate a point in
the space.
Given a point P in space, we drop a
perpendicular PM on the XY-plane with M as the Fig 11.2
foot of this perpendicular (Fig 11.2). Then, from the point M, we draw a perpendicular
ML to the x-axis, meeting it at L. Let OL be x, LM be y and MP be z. Then x,y and z
are called the x, y and z coordinates, respectively, of the point P in the space. In
Fig 11.2, we may note that the point P (x, y, z) lies in the octant XOYZ and so all x, y,
z are positive. If P was in any other octant, the signs of x, y and z would change

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210 MATHEMATICS

accordingly. Thus, to each point P in the space there corresponds an ordered triplet
(x, y, z) of real numbers.
Conversely, given any triplet (x, y, z), we would first fix the point L on the x-axis
corresponding to x, then locate the point M in the XY-plane such that (x, y) are the
coordinates of the point M in the XY-plane. Note that LM is perpendicular to the
x-axis or is parallel to the y-axis. Having reached the point M, we draw a perpendicular
MP to the XY-plane and locate on it the point P corresponding to z. The point P so
obtained has then the coordinates (x, y, z). Thus, there is a one to one correspondence
between the points in space and ordered triplet (x, y, z) of real numbers.
Alternatively, through the point P in the
space, we draw three planes parallel to the
coordinate planes, meeting the x-axis, y-axis
and z-axis in the points A, B and C, respectively
(Fig 11.3). Let OA = x, OB = y and OC = z.
Then, the point P will have the coordinates x, y
and z and we write P (x, y, z). Conversely, given
x, y and z, we locate the three points A, B and
C on the three coordinate axes. Through the
points A, B and C we draw planes parallel to
the YZ-plane, ZX-plane and XY-plane, Fig 11.3
respectively. The point of interesection of these three planes, namely, ADPF, BDPE
and CEPF is obviously the point P, corresponding to the ordered triplet (x, y, z). We
observe that if P (x, y, z) is any point in the space, then x, y and z are perpendicular
distances from YZ, ZX and XY planes, respectively.

ANote The coordinates of the origin O are (0,0,0). The coordinates of any point
on the x-axis will be as (x,0,0) and the coordinates of any point in the YZ-plane will
be as (0, y, z).
Remark The sign of the coordinates of a point determine the octant in which the
point lies. The following table shows the signs of the coordinates in eight octants.
Table 11.1
s
ant I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Oct nates
rdi
Coo
x + – – + + – – +
y + + – – + + – –
z + + + + – – – –

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 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 211

Example 1 In Fig 11.3, if P is (2,4,5), find the coordinates of F.

Solution For the point F, the distance measured along OY is zero. Therefore, the
coordinates of F are (2,0,5).
Example 2 Find the octant in which the points (–3,1,2) and (–3,1,– 2) lie.
Solution From the Table 11.1, the point (–3,1, 2) lies in second octant and the point
(–3, 1, – 2) lies in octant VI.

EXERCISE 11.1
1. A point is on the x -axis. What are its y-coordinate and z-coordinates?
2. A point is in the XZ-plane. What can you say about its y-coordinate?
3. Name the octants in which the following points lie:
(1, 2, 3), (4, –2, 3), (4, –2, –5), (4, 2, –5), (– 4, 2, –5), (– 4, 2, 5),
(–3, –1, 6) (– 2, – 4, –7).
4. Fill in the blanks:
(i) The x-axis and y-axis taken together determine a plane known as_______.
(ii) The coordinates of points in the XY-plane are of the form _______.
(iii) Coordinate planes divide the space into ______ octants.

11.4 Distance between Two Points

We have studied about the distance
between two points in two-dimensional
coordinate system. Let us now extend this
study to three-dimensional system.
Let P(x1, y1, z1) and Q ( x2, y2, z2)
be two points referred to a system of
rectangular axes OX, OY and OZ.
Through the points P and Q draw planes
parallel to the coordinate planes so as to
form a rectangular parallelopiped with one
diagonal PQ (Fig 11.4).
Now, since ∠PAQ is a right Fig 11.4
angle, it follows that, in triangle PAQ,
PQ2 = PA 2 + AQ2 ... (1)
Also, triangle ANQ is right angle triangle with ∠ANQ a right angle.

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212 MATHEMATICS

Therefore AQ2 = AN2 + NQ2 ... (2)

From (1) and (2), we have
PQ2 = PA2 + AN2 + NQ2
Now PA = y2 – y1, AN = x2 – x1 and NQ = z2 – z1
2
Hence PQ = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1) + (z2 – z1)2
2

Therefore PQ = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 +( y 2 − y1 ) 2 +( z 2 −z1 ) 2
This gives us the distance between two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2).
2 2 2
In particular, if x1 = y1 = z1 = 0, i.e., point P is origin O, then OQ = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
which gives the distance between the origin O and any point Q (x2, y2, z2).
Example 3 Find the distance between the points P(1, –3, 4) and Q (– 4, 1, 2).
Solution The distance PQ between the points P (1,–3, 4) and Q (– 4, 1, 2) is
PQ = (−4 − 1) 2 + (1 + 3) 2 + (2 − 4) 2

= 25 + 16 + 4
= 45 = 3 5 units
Example 4 Show that the points P (–2, 3, 5), Q (1, 2, 3) and R (7, 0, –1) are collinear.
Solution We know that points are said to be collinear if they lie on a line.
Now, PQ = (1 + 2) 2 + ( 2 − 3) 2 + (3 − 5) 2 = 9 + 1 + 4 = 14

QR = (7 − 1) 2 + (0 − 2) 2 + (−1− 3) 2 = 36 + 4 + 16 = 56 = 2 14

and PR = (7 + 2) 2 + (0 − 3) 2 + (−1− 5) 2 = 81 + 9 + 36 = 126 = 3 14

Thus, PQ + QR = PR. Hence, P, Q and R are collinear.
Example 5 Are the points A (3, 6, 9), B (10, 20, 30) and C (25, – 41, 5), the vertices
of a right angled triangle?
Solution By the distance formula, we have
AB2 = (10 – 3)2 + (20 – 6)2 + (30 – 9)2
= 49 + 196 + 441 = 686
BC2 = (25 – 10)2 + (– 41 – 20)2 + (5 – 30)2
= 225 + 3721 + 625 = 4571

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 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 213

CA 2 = (3 – 25)2 + (6 + 41)2 + (9 – 5)2

= 484 + 2209 + 16 = 2709
We find that CA2 + AB2 ≠ BC2.
Hence, the triangle ABC is not a right angled triangle.
Example 6 Find the equation of set of points P such that PA2 + PB2 = 2k2, where
A and B are the points (3, 4, 5) and (–1, 3, –7), respectively.
Solution Let the coordinates of point P be (x, y, z).
Here PA2 = (x – 3)2 + (y – 4)2 + ( z – 5)2
PB2 = (x + 1)2 + (y – 3)2 + (z + 7)2
By the given condition PA2 + PB2 = 2k2, we have
(x – 3)2 + (y – 4)2 + (z – 5)2 + (x + 1)2 + (y – 3)2 + (z + 7)2 = 2k2
i.e., 2x2 + 2y2 + 2z2 – 4x – 14y + 4z = 2k2 – 109.

EXERCISE 11.2
1. Find the distance between the following pairs of points:
(i) (2, 3, 5) and (4, 3, 1) (ii) (–3, 7, 2) and (2, 4, –1)
(iii) (–1, 3, – 4) and (1, –3, 4) (iv) (2, –1, 3) and (–2, 1, 3).
2. Show that the points (–2, 3, 5), (1, 2, 3) and (7, 0, –1) are collinear.
3. Verify the following:
(i) (0, 7, –10), (1, 6, – 6) and (4, 9, – 6) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
(ii) (0, 7, 10), (–1, 6, 6) and (– 4, 9, 6) are the vertices of a right angled triangle.
(iii) (–1, 2, 1), (1, –2, 5), (4, –7, 8) and (2, –3, 4) are the vertices of a parallelogram.
4. Find the equation of the set of points which are equidistant from the points
(1, 2, 3) and (3, 2, –1).
5. Find the equation of the set of points P, the sum of whose distances from
A (4, 0, 0) and B (– 4, 0, 0) is equal to 10.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 7 Show that the points A (1, 2, 3), B (–1, –2, –1), C (2, 3, 2) and
D (4, 7, 6) are the vertices of a parallelogram ABCD, but it is not a rectangle.
Solution To show ABCD is a parallelogram we need to show opposite side are equal
Note that.

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214 MATHEMATICS

AB = (−1 − 1) 2 +(−2 − 2) 2 +(−1 − 3) 2 = 4 + 16 + 16 = 6

BC = (2 + 1) 2 +(3 + 2) 2 +( 2 + 1) 2 = 9 + 25 + 9 = 43

CD = ( 4 − 2) 2 +(7 − 3) 2 +(6 − 2) 2 = 4 + 16 + 16 = 6

DA = (1 − 4) 2 +(2 − 7) 2 +(3 − 6) 2 = 9 + 25 + 9 = 43

Since AB = CD and BC = AD, ABCD is a parallelogram.

Now, it is required to prove that ABCD is not a rectangle. For this, we show that
diagonals AC and BD are unequal. We have

AC = ( 2 − 1) 2 +(3 − 2) 2 +(2 − 3) 2 = 1 + 1 + 1= 3

BD = ( 4 + 1) 2 +(7 + 2) 2 +(6 + 1) 2 = 25 + 81 + 49 = 155 .

Since AC ≠ BD, ABCD is not a rectangle.

ANote We can also show that ABCD is a parallelogram, using the property that
diagonals AC and BD bisect each other.

Example 8 Find the equation of the set of the points P such that its distances from the
points A (3, 4, –5) and B (– 2, 1, 4) are equal.
Solution If P (x, y, z) be any point such that PA = PB.

Now ( x − 3) 2 + ( y − 4) 2 + ( z + 5) 2 = ( x + 2) 2 + ( y − 1) 2 + ( z − 4) 2
or ( x − 3) 2 + ( y − 4) 2 + ( z + 5) 2 = ( x + 2) 2 + ( y − 1) 2 + ( z − 4) 2

or 10 x + 6y – 18z – 29 = 0.
Example 9 The centroid of a triangle ABC is at the point (1, 1, 1). If the coordinates
of A and B are (3, –5, 7) and (–1, 7, – 6), respectively, find the coordinates of the
point C.
Solution Let the coordinates of C be (x, y, z) and the coordinates of the centroid G be
(1, 1, 1). Then

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 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 215

x + 3−1 y − 5+ 7 z+7−6
= 1, i.e., x = 1; = 1, i.e., y = 1; = 1, i.e., z = 2.
3 3 3
Hence, coordinates of C are (1, 1, 2).

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 11

1. Three vertices of a parallelogram ABCD are A(3, – 1, 2), B (1, 2, – 4) and
C (– 1, 1, 2). Find the coordinates of the fourth vertex.
2. Find the lengths of the medians of the triangle with vertices A (0, 0, 6), B (0,4, 0)
and (6, 0, 0).
3. If the origin is the centroid of the triangle PQR with vertices P (2a, 2, 6),
Q (– 4, 3b, –10) and R(8, 14, 2c), then find the values of a, b and c.
4. If A and B be the points (3, 4, 5) and (–1, 3, –7), respectively, find the equation of
the set of points P such that PA2 + PB2 = k2, where k is a constant.

Summary
® In three dimensions, the coordinate axes of a rectangular Cartesian coordi-
nate system are three mutually perpendicular lines. The axes are called the x,
y and z-axes.
® The three planes determined by the pair of axes are the coordinate planes,
called XY, YZ and ZX-planes.
® The three coordinate planes divide the space into eight parts known as octants.
® The coordinates of a point P in three dimensional geometry is always written
in the form of triplet like (x, y, z). Here x, y and z are the distances from the
YZ, ZX and XY-planes.
® (i) Any point on x-axis is of the form (x, 0, 0)
(ii) Any point on y-axis is of the form (0, y, 0)
(iii) Any point on z-axis is of the form (0, 0, z).
® Distance between two points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) is given by
PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z2 − z1 )2

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216 MATHEMATICS

Historical Note
Rene’ Descartes (1596–1650), the father of analytical geometry, essentially dealt
with plane geometry only in 1637. The same is true of his co-inventor Pierre
Fermat (1601-1665) and La Hire (1640-1718). Although suggestions for the three
dimensional coordinate geometry can be found in their works but no details.
Descartes had the idea of coordinates in three dimensions but did not develop it.
J.Bernoulli (1667-1748) in a letter of 1715 to Leibnitz introduced the three coor-
dinate planes which we use today. It was Antoinne Parent
(1666-1716), who gave a systematic development of analytical solid geometry
for the first time in a paper presented to the French Academy in 1700.
L.Euler (1707-1783) took up systematically the three dimensional coordinate ge-
ometry, in Chapter 5 of the appendix to the second volume of his “Introduction
to Geometry” in 1748.
It was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that geometry was extended
to more than three dimensions, the well-known application of which is in the
Space-Time Continuum of Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.

—v—

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 Chapter 12

LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

vWith the Calculus as a key, Mathematics can be successfully applied to the

explanation of the course of Nature – WHITEHEAD v

12.1 Introduction
This chapter is an introduction to Calculus. Calculus is that
branch of mathematics which mainly deals with the study
of change in the value of a function as the points in the
domain change. First, we give an intuitive idea of derivative
(without actually defining it). Then we give a naive definition
of limit and study some algebra of limits. Then we come
back to a definition of derivative and study some algebra
of derivatives. We also obtain derivatives of certain
standard functions.
12.2 Intuitive Idea of Derivatives Sir Issac Newton
Physical experiments have confirmed that the body dropped (1642-1727)
from a tall cliff covers a distance of 4.9t2 metres in t seconds,
i.e., distance s in metres covered by the body as a function of time t in seconds is given
by s = 4.9t2.
The adjoining Table 13.1 gives the distance travelled in metres at various intervals
of time in seconds of a body dropped from a tall cliff.
The objective is to find the veloctiy of the body at time t = 2 seconds from this
data. One way to approach this problem is to find the average velocity for various
intervals of time ending at t = 2 seconds and hope that these throw some light on the
velocity at t = 2 seconds.
Average velocity between t = t1 and t = t2 equals distance travelled between
t = t1 and t = t2 seconds divided by (t2 – t1). Hence the average velocity in the first
two seconds

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218 MATHEMATICS

Table 12.1
Distance travelled between t2 = 2 and t1 = 0
= t s
Time interval (t2 − t1 )
0 0
(19.6 − 0 ) m 1 4.9
= = 9.8 m / s .
( 2 − 0) s 1.5 11.025
1.8 15.876
Similarly, the average velocity between t = 1
and t = 2 is 1.9 17.689
1.95 18.63225
(19.6 – 4.9 ) m 2 19.6
= 14.7 m/s
( 2 − 1) s 2.05 20.59225
Likewise we compute the average velocitiy 2.1 21.609
between t = t1 and t = 2 for various t1. The following 2.2 23.716
Table 13.2 gives the average velocity (v), t = t1 2.5 30.625
seconds and t = 2 seconds. 3 44.1
4 78.4

Table 12.2
t1 0 1 1.5 1.8 1.9 1.95 1.99
v 9.8 14.7 17.15 18.62 19.11 19.355 19.551

From Table 12.2, we observe that the average velocity is gradually increasing.
As we make the time intervals ending at t = 2 smaller, we see that we get a better idea
of the velocity at t = 2. Hoping that nothing really dramatic happens between 1.99
seconds and 2 seconds, we conclude that the average velocity at t = 2 seconds is just
above 19.551m/s.
This conclusion is somewhat strengthened by the following set of computation.
Compute the average velocities for various time intervals starting at t = 2 seconds. As
before the average velocity v between t = 2 seconds and t = t2 seconds is

Distance travelled between 2 seconds and t2 seconds

=
t2 − 2

Distance travelled in t2 seconds − Distance travelled in 2 seconds

=
t2 − 2

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 219

Distance travelled in t2 seconds − 19.6

=
t2 − 2
The following Table 12.3 gives the average velocity v in metres per second
between t = 2 seconds and t2 seconds.
Table 12.3

t2 4 3 2.5 2.2 2.1 2.05 2.01

v 29.4 24.5 22.05 20.58 20.09 19.845 19.649

Here again we note that if we take smaller time intervals starting at t = 2, we get
better idea of the velocity at t = 2.
In the first set of computations, what we have done is to find average velocities
in increasing time intervals ending at t = 2 and then hope that nothing dramatic happens
just before t = 2. In the second set of computations, we have found the average velocities
decreasing in time intervals ending at t = 2 and then hope that nothing dramatic happens
just after t = 2. Purely on the physical grounds, both these sequences of average
velocities must approach a common limit. We can safely conclude that the velocity of
the body at t = 2 is between 19.551m/s and 19.649 m/s. Technically, we say that the
instantaneous velocity at t = 2 is between 19.551 m/s and 19.649 m/s. As is
well-known, velocity is the rate of change of displacement. Hence what we have
accomplished is the following. From the given data of distance covered at various time
instants we have estimated the rate of
change of the distance at a given instant
of time. We say that the derivative of
the distance function s = 4.9t2 at t = 2
is between 19.551 and 19.649.
An alternate way of viewing this
limiting process is shown in Fig 12.1.
This is a plot of distance s of the body
from the top of the cliff versus the time
t elapsed. In the limit as the sequence
of time intervals h1, h2, ..., approaches
zero, the sequence of average velocities
approaches the same limit as does the
sequence of ratios Fig 12.1

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220 MATHEMATICS

C1B1 C2 B2 C3 B3
, , , ...
AC1 AC2 AC3
where C1B1 = s1 – s0 is the distance travelled by the body in the time interval h1 = AC1,
etc. From the Fig 12.1 it is safe to conclude that this latter sequence approaches the
slope of the tangent to the curve at point A. In other words, the instantaneous velocity
v(t) of a body at time t = 2 is equal to the slope of the tangent of the curve s = 4.9t2 at
t = 2.
12.3 Limits
The above discussion clearly points towards the fact that we need to understand limit-
ing process in greater clarity. We study a few illustrative examples to gain some famil-
iarity with the concept of limits.
Consider the function f(x) = x2. Observe that as x takes values very close to 0,
the value of f(x) also moves towards 0 (See Fig 2.10 Chapter 2). We say
lim f ( x ) = 0
x →0

(to be read as limit of f (x) as x tends to zero equals zero). The limit of f (x) as x tends
to zero is to be thought of as the value f (x) should assume at x = 0.
In general as x → a, f (x) → l, then l is called limit of the function f (x) which is

symbolically written as lim f ( x) = l .

x →a

Consider the following function g(x) = |x|, x ≠ 0. Observe that g(0) is not defined.
Computing the value of g(x) for values of x very
near to 0, we see that the value of g(x) moves
towards 0. So, lim
x→0
g(x) = 0. This is intuitively
clear from the graph of y = |x| for x ≠ 0.
(See Fig 2.13, Chapter 2).
Consider the following function.
x2 − 4
h( x) = , x≠2.
x−2
Compute the value of h(x) for values of
x very near to 2 (but not at 2). Convince yourself
that all these values are near to 4. This is
somewhat strengthened by considering the graph
of the function y = h(x) given here (Fig 12.2). Fig 12.2

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 221

In all these illustrations the value which the function should assume at a given
point x = a did not really depend on how is x tending to a. Note that there are essentially
two ways x could approach a number a either from left or from right, i.e., all the
values of x near a could be less than a or could be greater than a. This naturally leads
to two limits – the right hand limit and the left hand limit. Right hand limit of a
function f(x) is that value of f(x) which is dictated by the values of f(x) when x tends
to a from the right. Similarly, the left hand limit. To illustrate this, consider the function
1, x ≤ 0
f ( x) = 
 2, x > 0
Graph of this function is shown in the Fig 12.3. It is
clear that the value of f at 0 dictated by values of f(x) with
x ≤ 0 equals 1, i.e., the left hand limit of f (x) at 0 is
lim f ( x) =1 .
x→0

Similarly, the value of f at 0 dictated by values of

f (x) with x > 0 equals 2, i.e., the right hand limit of f (x)
at 0 is
lim f ( x ) = 2 .
x →0 + Fig 12.3
In this case the right and left hand limits are different, and hence we say that the
limit of f (x) as x tends to zero does not exist (even though the function is defined at 0).

Summary
We say xlim
→a –
f(x) is the expected value of f at x = a given the values of f near
x to the left of a. This value is called the left hand limit of f at a.

We say lim+ f ( x ) is the expected value of f at x = a given the values of

x→a

f near x to the right of a. This value is called the right hand limit of f(x) at a.
If the right and left hand limits coincide, we call that common value as the limit
of f(x) at x = a and denote it by lim
x →a
f(x).

Illustration 1 Consider the function f(x) = x + 10. We want to find the limit of this
function at x = 5. Let us compute the value of the function f(x) for x very near to 5.
Some of the points near and to the left of 5 are 4.9, 4.95, 4.99, 4.995. . ., etc. Values
of the function at these points are tabulated below. Similarly, the real number 5.001,

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222 MATHEMATICS

5.01, 5.1 are also points near and to the right of 5. Values of the function at these points
are also given in the Table 12.4.
Table 12.4

x 4.9 4.95 4.99 4.995 5.001 5.01 5.1

f(x) 14.9 14.95 14.99 14.995 15.001 15.01 15.1

From the Table 12.4, we deduce that value of f(x) at x = 5 should be greater than
14.995 and less than 15.001 assuming nothing dramatic happens between x = 4.995
and 5.001. It is reasonable to assume that the value of the f(x) at x = 5 as dictated by
the numbers to the left of 5 is 15, i.e.,

lim f ( x ) = 15 .
x →5 –

Similarly, when x approaches 5 from the right, f(x) should be taking value 15, i.e.,

lim f ( x ) = 15 .
x →5+

Hence, it is likely that the left hand limit of f(x) and the right hand limit of f(x) are
both equal to 15. Thus,
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 15 .
x →5 − x →5 x →5

This conclusion about the limit being equal to 15 is somewhat strengthened by

seeing the graph of this function which is given in Fig 2.16, Chapter 2. In this figure, we
note that as x approaches 5 from either right or left, the graph of the function
f(x) = x +10 approaches the point (5, 15).
We observe that the value of the function at x = 5 also happens to be equal to 15.
Illustration 2 Consider the function f(x) = x3. Let us try to find the limit of this
function at x = 1. Proceeding as in the previous case, we tabulate the value of f(x) at
x near 1. This is given in the Table 12.5.
Table 12.5

x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01 1.1

f(x) 0.729 0.970299 0.997002999 1.003003001 1.030301 1.331

From this table, we deduce that value of f(x) at x = 1 should be greater than
0.997002999 and less than 1.003003001 assuming nothing dramatic happens between

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 223

x = 0.999 and 1.001. It is reasonable to assume that the value of the f(x) at x = 1 as
dictated by the numbers to the left of 1 is 1, i.e.,
lim f ( x ) = 1 .
x →1−

Similarly, when x approaches 1 from the right, f(x) should be taking value 1, i.e.,
lim f ( x ) = 1 .
x →1+

Hence, it is likely that the left hand limit of f(x) and the right hand limit of f(x) are
both equal to 1. Thus,
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 1 .
x →1− x →1 x →1

This conclusion about the limit being equal to 1 is somewhat strengthened by

seeing the graph of this function which is given in Fig 2.11, Chapter 2. In this figure, we
note that as x approaches 1 from either right or left, the graph of the function
f(x) = x3 approaches the point (1, 1).
We observe, again, that the value of the function at x = 1 also happens to be
equal to 1.
Illustration 3 Consider the function f(x) = 3x. Let us try to find the limit of this
function at x = 2. The following Table 12.6 is now self-explanatory.
Table 12.6

x 1.9 1.95 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1

f(x) 5.7 5.85 5.97 5.997 6.003 6.03 6.3

As before we observe that as x approaches 2

from either left or right, the value of f(x) seem to
approach 6. We record this as
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 6
x →2 − x →2 x →2

Its graph shown in Fig 12.4 strengthens this

fact.
Here again we note that the value of the function
at x = 2 coincides with the limit at x = 2.

Illustration 4 Consider the constant function

f(x) = 3. Let us try to find its limit at x = 2. This
function being the constant function takes the same Fig 12.4

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224 MATHEMATICS

value (3, in this case) everywhere, i.e., its value at points close to 2 is 3. Hence
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 3
x→2 x →2 x→2

Graph of f(x) = 3 is anyway the line parallel to x-axis passing through (0, 3) and
is shown in Fig 2.9, Chapter 2. From this also it is clear that the required limit is 3. In

fact, it is easily observed that xlim f ( x ) = 3 for any real number a.

→a

Illustration 5 Consider the function f(x) = x2 + x. We want to find lim f ( x ) . We

x →1

tabulate the values of f(x) near x = 1 in Table 12.7.

Table 12.7
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.01 1.1 1.2

f(x) 1.71 1.9701 1.997001 2.0301 2.31 2.64

From this it is reasonable to deduce that

lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 2 .
x →1− x →1 x →1

From the graph of f(x) = x2 + x

shown in the Fig 12.5, it is clear that as x
approaches 1, the graph approaches (1, 2).
Here, again we observe that the
lim f (x) = f (1)
x→1

Now, convince yourself of the

Fig 12.5
following three facts:

lim x 2 = 1, lim x = 1 and lim x + 1 = 2

x →1 x →1 x →1

Then lim x 2 + lim x = 1 + 1 = 2 = lim  x 2 + x  .

x →1 x →1 x →1

Also lim x. lim ( x + 1) = 1.2 = 2 = lim  x ( x + 1)  = lim  x 2 + x  .

x →1 x→1 x →1 x →1

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 225

Illustration 6 Consider the function f(x) = sin x. We are interested in limπ sin x ,
x→
2

where the angle is measured in radians.

π
Here, we tabulate the (approximate) value of f(x) near (Table 12.8). From
2
this, we may deduce that
lim− f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 1
π π π .
x→ x→ x→
2 2 2

Further, this is supported by the graph of f(x) = sin x which is given in the Fig 3.8
(Chapter 3). In this case too, we observe that lim sin x = 1.
π
x→
2

Table 12.8
π π π π
x − 0.1 − 0.01 + 0.01 + 0.1
2 2 2 2
f(x) 0.9950 0.9999 0.9999 0.9950

Illustration 7 Consider the function f(x) = x + cos x. We want to find the lim f (x).
x→0

Here we tabulate the (approximate) value of f(x) near 0 (Table 12.9).

Table 12.9
x – 0.1 – 0.01 – 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f(x) 0.9850 0.98995 0.9989995 1.0009995 1.00995 1.0950

From the Table 13.9, we may deduce that

lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 1
x → 0− x→0 x →0

In this case too, we observe that lim f (x) = f (0) = 1.

x→0

Now, can you convince yourself that

lim [ x + cos x ] = lim x + lim cos x is indeed true?
x →0 x →0 x→0

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226 MATHEMATICS

1
Illustration 8 Consider the function f ( x ) = for x > 0 . We want to know lim f (x).
x2 x→0

Here, observe that the domain of the function is given to be all positive real
numbers. Hence, when we tabulate the values of f(x), it does not make sense to talk of
x approaching 0 from the left. Below we tabulate the values of the function for positive
x close to 0 (in this table n denotes any positive integer).
From the Table 12.10 given below, we see that as x tends to 0, f(x) becomes
larger and larger. What we mean here is that the value of f(x) may be made larger than
any given number.
Table 12.10

x 1 0.1 0.01 10–n

f(x) 1 100 10000 102n

Mathematically, we say
lim f ( x ) = + ∞
x →0

We also remark that we will not come across such limits in this course.

Illustration 9 We want to find lim f ( x ) , where

x →0

 x − 2, x < 0

f ( x) =  0 , x = 0
 x + 2, x > 0

As usual we make a table of x near 0 with f(x). Observe that for negative values of x
we need to evaluate x – 2 and for positive values, we need to evaluate x + 2.
Table 12.11

x – 0.1 – 0.01 – 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f(x) – 2.1 – 2.01 – 2.001 2.001 2.01 2.1

From the first three entries of the Table 12.11, we deduce that the value of the
function is decreasing to –2 and hence.
lim f ( x ) = −2
x →0 −

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 227

From the last three entires of the table we deduce that the value of the function
is increasing from 2 and hence
lim f ( x ) = 2
x → 0+

Since the left and right hand limits at 0 do not coincide,

we say that the limit of the function at 0 does not exist.
Graph of this function is given in the Fig12.6. Here,
we remark that the value of the function at x = 0 is well
defined and is, indeed, equal to 0, but the limit of the function
at x = 0 is not even defined.
Fig 12.6
Illustration 10 As a final illustration, we find lim f ( x) ,
x →1

where
x + 2 x ≠ 1
f ( x) = 
 0 x =1

Table 12.12

x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01 1.1

f(x) 2.9 2.99 2.999 3.001 3.01 3.1

As usual we tabulate the values of f(x) for x near 1. From the values of f(x) for
x less than 1, it seems that the function should take value 3 at x = 1., i.e.,
lim f ( x ) = 3 .
x →1−

Similarly, the value of f(x) should be 3 as dic-

tated by values of f(x) at x greater than 1. i.e.
lim f ( x ) = 3 .
x →1+

But then the left and right hand limits coin-

cide and hence

lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 3 .

x →1− x →1 x →1

Graph of function given in Fig 12.7 strength-

ens our deduction about the limit. Here, we Fig 12.7

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228 MATHEMATICS

note that in general, at a given point the value of the function and its limit may be
different (even when both are defined).
12.3.1 Algebra of limits In the above illustrations, we have observed that the limiting
process respects addition, subtraction, multiplication and division as long as the limits
and functions under consideration are well defined. This is not a coincidence. In fact,
below we formalise these as a theorem without proof.

Theorem 1 Let f and g be two functions such that both lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist.
x →a x →a

Then
(i) Limit of sum of two functions is sum of the limits of the functions, i.e.,
lim [f(x) + g (x)] = lim f(x) + lim g(x).
x →a x →a x →a

(ii) Limit of difference of two functions is difference of the limits of the functions, i.e.,
lim [f(x) – g(x)] = lim f(x) – lim g(x).
x →a x →a x →a

(iii) Limit of product of two functions is product of the limits of the functions, i.e.,
lim [f(x) . g(x)] = lim f(x). lim g(x).
x →a x →a x →a

(iv) Limit of quotient of two functions is quotient of the limits of the functions (whenever
the denominator is non zero), i.e.,

f ( x) lim f ( x )
x →a
lim =
x →a g ( x) lim g ( x )
x→ a

A Note In particular as a special case of (iii), when g is the constant function

such that g(x) = λ , for some real number λ , we have

lim ( λ. f ) ( x )  = λ.lim f ( x ) .

x→a x →a

In the next two subsections, we illustrate how to exploit this theorem to evaluate
limits of special types of functions.
12.3.2 Limits of polynomials and rational functions A function f is said to be a
polynomial function of degree n f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 +. . . + anxn, where ais are real
numbers such that an ≠ 0 for some natural number n.
We know that lim x = a. Hence
x →a

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 229

lim x 2 = lim ( x. x ) = lim x.lim x = a. a = a 2

x→a x→ a x →a x→ a

An easy exercise in induction on n tells us that

lim x n = a n
x →a

Now, let f ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + an x n be a polynomial function. Thinking

of each of a0 , a1 x, a2 x 2 ,..., an x n as a function, we have

lim f
x→a
( x ) = lim a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + an x n 
x→a

= lim a0 + lim a1 x + lim a2 x 2 + ... + lim an x n

x →a x→ a x→a x →a

= a0 + a1 lim
x →a
x + a2 lim x 2 + ... + an lim x n
x →a x→ a

= a0 + a1a + a2 a 2 + ... + an a n

= f (a)
(Make sure that you understand the justification for each step in the above!)
g ( x)
A function f is said to be a rational function, if f(x) = h x , where g(x) and h(x)
( )
are polynomials such that h(x) ≠ 0. Then

g ( x) lim g ( x ) g (a)
lim f ( x ) = lim = x →a
=
x →a x→ a h( x) lim h ( x ) h ( a)
x→ a

However, if h(a) = 0, there are two scenarios – (i) when g(a) ≠ 0 and (ii) when
g(a) = 0. In the former case we say that the limit does not exist. In the latter case we
can write g(x) = (x – a)k g1 (x), where k is the maximum of powers of (x – a) in g(x)
Similarly, h(x) = (x – a)l h1 (x) as h (a) = 0. Now, if k > l, we have

lim g ( x ) lim ( x − a ) g1 ( x )
k

lim f ( x ) = x→ a
= x→ a
x→a lim h ( x ) lim ( x − a ) h1 ( x )
l
x →a x →a

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230 MATHEMATICS

( k −l )
lim ( x − a ) g1 ( x ) 0. g1 ( a )
x→a
= = =0
lim h1 ( x ) h1 ( a )
x →a

If k < l, the limit is not defined.

Example 1 Find the limits: (i) lim  x 3 − x 2 + 1 (ii) lim  x ( x + 1) 

x →1   x →3 

(iii) lim 1 + x + x 2 + ... + x10  .

x →−1 

Solution The required limits are all limits of some polynomial functions. Hence the
limits are the values of the function at the prescribed points. We have
(i) lim
x→1
[x3 – x2 + 1] = 13 – 12 + 1 = 1

(ii) lim  x ( x + 1)  = 3 ( 3 + 1) = 3 ( 4 ) = 12
x →3 

(iii) lim 1 + x + x 2 + ... + x10  = 1 + ( −1) + ( −1)2 + ... + ( −1)10

x →−1 

= 1 − 1 + 1... + 1 = 1 .
Example 2 Find the limits:

 x2 + 1   x3 − 4 x 2 + 4 x 
(i) lim 
x →1 x + 100
 (ii) lim  
  x →2
 x2 − 4 

 x2 − 4   x3 − 2 x 2 
(iii) lim  3  (iv) lim  2 
x →2 x − 4 x + 4 x
2 x →2 x − 5 x + 6
   

 x−2 1 
(v) lim  − 3
x − 3 x + 2 x 
x →1  x − x
2 2 .

Solution All the functions under consideration are rational functions. Hence, we first
0
evaluate these functions at the prescribed points. If this is of the form , we try to
0
rewrite the function cancelling the factors which are causing the limit to be of
0
the form .
0

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 231

x2 + 1 12 + 1 2
(i) We have lim = =
x →1 x + 100 1 + 100 101
0
(ii) Evaluating the function at 2, it is of the form .
0

x ( x − 2)
2
x3 − 4x 2 + 4 x
Hence lim = lim
x → 2 ( x + 2 )( x − 2 )
x→2 x −4
2

x ( x − 2)
= lim as x ≠ 2
x →2 ( x + 2)
2 ( 2 − 2) 0
= = = 0.
2+2 4

0
(iii) Evaluating the function at 2, we get it of the form .
0

x2 − 4 ( x + 2 )( x − 2 )
Hence lim = lim
x ( x − 2)
x→2 2
x →2 x3 − 4 x 2 + 4 x

( x + 2) 2+2 4
= lim = =
x →2 x ( x − 2 ) 2 ( 2 − 2) 0

which is not defined.

0
(iv) Evaluating the function at 2, we get it of the form .
0

x3 − 2 x 2 x2 ( x − 2)
Hence lim 2 = lim
x →2 ( x − 2 )( x − 3 )
x →2 x − 5 x + 6

( 2) 4
2
x2
= lim = = = −4.
x →2 ( x − 3) 2 − 3 −1

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232 MATHEMATICS

(v) First, we rewrite the function as a rational function.

 
 x−2 1   x−2 − 1 
−
   (
 x 2 − x x3 − 3x 2 + 2 x   x ( x − 1) x x − 3 x + 2
= 2
) 


 x−2 1 
=  x x −1 − x x −1 x − 2 
 ( ) ( )( ) 
 x2 − 4x + 4 − 1 
=  x x −1 x − 2 
 ( )( ) 
x2 − 4x + 3
= x x −1 x − 2
( )( )
0
Evaluating the function at 1, we get it of the form .
0

 x2 − 2 1  x2 − 4x + 3
Hence lim  2 − 3 = lim
x →1 x − x
 x − 3x 2 + 2 x  x →1 x ( x − 1)( x − 2 )

( x − 3)( x − 1)
= lim
x →1 x ( x − 1)( x − 2 )

x −3 1− 3
= lim
x →1 x ( x − 2 ) = 1(1 − 2 ) = 2.
We remark that we could cancel the term (x – 1) in the above evaluation because
x ≠ 1.
Evaluation of an important limit which will be used in the sequel is given as a
theorem below.
Theorem 2 For any positive integer n,
xn − an
lim = na n−1 .
x →a x − a

Remark The expression in the above theorem for the limit is true even if n is any
rational number and a is positive.

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 233

Proof Dividing (xn – an) by (x – a), we see that

xn – an = (x–a) (xn–1 + xn–2 a + xn–3 a2 + ... + x an–2 + an–1)
xn − an
Thus, lim = lim (xn–1 + xn–2 a + xn–3 a2 + ... + x an–2 + an–1)
x →a x − a x →a

= an – l + a an–2 +. . . + an–2 (a) +an–l

= an–1 + an – 1 +...+an–1 + an–1 (n terms)
n −1
= na
Example 3 Evaluate:

x15 − 1 1+ x −1
(i) lim (ii) lim
x →1 x10 − 1 x →0 x
Solution (i) We have

x15 − 1 lim  x − 1 ÷ x − 1 
15 10
lim =  
x →1 x10 − 1 x →1
 x −1 x −1 

 x15 − 1   x10 − 1 
= x →1 
lim  ÷ lim  
 x − 1  x →1  x − 1 
= 15 (1)14 ÷ 10(1)9 (by the theorem above)

3
= 15 ÷ 10 =
2
(ii) Put y = 1 + x, so that y → 1 as x → 0.

1 + x −1 y −1
Then lim = lim
→
x →0 x y 1 y –1

1 1
y 2 − 12
= lim
y →1 y −1

1
1 2 −1 1
= (1) (by the remark above) =
2 2

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234 MATHEMATICS

12.4 Limits of Trigonometric Functions

The following facts (stated as theorems) about functions in general come in handy in
calculating limits of some trigonometric functions.
Theorem 3 Let f and g be two real valued functions with the same domain such that

f (x) ≤ g( x) for all x in the domain of definition, For some a, if both lim
x →a
f(x) and

lim g(x) exist, then lim f(x) ≤ lim g(x). This is illustrated in Fig 12.8.
x →a x →a x →a

Fig 12.8

Theorem 4 (Sandwich Theorem) Let f, g and h be real functions such that

f (x) ≤ g( x) ≤ h(x) for all x in the common domain of definition. For some real number

a, if lim
x →a
f(x) = l = lim
x →a
h(x), then lim g(x) = l. This is illustrated in Fig 12.9.
x→ a

Fig 12.9
Given below is a beautiful geometric proof of the following important
inequality relating trigonometric functions.
sin x π
cos x < <1 for 0 < x < (*)
x 2

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 235

Proof We know that sin (– x) = – sin x and cos( – x) = cos x. Hence, it is sufficient
π
to prove the inequality for 0 < x < .
2
In the Fig 12.10, O is the centre of the unit circle such that
π
the angle AOC is x radians and 0 < x < . Line segments B A and
2
CD are perpendiculars to OA. Further, join AC. Then
Area of ∆OAC < Area of sector OAC < Area of ∆ OAB. Fig 12.10
1 x 1
i.e., OA.CD < .π.(OA) 2 < OA.AB .
2 2π 2
i.e., CD < x . OA < AB.
From ∆ OCD,
CD AB
sin x = (since OC = OA) and hence CD = OA sin x. Also tan x = and
OA OA
hence AB = OA. tan x. Thus
OA sin x < OA. x < OA. tan x.
Since length OA is positive, we have
sin x < x < tan x.
π
Since 0 < x < , sinx is positive and thus by dividing throughout by sin x, we have
2
x 1
1< < . Taking reciprocals throughout, we have
sin x cos x
sin x
cos x < <1
x
which complete the proof.
Theorem 5 The following are two important limits.
sin x 1 − cos x
(i) lim =1. (ii) lim =0.
x →0 x x →0 x
sin x
Proof (i) The inequality in (*) says that the function is sandwiched between the
x
function cos x and the constant function which takes value 1.

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236 MATHEMATICS

Further, since lim

x→0
cos x = 1, we see that the proof of (i) of the theorem is
complete by sandwich theorem.
x
To prove (ii), we recall the trigonometric identity 1 – cos x = 2 sin2   .
2
Then

x x
2sin 2   sin  
1 − cos x  2  = lim  2  .sin  x 
lim = lim 2
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x  
2

x
sin  
= lim
 2  .lim sin  x  = 1.0 = 0
x 2
x →0 x →0  
2

x
Observe that we have implicitly used the fact that x → 0 is equivalent to → 0 . This
2
x
may be justified by putting y = .
2

sin 4 x tan x
Example 4 Evaluate: (i) lim (ii) lim
x →0 sin 2 x x →0 x

sin 4 x  sin 4 x 2 x 
Solution (i) lim = lim  . .2
x →0 sin 2 x x → 0  4 x sin 2 x 

 sin 4 x   sin 2 x 
= 2.lim
x →0  ÷ 
 4 x   2x 

 sin 4 x   sin 2 x 
= 2. 4lim ÷ lim 
x →0 
 4x 
 2 x → 0  2x 


= 2.1.1 = 2 (as x → 0, 4x → 0 and 2x → 0)

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 237

tan x sin x sin x 1

(ii) We have lim = lim
→
= lim
→
. lim
→
= 1.1 = 1
x →0 x x 0 x cos x x 0 x x 0 cos x
A general rule that needs to be kept in mind while evaluating limits is the following.
f ( x)
Say, given that the limit lim
x→a g ( x )
exists and we want to evaluate this. First we check

the value of f (a) and g(a). If both are 0, then we see if we can get the factor which
is causing the terms to vanish, i.e., see if we can write f(x) = f1 (x) f2(x) so that
f1 (a) = 0 and f2 (a) ≠ 0. Similarly, we write g(x) = g1 (x) g2(x), where g1(a) = 0 and
g2(a) ≠ 0. Cancel out the common factors from f(x) and g(x) (if possible) and write
f ( x) p ( x)
=
g ( x) q ( x ) , where q(x) ≠ 0.

f ( x) p(a)
Then lim =
x →a g ( x) q(a) .

EXERCISE 12.1
Evaluate the following limits in Exercises 1 to 22.
 22 
1. lim x+3 2. lim  x−  3. lim πr 2
x →3 x→π  7  r →1

4. lim
4x + 3
5. lim
x10 + x 5 + 1
6. lim
( x + 1)5 − 1
x →4 x − 2 x → −1 x −1 x→0 x

3 x 2 − x − 10 x 4 − 81 ax + b
7. lim 8. lim 9. lim
x →2 x2 − 4 x →3 2 x2 − 5x − 3 x →0 cx + 1
1
z3 −1 ax 2 + bx + c
10. lim
z →1 1 11. lim ,a+b+c ≠ 0
x →1 cx 2 + bx + a
z 6 −1

1 1
+ sin ax sin ax
12. lim x 2 13. lim 14. lim , a, b ≠ 0
x →0 bx x →0 sin bx
x →−2 x + 2

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238 MATHEMATICS

sin ( π − x ) cos x cos 2 x − 1

15. lim
x→π π ( π − x )
16. lim 17. lim
x →0 π−x x →0 cos x − 1

ax + x cos x
18. lim 19. lim
x →0
x sec x
x →0 b sin x
sin ax + bx (cosec x − cot x )
20. lim a, b, a + b ≠ 0 , 21. lim
x →0 ax + sin bx x →0

tan 2 x
lim
22. π π
x→
2 x−
2

 2 x + 3, x ≤ 0
23. Find lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) , where f ( x ) = 
x →0 x →1
3 ( x + 1) , x > 0

 x 2 − 1, x ≤1
24. Find x →1 ( ) , where
lim f x f ( x ) =  2
− x − 1, x >1

| x |
 , x≠0
25. Evaluate lim f ( x ) , where f ( x ) =  x
x →0
 0, x = 0

 x
 , x≠0
26. Find lim f ( x ) , where f ( x ) =  | x |
x →0
 0, x = 0


27. Find lim f ( x ) , where f ( x ) = | x | −5

x →5

 a + bx , x <1

28. Suppose f ( x ) =  4, x =1
 b − ax , x >1


and if lim f (x) = f (1) what are possible values of a and b?

x→1

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 239

29. Let a1, a2, . . ., an be fixed real numbers and define a function
f ( x ) = ( x − a1 ) ( x − a2 ) ... ( x − an ) .

What is xlim
→a
f (x) ? For some a ≠ a1, a2, ..., an, compute lim
x →a
f (x).
1

 x + 1, x < 0

30. If f ( x ) =  0, x=0 .
 x − 1, x > 0


For what value (s) of a does lim

x →a
f (x) exists?

f ( x) − 2
31. If the function f(x) satisfies lim = π , evaluate lim f ( x) .
x →1 x2 − 1 x →1

 mx 2 + n , x<0

32. If f ( x ) =  nx + m , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 . For what integers m and n does both lim f ( x)
x →0
 3
 nx + m , x >1

and lim f ( x ) exist?

x →1

12.5 Derivatives
We have seen in the Section 13.2, that by knowing the position of a body at various
time intervals it is possible to find the rate at which the position of the body is changing.
It is of very general interest to know a certain parameter at various instants of time and
try to finding the rate at which it is changing. There are several real life situations
where such a process needs to be carried out. For instance, people maintaining a
reservoir need to know when will a reservoir overflow knowing the depth of the water
at several instances of time, Rocket Scientists need to compute the precise velocity
with which the satellite needs to be shot out from the rocket knowing the height of the
rocket at various times. Financial institutions need to predict the changes in the value of
a particular stock knowing its present value. In these, and many such cases it is desirable
to know how a particular parameter is changing with respect to some other parameter.
The heart of the matter is derivative of a function at a given point in its domain
of definition.

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240 MATHEMATICS

Definition 1 Suppose f is a real valued function and a is a point in its domain of

definition. The derivative of f at a is defined by
f ( a + h) − f (a )
lim
h →0 h
provided this limit exists. Derivative of f (x) at a is denoted by f′(a).
Observe that f′ (a) quantifies the change in f(x) at a with respect to x.
Example 5 Find the derivative at x = 2 of the function f(x) = 3x.
Solution We have

f ( 2 + h ) − f ( 2) 3( 2 + h ) − 3( 2)
f′ (2) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h

6 + 3h − 6 3h
= lim = lim = lim 3 = 3 .
h →0 h h → 0 h h →0
The derivative of the function 3x at x = 2 is 3.
Example 6 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = 2x2 + 3x – 5 at x = –1. Also prove
that f ′ (0) + 3f ′ ( –1) = 0.
Solution We first find the derivatives of f(x) at x = –1 and at x = 0. We have

f ( −1 + h ) − f ( −1)
f ' ( −1) = lim
h →0 h

 2 ( −1 + h ) 2 + 3 ( −1 + h ) − 5 − 2 ( −1) 2 + 3 ( −1) − 5
= lim    
h →0 h

2h 2 − h
= lim = lim ( 2h − 1) = 2 ( 0 ) − 1 = −1
h →0 h h →0

f ( 0 + h ) − f ( 0)
and f ' ( 0 ) = lim
h →0 h

 2 ( 0 + h )2 + 3 ( 0 + h ) − 5 −  2 ( 0 )2 + 3 ( 0 ) − 5
= lim    
h →0 h

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 241

2h 2 + 3h
= lim = lim ( 2 h + 3) = 2 ( 0 ) + 3 = 3
h →0 h h →0

Clearly f ' ( 0 ) + 3 f ' ( −1) = 0

Remark At this stage note that evaluating derivative at a point involves effective use
of various rules, limits are subjected to. The following illustrates this.
Example 7 Find the derivative of sin x at x = 0.
Solution Let f(x) = sin x. Then
f (0 + h) − f (0)
f ′(0) = lim
h →0 h

sin ( 0 + h ) − sin ( 0 ) sin h

= lim = lim =1
h →0 h h →0 h

Example 8 Find the derivative of f(x) = 3 at x = 0 and at x = 3.

Solution Since the derivative measures the change in function, intuitively it is clear
that the derivative of the constant function must be zero at every point. This is indeed,
supported by the following computation.
f (0 + h ) − f ( 0) 3−3 0
f ' ( 0 ) = lim = lim = lim = 0 .
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h

f ( 3 + h ) − f ( 3) 3−3
Similarly f ' ( 3) = lim = lim =0.
h →0 h h →0 h
We now present a geomet-
ric interpretation of derivative of a
function at a point. Let y = f(x) be
a function and let P = (a, f(a)) and
Q = (a + h, f(a + h) be two points
close to each other on the graph
of this function. The Fig 12.11 is
now self explanatory.

Fig 12.11

Rationalised 2023-24
242 MATHEMATICS

f (a + h) − f (a)
We know that f ′ ( a ) = lim
h →0 h
From the triangle PQR, it is clear that the ratio whose limit we are taking is
precisely equal to tan(QPR) which is the slope of the chord PQ. In the limiting process,
as h tends to 0, the point Q tends to P and we have
f (a + h) − f (a ) QR
lim = lim
h →0 h Q → P PR

This is equivalent to the fact that the chord PQ tends to the tangent at P of the
curve y = f(x). Thus the limit turns out to be equal to the slope of the tangent. Hence
f ′ ( a ) = tan ψ .
For a given function f we can find the derivative at every point. If the derivative
exists at every point, it defines a new function called the derivative of f . Formally, we
define derivative of a function as follows.
Definition 2 Suppose f is a real valued function, the function defined by
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
lim
h →0 h
wherever the limit exists is defined to be the derivative of f at x and is denoted by
f′(x). This definition of derivative is also called the first principle of derivative.
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Thus f ' ( x ) = lim
h →0 h
Clearly the domain of definition of f′ (x) is wherever the above limit exists. There
are different notations for derivative of a function. Sometimes f′ (x) is denoted by
d dy
dx
( f ( x ) ) or if y = f(x), it is denoted by
dx
. This is referred to as derivative of f(x)

or y with respect to x. It is also denoted by D (f (x) ). Further, derivative of f at x = a

d df  df 
is also denoted by f ( x) or or even   .
dx a dx a  dx  x = a

Example 9 Find the derivative of f(x) = 10x.

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Solution Since f′ ( x) = lim
h →0 h

Rationalised 2023-24
 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 243

10 ( x + h ) − 10 ( x )
= lim
h →0 h
10h
= lim = lim (10 ) = 10 .
h →0 h h→ 0

Example 10 Find the derivative of f(x) = x2.

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Solution We have, f ′(x) = lim
h →0 h

( x + h) − ( x)
2 2

( h + 2x) = 2x
= lim
h→0
= lim
h →0
h

Example 11 Find the derivative of the constant function f (x) = a for a fixed real
number a.
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Solution We have, f ′(x) = lim
h →0 h
a−a 0
= lim = lim = 0 as h ≠ 0
h →0 h h →0 h

1
Example 12 Find the derivative of f(x) =
x

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Solution We have f ′(x) = lim
h →0 h

1 1
–
= lim ( x + h) x
h →0 h

1  x − ( x + h) 
= lim  
h →0 h
 x ( x + h ) 

1  −h  −1 1
= lim   = lim
h →0 x ( x + h ) =
− 2
h →0 h x ( x + h )
  x

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244 MATHEMATICS

12.5.1 Algebra of derivative of functions Since the very definition of derivatives

involve limits in a rather direct fashion, we expect the rules for derivatives to follow
closely that of limits. We collect these in the following theorem.
Theorem 5 Let f and g be two functions such that their derivatives are defined in a
common domain. Then
(i) Derivative of sum of two functions is sum of the derivatives of the
functions.
d d d
 f ( x ) + g ( x ) = f ( x) + g ( x) .
dx dx dx
(ii) Derivative of difference of two functions is difference of the derivatives of
the functions.
d d d
 f ( x ) − g ( x ) = f ( x) − g ( x ) .
dx dx dx
(iii) Derivative of product of two functions is given by the following product
rule.
d d d
 f ( x ) . g ( x )  = f ( x) . g ( x) + f ( x) . g ( x)
dx dx dx
(iv) Derivative of quotient of two functions is given by the following quotient
rule (whenever the denominator is non–zero).

d d
f ( x ) . g ( x) − f ( x) g ( x)
d  f ( x )  dx dx
 =
dx  g ( x )  ( g ( x ) )2
The proofs of these follow essentially from the analogous theorem for limits. We
will not prove these here. As in the case of limits this theorem tells us how to compute
derivatives of special types of functions. The last two statements in the theorem may
be restated in the following fashion which aids in recalling them easily:
Let u = f ( x ) and v = g (x). Then

( uv )′ = u ′v + uv′

This is referred to a Leibnitz rule for differentiating product of functions or the

product rule. Similarly, the quotient rule is

Rationalised 2023-24
 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 245

 u ′ u′v − uv′
  = v2
v
Now, let us tackle derivatives of some standard functions.
It is easy to see that the derivative of the function f(x) = x is the constant
f ( x + h) − f ( x) x+h−x
function 1. This is because f ′ ( x ) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h

= lim1 =1 .
h→0

We use this and the above theorem to compute the derivative of

f(x) = 10x = x + .... + x (ten terms). By (i) of the above theorem
df ( x ) d
dx
=
dx
( x + ... + x ) (ten terms)

d d
x +. . .+
= x (ten terms)
dx dx
= 1 + ... + 1 (ten terms) = 10.
We note that this limit may be evaluated using product rule too. Write
f(x) = 10x = uv, where u is the constant function taking value 10 everywhere and
v(x) = x. Here, f(x) = 10x = uv we know that the derivative of u equals 0. Also
derivative of v(x) = x equals 1. Thus by the product rule we have

f ′ ( x ) = (10 x )′ = ( uv )′ = u′v + uv′ = 0.x + 10.1 = 10

On similar lines the derivative of f(x) = x2 may be evaluated. We have
f(x) = x2 = x .x and hence
df d d d
= ( x.x ) = ( x ) .x + x. ( x )
dx dx dx dx
= 1. x + x.1 = 2 x .
More generally, we have the following theorem.
Theorem 6 Derivative of f(x) = xn is nxn – 1 for any positive integer n.
Proof By definition of the derivative function, we have

f ( x + h) − f ( x) ( x + h )n − x n
f ' ( x ) = lim = lim .
h →0 h h →0 h

Rationalised 2023-24
246 MATHEMATICS

Binomial theorem tells that (x + h)n = ( n

C0 x n +) ( C )x
n
1
n −1
h + ... + ( n
)
C n h n and
n n n–1 n–1
hence (x + h) – x = h(nx +... + h ). Thus

df ( x )
= lim
( x + h) − xn n

dx h →0 h

= lim
(
h nx n −1 + .... + h n−1 )
h →0 h

= lim
h →0
(
nx n−1 + ... + h n−1 = nx n −1 . )
Alternatively, we may also prove this by induction on n and the product rule as
follows. The result is true for n = 1, which has been proved earlier. We have
d n
dx
x =( )
d
dx
x.x n−1 ( )
=
d
dx
( ) d
( )
( x ) . xn −1 + x. x n−1 (by product rule)
dx

= 1.x
n −1
( )
+ x. ( n − 1) x n − 2 (by induction hypothesis)

= x n −1 + ( n − 1) x n −1 = nx n −1 .
Remark The above theorem is true for all powers of x, i.e., n can be any real number
(but we will not prove it here).
12.5.2 Derivative of polynomials and trigonometric functions We start with the
following theorem which tells us the derivative of a polynomial function.
Theorem 7 Let f(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + .... + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial function, where
ai s are all real numbers and an ≠ 0. Then, the derivative function is given by
df ( x )
= nan x n−1 + ( n − 1) an −1 x x − 2 + ... + 2a2 x + a1 .
dx
Proof of this theorem is just putting together part (i) of Theorem 5 and Theorem 6.
Example 13 Compute the derivative of 6x100 – x55 + x.
Solution A direct application of the above theorem tells that the derivative of the
above function is 600 x99 − 55 x54 + 1 .

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 247

Example 14 Find the derivative of f(x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 +... + x50 at x = 1.

Solution A direct application of the above Theorem 6 tells that the derivative of the
above function is 1 + 2x + 3x2 + . . . + 50x49. At x = 1 the value of this function equals
( 50 )(51)
1 + 2(1) + 3(1)2 + .. . + 50(1)49 = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 50 = = 1275.
2
x +1
Example 15 Find the derivative of f(x) =
x
Solution Clearly this function is defined everywhere except at x = 0. We use the
quotient rule with u = x + 1 and v = x. Hence u′ = 1 and v′ = 1. Therefore
df ( x) d  x + 1  d  u  u ′v − uv ′ 1( x ) − ( x + 1)1 1
=   =  = = =− 2
dx dx  x  dx  v  v 2
x 2
x

Example 16 Compute the derivative of sin x.

Solution Let f(x) = sin x. Then
df ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x) sin ( x + h ) − sin ( x )
= lim = lim
dx h →0 h h →0 h

 2x + h   h 
2cos   sin  
= lim  2   2  (using formula for sin A – sin B)
h →0 h

h
sin
 h 2 = cos x.1 = cos x
lim cos  x +  .lim
= h →0  2  h → 0 h .
2
Example 17 Compute the derivative of tan x.
Solution Let f(x) = tan x. Then
df ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x) tan ( x + h ) − tan ( x )
= lim = lim
dx h →0 h h →0 h

1  sin ( x + h ) sin x 
= h→0 h  cos x + h − cos x 
lim
 ( ) 

Rationalised 2023-24
248 MATHEMATICS

 sin ( x + h ) cos x − cos ( x + h ) sin x 

= lim  
h →0
 h cos ( x + h ) cos x 

sin ( x + h − x )
= lim
h →0 h cos ( x + h ) cos x
(using formula for sin (A + B))

sin h 1
= lim
h →0
.lim
h h→0 cos ( x + h ) cos x

1
= 1. = sec2 x .
cos 2 x

Example 18 Compute the derivative of f(x) = sin2 x.

Solution We use the Leibnitz product rule to evaluate this.
df ( x ) d
= ( sin x sin x )
dx dx

= ( sin x )′ sin x + sin x ( sin x )′

= ( cos x ) sin x + sin x ( cos x )

= 2sin x cos x = sin 2 x .

EXERCISE 12.2
1. Find the derivative of x2 – 2 at x = 10.
2. Find the derivative of x at x = 1.
3. Find the derivative of 99x at x = l00.
4. Find the derivative of the following functions from first principle.
(i) x 3 − 27 (ii) ( x − 1)( x − 2 )
1 x +1
(iii) (iv)
x2 x −1
5. For the function
x100 x 99 x2
f ( x) = + +. . .+ + x +1.
100 99 2

Rationalised 2023-24
 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 249

Prove that f ′ (1) = 100 f ′ ( 0 ) .

6. Find the derivative of x n + ax n −1 + a 2 x n− 2 + . . . + a n −1 x + a n for some fixed real

number a.
7. For some constants a and b, find the derivative of
x−a
( ax )
2
(i) ( x − a) ( x − b) (ii) 2
+b (iii)
x −b

xn − an
8. Find the derivative of for some constant a.
x−a
9. Find the derivative of
3
(i) 2 x −
4
(ii) ( 5x 3
+ 3x − 1 ) ( x − 1)
(iii) x −3 ( 5 + 3 x ) (
(iv) x 3 − 6 x
5 −9
)
x2
(v) (
x −4 3 − 4 x −5 ) (vi)
2
−
x + 1 3x − 1
10. Find the derivative of cos x from first principle.
11. Find the derivative of the following functions:
(i) sin x cos x (ii) sec x (iii) 5sec x + 4 cos x
(iv) cosec x (v) 3cot x + 5cosec x
(vi) 5sin x − 6 cos x + 7 (vii) 2 tan x − 7 sec x

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 19 Find the derivative of f from the first principle, where f is given by
2x + 3 1
(i) f (x) = (ii) f (x) = x +
x−2 x
Solution (i) Note that function is not defined at x = 2. But, we have

2 ( x + h ) + 3 2x + 3
f ( x + h) − f ( x) −
f ′ ( x ) = lim = lim x + h − 2 x−2
h →0 h h →0 h

Rationalised 2023-24
250 MATHEMATICS

( 2 x + 2h + 3)( x − 2 ) − ( 2 x + 3)( x + h − 2 )
= lim
h →0 h ( x − 2 )( x + h − 2 )

( 2 x + 3)( x − 2 ) + 2h ( x − 2 ) − ( 2 x + 3)( x − 2 ) − h ( 2 x + 3)
= lim
h →0 h ( x − 2 )( x + h − 2 )

–7 7
= lim =−
h →0 ( x − 2 ) ( x + h − 2 )
( x − 2)
2

Again, note that the function f ′ is also not defined at x = 2.

(ii) The function is not defined at x = 0. But, we have

 1   1
 x+h+  −x+ 
f ( x + h) − f ( x) x+h 
= lim 
x
f ′( x ) = lim
h →0 h h →0 h

1 1 1
= lim  h+ − 
h →0 h x + h x

1 x − x−h 1  1 
lim  h +  = lim  h  1 − 
= h →0 h
 x ( x + h )  h→0 h   x ( x + h )  

 1  1
= lim 1 −  =1− 2
 x ( x + h ) 
h →0 x

Again, note that the function f ′ is not defined at x = 0.

Example 20 Find the derivative of f(x) from the first principle, where f(x) is
(i) sin x + cos x (ii) x sin x
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Solution (i) we have f ' ( x ) =
h

sin ( x + h ) + cos ( x + h ) − sin x − cos x

= lim
h →0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h + cos x cos h − sin x sin h − sin x − cos x
= lim
h →0 h

Rationalised 2023-24
 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 251

sin h ( cos x − sin x ) + sin x ( cos h − 1) + cos x ( cos h − 1)

= lim
h →0 h

sin h ( cos h − 1) ( cos h − 1)

= lim
h →0
( cos x − sin x ) + lim
→
sin x + lim cos x
h h 0 h h →0 h
= cos x − sin x
f ( x + h) − f ( x) ( x + h ) sin ( x + h ) − x sin x
(ii) f ' ( x ) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h

( x + h )( sin x cos h + sin h cos x ) − x sin x

= lim
h →0 h

x sin x ( cos h − 1) + x cos x sin h + h ( sin x cos h + sin h cos x )

= lim
h →0 h

x sin x ( cos h − 1) sin h

= lim + lim h→0 x cos x + lim ( sin x cos h + sin h cos x )
h →0 h h h→0

= x cos x + sin x
Example 21 Compute derivative of
(i) f(x) = sin 2x (ii) g(x) = cot x
Solution (i) Recall the trigonometric formula sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x. Thus
df ( x ) d d
= ( 2sin x cos x ) = 2 ( sin x cos x )
dx dx dx

= 2 ( sin x )′ cos x + sin x ( cos x )′ 

 

= 2 ( cos x ) cos x + sin x ( − sin x ) 

(
= 2 cos 2 x − sin 2 x )
cos x
(ii) By definition, g(x) = cot x = . We use the quotient rule on this function
sin x

dg d d  cos x 
= (cot x) = 
dx  sin x 
wherever it is defined.
dx dx

Rationalised 2023-24
252 MATHEMATICS

(cos x)′ (sin x) − (cos x) (sin x)′

=
(sin x )2

( − sin x )(sin x) − (cos x)(cos x)

=
(sin x ) 2

sin 2 x + cos2 x
= − 2
= − cosec 2 x
sin x
1
Alternatively, this may be computed by noting that cot x = . Here, we use the fact
tan x
that the derivative of tan x is sec2 x which we saw in Example 17 and also that the
derivative of the constant function is 0.
dg d d  1 
(cot x ) =
dx  tan x 
=
dx dx

(1)′ (tan x ) − (1) (tan x)′

=
(tan x) 2

(0) (tan x) − (sec x) 2

=
(tan x) 2

− sec 2 x
= = − cosec 2 x
tan 2 x

Example 22 Find the derivative of

x 5 − cos x x + cos x
(i) (ii)
sin x tan x

x 5 − cos x
Solution (i) Let h( x ) = . We use the quotient rule on this function wherever
sin x
it is defined.

( x 5 − cos x)′ sin x − ( x 5 − cos x) (sin x )′

h′( x) =
(sin x ) 2

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 253

(5 x 4 + sin x) sin x − ( x5 − cos x) cos x

=
sin 2 x

− x 5 cos x + 5 x 4 sin x + 1
=
(sin x )2

x + cos x
(ii) We use quotient rule on the function wherever it is defined.
tan x
( x + cos x)′ tan x − ( x + cos x ) (tan x)′
h′( x) =
(tan x) 2

(1 − sin x ) tan x − ( x + cos x) sec 2 x

=
(tan x ) 2

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 12

1. Find the derivative of the following functions from first principle:
π
(i) − x (ii) (− x) −1 (iii) sin (x + 1) (iv) cos (x –
)
8
Find the derivative of the following functions (it is to be understood that a, b, c, d,
p, q, r and s are fixed non-zero constants and m and n are integers):
r 
2. (x + a) 3. (px + q)  + s  4. ( ax + b )( cx + d )2
x 

1
ax + b 1+ 1
5. 6. x 7.
cx + d 1 ax + bx + c
2
1−
x

ax + b px 2 + qx + r a b
8. 9. 10. − 2 + cos x
px + qx + r
2
ax + b x 4
x

11. 4 x − 2 12. (ax + b) n 13. (ax + b) n (cx + d ) m

cos x
14. sin (x + a) 15. cosec x cot x 16.
1 + sin x

Rationalised 2023-24
254 MATHEMATICS

sin x + cos x sec x − 1

17. 18. 19. sin n x
sin x − cos x sec x + 1
a + b sin x sin( x + a)
20. 21. 22. x 4 (5sin x − 3cos x )
c + d cos x cos x

23. (x 2
)
+ 1 cos x 24. ( ax 2
+ sin x ) ( p + q cos x )
π 
4 x + 5sin x x 2 cos  
25. ( x + cos x ) ( x − tan x ) 26.
3 x + 7cos x
27. 4
sin x

x x
28.
1 + tan x
29. ( x + sec x ) ( x − tan x ) 30.
sin n x

Summary
® The expected value of the function as dictated by the points to the left of a
point defines the left hand limit of the function at that point. Similarly the right
hand limit.
® Limit of a function at a point is the common value of the left and right hand
limits, if they coincide.

® For a function f and a real number a, lim f(x) and f (a) may not be same (In
x →a

fact, one may be defined and not the other one).

® For functions f and g the following holds:
lim [ f ( x ) ± g ( x) ] = lim f ( x ) ± lim g ( x)
x →a x →a x →a

lim [ f ( x). g ( x) ] = lim f ( x ).lim g ( x )

x →a x→ a x→a

 f ( x)  lim
x →a
f ( x)
lim   =
x → a g ( x)
  lim
x→ a
g ( x)

® Following are some of the standard limits

xn − an
lim = na n−1
x →a x − a

Rationalised 2023-24
 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 255

sin x
lim =1
x →0 x
1 − cos x
lim =0
x →0 x
® The derivative of a function f at a is defined by
f (a + h ) − f (a )
f ′( a) = lim
h →0 h
® Derivative of a function f at any point x is defined by
df ( x) f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ′( x) = = lim
dx h → 0 h
® For functions u and v the following holds:
(u ± v )′ = u ′ ± v′
(uv)′ = u ′v + uv′

 u ′ u ′v − uv′
  = provided all are defined.
v v2
® Following are some of the standard derivatives.
d n
( x ) = nx n −1
dx
d
(sin x ) = cos x
dx
d
(cos x) = − sin x
dx

Historical Note
In the history of mathematics two names are prominent to share the credit for
inventing calculus, Issac Newton (1642 – 1727) and G.W. Leibnitz (1646 – 1717).
Both of them independently invented calculus around the seventeenth century.
After the advent of calculus many mathematicians contributed for further
development of calculus. The rigorous concept is mainly attributed to the great

Rationalised 2023-24
256 MATHEMATICS

mathematicians, A.L. Cauchy, J.L.Lagrange and Karl Weierstrass. Cauchy gave

the foundation of calculus as we have now generally accepted in our textbooks.
Cauchy used D’ Alembert’s limit concept to define the derivative of a function.
Starting with definition of a limit, Cauchy gave examples such as the limit of

sin α ∆ y f ( x + i ) − f ( x)
for α = 0. He wrote ∆ x = , and called the limit for
α i
i → 0, the “function derive’e, y′ for f ′ (x)”.
Before 1900, it was thought that calculus is quite difficult to teach. So calculus
became beyond the reach of youngsters. But just in 1900, John Perry and others
in England started propagating the view that essential ideas and methods of calculus
were simple and could be taught even in schools. F.L. Griffin, pioneered the
teaching of calculus to first year students. This was regarded as one of the most
daring act in those days.
Today not only the mathematics but many other subjects such as Physics,
Chemistry, Economics and Biological Sciences are enjoying the fruits of calculus.

—v —

Rationalised 2023-24
 Chapter 13

STATISTICS

v“Statistics may be rightly called the science of averages and their

estimates.” – A.L.BOWLEY & A.L. BODDINGTON v

13.1 Introduction
We know that statistics deals with data collected for specific
purposes. We can make decisions about the data by
analysing and interpreting it. In earlier classes, we have
studied methods of representing data graphically and in
tabular form. This representation reveals certain salient
features or characteristics of the data. We have also studied
the methods of finding a representative value for the given
data. This value is called the measure of central tendency.
Recall mean (arithmetic mean), median and mode are three
measures of central tendency. A measure of central
tendency gives us a rough idea where data points are Karl Pearson
(1857-1936)
centred. But, in order to make better interpretation from the
data, we should also have an idea how the data are scattered or how much they are
bunched around a measure of central tendency.
Consider now the runs scored by two batsmen in their last ten matches as follows:
Batsman A : 30, 91, 0, 64, 42, 80, 30, 5, 117, 71
Batsman B : 53, 46, 48, 50, 53, 53, 58, 60, 57, 52
Clearly, the mean and median of the data are
Batsman A Batsman B
Mean 53 53
Median 53 53
Recall that, we calculate the mean of a data (denoted by x ) by dividing the sum
of the observations by the number of observations, i.e.,

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258 MATHEMATICS

n
1
x=
n
∑ xi
i =1

Also, the median is obtained by first arranging the data in ascending or descending
order and applying the following rule.
th
 n + 1
If the number of observations is odd, then the median is   observation.
 2 
th
n
If the number of observations is even, then median is the mean of   and
2
th
n 
 + 1 observations.
2 
We find that the mean and median of the runs scored by both the batsmen A and
B are same i.e., 53. Can we say that the performance of two players is same? Clearly
No, because the variability in the scores of batsman A is from 0 (minimum) to 117
(maximum). Whereas, the range of the runs scored by batsman B is from 46 to 60.
Let us now plot the above scores as dots on a number line. We find the following
diagrams:
For batsman A

For batsman B Fig 13.1

Fig 13.2
We can see that the dots corresponding to batsman B are close to each other and
are clustering around the measure of central tendency (mean and median), while those
corresponding to batsman A are scattered or more spread out.
Thus, the measures of central tendency are not sufficient to give complete
information about a given data. Variability is another factor which is required to be
studied under statistics. Like ‘measures of central tendency’ we want to have a
single number to describe variability. This single number is called a ‘measure of
dispersion’. In this Chapter, we shall learn some of the important measures of dispersion
and their methods of calculation for ungrouped and grouped data.

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 STATISTICS 259

13.2 Measures of Dispersion

The dispersion or scatter in a data is measured on the basis of the observations and the
types of the measure of central tendency, used there. There are following measures of
dispersion:
(i) Range, (ii) Quartile deviation, (iii) Mean deviation, (iv) Standard deviation.
In this Chapter, we shall study all of these measures of dispersion except the
quartile deviation.
13.3 Range
Recall that, in the example of runs scored by two batsmen A and B, we had some idea
of variability in the scores on the basis of minimum and maximum runs in each series.
To obtain a single number for this, we find the difference of maximum and minimum
values of each series. This difference is called the ‘Range’ of the data.
In case of batsman A, Range = 117 – 0 = 117 and for batsman B, Range = 60 – 46 = 14.
Clearly, Range of A > Range of B. Therefore, the scores are scattered or dispersed in
case of A while for B these are close to each other.
Thus, Range of a series = Maximum value – Minimum value.
The range of data gives us a rough idea of variability or scatter but does not tell
about the dispersion of the data from a measure of central tendency. For this purpose,
we need some other measure of variability. Clearly, such measure must depend upon
the difference (or deviation) of the values from the central tendency.
The important measures of dispersion, which depend upon the deviations of the
observations from a central tendency are mean deviation and standard deviation. Let
us discuss them in detail.
13.4 Mean Deviation
Recall that the deviation of an observation x from a fixed value ‘a’ is the difference
x – a. In order to find the dispersion of values of x from a central value ‘a’ , we find the
deviations about a. An absolute measure of dispersion is the mean of these deviations.
To find the mean, we must obtain the sum of the deviations. But, we know that a
measure of central tendency lies between the maximum and the minimum values of
the set of observations. Therefore, some of the deviations will be negative and some
positive. Thus, the sum of deviations may vanish. Moreover, the sum of the deviations
from mean ( x ) is zero.
Sum of deviations 0
Also Mean of deviations = = =0
Number of observations n
Thus, finding the mean of deviations about mean is not of any use for us, as far
as the measure of dispersion is concerned.

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260 MATHEMATICS

Remember that, in finding a suitable measure of dispersion, we require the distance

of each value from a central tendency or a fixed number ‘a’. Recall, that the absolute
value of the difference of two numbers gives the distance between the numbers when
represented on a number line. Thus, to find the measure of dispersion from a fixed
number ‘a’ we may take the mean of the absolute values of the deviations from the
central value. This mean is called the ‘mean deviation’. Thus mean deviation about a
central value ‘a’ is the mean of the absolute values of the deviations of the observations
from ‘a’. The mean deviation from ‘a’ is denoted as M.D. (a). Therefore,
Sum of absolute values of deviations from 'a'
M.D.(a) = .
Number of observations
Remark Mean deviation may be obtained from any measure of central tendency.
However, mean deviation from mean and median are commonly used in statistical
studies.
Let us now learn how to calculate mean deviation about mean and mean deviation
about median for various types of data
13.4.1 Mean deviation for ungrouped data Let n observations be x1, x2, x3, ...., xn.
The following steps are involved in the calculation of mean deviation about mean or
median:
Step 1 Calculate the measure of central tendency about which we are to find the mean
deviation. Let it be ‘a’.
Step 2 Find the deviation of each xi from a, i.e., x1 – a, x2 – a, x3 – a,. . . , xn– a
Step 3 Find the absolute values of the deviations, i.e., drop the minus sign (–), if it is
there, i.e., x1 − a , x2 − a , x3 − a , ...., xn − a

Step 4 Find the mean of the absolute values of the deviations. This mean is the mean
deviation about a, i.e.,
n
∑ xi − a
i =1
M.D.(a) =
n
n
1
Thus M.D. ( x ) =
n
∑ xi − x , where x = Mean
i =1

n
1
and M.D. (M) =
n
∑ xi − M , where M = Median
i =1

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 STATISTICS 261

A Note In this Chapter, we shall use the symbol M to denote median unless stated
otherwise.Let us now illustrate the steps of the above method in following examples.

Example 1 Find the mean deviation about the mean for the following data:
6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 4, 8, 12
Solution We proceed step-wise and get the following:
Step 1 Mean of the given data is
6 + 7 + 10 + 12 + 13 + 4 + 8 + 12 72
x= = = 9
8 8

Step 2 The deviations of the respective observations from the mean x , i.e., xi– x are
6 – 9, 7 – 9, 10 – 9, 12 – 9, 13 – 9, 4 – 9, 8 – 9, 12 – 9,
or –3, –2, 1, 3, 4, –5, –1, 3
Step 3 The absolute values of the deviations, i.e., xi − x are
3, 2, 1, 3, 4, 5, 1, 3
Step 4 The required mean deviation about the mean is
8
∑ xi − x
M.D. ( x ) =
i =1
8
3 + 2 + 1 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 1 + 3 22
= = = 2.75
8 8

A Note Instead of carrying out the steps every time, we can carry on calculation,
step-wise without referring to steps.

Example 2 Find the mean deviation about the mean for the following data :
12, 3, 18, 17, 4, 9, 17, 19, 20, 15, 8, 17, 2, 3, 16, 11, 3, 1, 0, 5

Solution We have to first find the mean ( x ) of the given data

1 20 200
x = ∑ xi = 20 = 10
20 i =1

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262 MATHEMATICS

The respective absolute values of the deviations from mean, i.e., xi − x are
2, 7, 8, 7, 6, 1, 7, 9, 10, 5, 2, 7, 8, 7, 6, 1, 7, 9, 10, 5
20

Therefore ∑ xi − x = 124
i =1

124
and M.D. ( x ) = = 6.2
20
Example 3 Find the mean deviation about the median for the following data:
3, 9, 5, 3, 12, 10, 18, 4, 7, 19, 21.
Solution Here the number of observations is 11 which is odd. Arranging the data into
ascending order, we have 3, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 18, 19, 21
th
 11 + 1 
Now Median =   or 6th observation = 9
 2 
The absolute values of the respective deviations from the median, i.e., xi − M are
6, 6, 5, 4, 2, 0, 1, 3, 9, 10, 12
11

Therefore ∑ xi − M = 58
i =1

1 11 1
and M.D. ( M ) = ∑
11 i =1
xi − M = × 58 = 5.27
11

13.4.2 Mean deviation for grouped data We know that data can be grouped into
two ways :
(a) Discrete frequency distribution,
(b) Continuous frequency distribution.
Let us discuss the method of finding mean deviation for both types of the data.
(a) Discrete frequency distribution Let the given data consist of n distinct values
x1, x2, ..., xn occurring with frequencies f1, f2 , ..., fn respectively. This data can be
represented in the tabular form as given below, and is called discrete frequency
distribution:
x : x1 x2 x3 ... xn
f : f1 f2 f3 ... fn

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 STATISTICS 263

(i) Mean deviation about mean

First of all we find the mean x of the given data by using the formula
n
∑ xi fi 1 n
x= i =1
n
=
N
∑ xi fi ,
∑ fi i =1

i =1

n
where ∑x f
i =1
i i denotes the sum of the products of observations xi with their respective

n
frequencies fi and N = ∑f
i =1
i is the sum of the frequencies.

Then, we find the deviations of observations xi from the mean x and take their
absolute values, i.e., xi − x for all i =1, 2,..., n.
After this, find the mean of the absolute values of the deviations, which is the
required mean deviation about the mean. Thus
n

∑f i xi − x
1 n
M.D. ( x ) = i =1
n = ∑ f i xi − x
N i =1
∑f
i =1
i

(ii) Mean deviation about median To find mean deviation about median, we find the
median of the given discrete frequency distribution. For this the observations are arranged
in ascending order. After this the cumulative frequencies are obtained. Then, we identify
N
the observation whose cumulative frequency is equal to or just greater than , where
2
N is the sum of frequencies. This value of the observation lies in the middle of the data,
therefore, it is the required median. After finding median, we obtain the mean of the
absolute values of the deviations from median.Thus,
n
1
M.D.(M) =
N
∑f
i =1
i xi − M

Example 4 Find mean deviation about the mean for the following data :
xi 2 5 6 8 10 12
fi 2 8 10 7 8 5

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264 MATHEMATICS

Solution Let us make a Table 13.1 of the given data and append other columns after
calculations.
Table 13.1

xi fi fixi xi − x f i xi − x
2 2 4 5.5 11
5 8 40 2.5 20
6 10 60 1.5 15
8 7 56 0.5 3.5
10 8 80 2.5 20
12 5 60 4.5 22.5
40 300 92
6 6 6
N = ∑ f i = 40 , ∑ f i xi = 300 , ∑f i xi − x = 92
i =1 i =1 i =1

6
1 1
Therefore x=
N
∑ fi xi =
40
× 300 = 7.5
i =1

6
1 1
and M. D. ( x ) =
N
∑ fi xi − x =
40
× 92 = 2.3
i =1

Example 5 Find the mean deviation about the median for the following data:

xi 3 6 9 12 13 15 21 22
fi 3 4 5 2 4 5 4 3

Solution The given observations are already in ascending order. Adding a row
corresponding to cumulative frequencies to the given data, we get (Table 13.2).

Table 13.2
xi 3 6 9 12 13 15 21 22
fi 3 4 5 2 4 5 4 3
c.f. 3 7 12 14 18 23 27 30

Now, N=30 which is even.

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 STATISTICS 265

Median is the mean of the 15th and 16th observations. Both of these observations
lie in the cumulative frequency 18, for which the corresponding observation is 13.
15th observation + 16th observation 13 + 13
Therefore, Median M = = = 13
2 2
Now, absolute values of the deviations from median, i.e., xi − M are shown in
Table 13.3.
Table 13.3

xi − M 10 7 4 1 0 2 8 9

fi 3 4 5 2 4 5 4 3

f i xi − M 30 28 20 2 0 10 32 27

8 8

We have ∑f i =1
i = 30 and ∑f
i =1
i xi − M = 149

8
1
Therefore M. D. (M) =
N
∑ fi xi − M
i =1

1
= × 149 = 4.97.
30
(b) Continuous frequency distribution A continuous frequency distribution is a series
in which the data are classified into different class-intervals without gaps alongwith
their respective frequencies.
For example, marks obtained by 100 students are presented in a continuous
frequency distribution as follows :

Marks obtained 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

Number of Students 12 18 27 20 17 6

(i) Mean deviation about mean While calculating the mean of a continuous frequency
distribution, we had made the assumption that the frequency in each class is centred at
its mid-point. Here also, we write the mid-point of each given class and proceed further
as for a discrete frequency distribution to find the mean deviation.
Let us take the following example.

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266 MATHEMATICS

Example 6 Find the mean deviation about the mean for the following data.

Marks obtained 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

Number of students 2 3 8 14 8 3 2

Solution We make the following Table 13.4 from the given data :
Table 13.4

Marks Number of Mid-points fixi xi − x fi xi − x

obtained students
fi xi
10-20 2 15 30 30 60
20-30 3 25 75 20 60
30-40 8 35 280 10 80
40-50 14 45 630 0 0
50-60 8 55 440 10 80
60-70 3 65 195 20 60
70-80 2 75 150 30 60
40 1800 400

7 7 7
Here N = ∑ fi = 40, ∑ fi xi = 1800, ∑ fi xi − x = 400
i =1 i =1 i =1

1 7 1800
Therefore x= ∑
N i =1
fi xi =
40
= 45

1 7 1
and M.D. ( x ) = ∑
N i =1
fi xi − x = × 400 = 10
40

Shortcut method for calculating mean deviation about mean We can avoid the
tedious calculations of computing x by following step-deviation method. Recall that in
this method, we take an assumed mean which is in the middle or just close to it in the
data. Then deviations of the observations (or mid-points of classes) are taken from the

Rationalised 2023-24
 STATISTICS 267

assumed mean. This is nothing but the shifting of origin from zero to the assumed mean
on the number line, as shown in Fig 13.3

Fig 13.3

If there is a common factor of all the deviations, we divide them by this common
factor to further simplify the deviations. These are known as step-deviations. The
process of taking step-deviations is the change of scale on the number line as shown in
Fig 13.4

Fig 13.4

The deviations and step-deviations reduce the size of the observations, so that the
computations viz. multiplication, etc., become simpler. Let, the new variable be denoted
xi − a
by d i = , where ‘a’ is the assumed mean and h is the common factor. Then, the
h
mean x by step-deviation method is given by
n
∑ f i di
x = a + =1
i ×h
N
Let us take the data of Example 6 and find the mean deviation by using step-
deviation method.

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268 MATHEMATICS

Take the assumed mean a = 45 and h = 10, and form the following Table 13.5.
Table 13.5
xi − 45
Marks Number of Mid-points di = fi d i xi − x f i xi − x
obtained students 10
fi xi
10-20 2 15 –3 –6 30 60
20-30 3 25 –2 –6 20 60
30-40 8 35 –1 –8 10 80
40-50 14 45 0 0 0 0
50-60 8 55 1 8 10 80
60-70 3 65 2 6 20 60
70-80 2 75 3 6 30 60
40 0 400
7
∑ fi d i
Therefore x = a + i=1 ×h
N
0
= 45 + × 10 = 45
40
7
1 400
and M .D. (x ) =
N
∑ fi xi − x =
40
= 10
i =1

A Note The step deviation method is applied to compute x . Rest of the procedure
is same.
(ii) Mean deviation about median The process of finding the mean deviation about
median for a continuous frequency distribution is similar as we did for mean deviation
about the mean. The only difference lies in the replacement of the mean by median
while taking deviations.
Let us recall the process of finding median for a continuous frequency distribution.
The data is first arranged in ascending order. Then, the median of continuous
frequency distribution is obtained by first identifying the class in which median lies
(median class) and then applying the formula

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 STATISTICS 269

N
−C
Median = l + 2 ×h
f
where median class is the class interval whose cumulative frequency is just greater
N
than or equal to , N is the sum of frequencies, l, f, h and C are, respectively the lower
2
limit , the frequency, the width of the median class and C the cumulative frequency of
the class just preceding the median class. After finding the median, the absolute values
of the deviations of mid-point xi of each class from the median i.e., xi − M are obtained.

1 n
Then M.D. (M) = ∑ fi xi − M
N i=1
The process is illustrated in the following example:
Example 7 Calculate the mean deviation about median for the following data :

Class 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

Frequency 6 7 15 16 4 2

Solution Form the following Table 13.6 from the given data :

Table 13.6

Class Frequency Cumulative Mid-points xi − Med. f i xi − Med.

frequency
fi (c.f.) xi
0-10 6 6 5 23 138
10-20 7 13 15 13 91
20-30 15 28 25 3 45
30-40 16 44 35 7 112
40-50 4 48 45 17 68
50-60 2 50 55 27 54
50 508

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270 MATHEMATICS

th
N
The class interval containing or 25th item is 20-30. Therefore, 20–30 is the median
2
class. We know that
N
−C
Median = l + 2 ×h
f
Here l = 20, C = 13, f = 15, h = 10 and N = 50
25 − 13
Therefore, Median = 20 + × 10 = 20 + 8 = 28
15
Thus, Mean deviation about median is given by
1 6 1
M.D. (M) = ∑
N i =1
fi xi − M =
50
× 508 = 10.16

EXERCISE 13.1
Find the mean deviation about the mean for the data in Exercises 1 and 2.
1. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 17
2. 38, 70, 48, 40, 42, 55, 63, 46, 54, 44
Find the mean deviation about the median for the data in Exercises 3 and 4.
3. 13, 17, 16, 14, 11, 13, 10, 16, 11, 18, 12, 17
4. 36, 72, 46, 42, 60, 45, 53, 46, 51, 49
Find the mean deviation about the mean for the data in Exercises 5 and 6.
5. x i 5 10 15 20 25
fi 7 4 6 3 5
6. x i 10 30 50 70 90
fi 4 24 28 16 8
Find the mean deviation about the median for the data in Exercises 7 and 8.
7. x i 5 7 9 10 12 15
fi 8 6 2 2 2 6
8. x i 15 21 27 30 35
fi 3 5 6 7 8

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 STATISTICS 271

Find the mean deviation about the mean for the data in Exercises 9 and 10.
9. Income per 0-100 100-200 200-300 300-400 400-500 500-600 600-700 700-800
day in `
Number 4 8 9 10 7 5 4 3
of persons
10. Height 95-105 105-115 115-125 125-135 135-145 145-155
in cms
Number of 9 13 26 30 12 10
boys
11. Find the mean deviation about median for the following data :
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
Number of 6 8 14 16 4 2
Girls
12. Calculate the mean deviation about median age for the age distribution of 100
persons given below:
Age 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55
(in years)
Number 5 6 12 14 26 12 16 9

[Hint Convert the given data into continuous frequency distribution by subtracting 0.5
from the lower limit and adding 0.5 to the upper limit of each class interval]
13.4.3 Limitations of mean deviation In a series, where the degree of variability is
very high, the median is not a representative central tendency. Thus, the mean deviation
about median calculated for such series can not be fully relied.
The sum of the deviations from the mean (minus signs ignored) is more than the sum
of the deviations from median. Therefore, the mean deviation about the mean is not very
scientific.Thus, in many cases, mean deviation may give unsatisfactory results. Also mean
deviation is calculated on the basis of absolute values of the deviations and therefore,
cannot be subjected to further algebraic treatment. This implies that we must have some
other measure of dispersion. Standard deviation is such a measure of dispersion.
13.5 Variance and Standard Deviation
Recall that while calculating mean deviation about mean or median, the absolute values
of the deviations were taken. The absolute values were taken to give meaning to the
mean deviation, otherwise the deviations may cancel among themselves.
Another way to overcome this difficulty which arose due to the signs of deviations,
is to take squares of all the deviations. Obviously all these squares of deviations are

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272 MATHEMATICS

non-negative. Let x1, x2, x3, ..., xn be n observations and x be their mean. Then
n
(x1 − x)2 + (x2 −x)2 + .......+ (xn − x )2 = ( xi − x)2 .
i =1

If this sum is zero, then each ( xi − x ) has to be zero. This implies that there is no
dispersion at all as all observations are equal to the mean x .
n

If ∑ (x − x)
i =1
i
2
is small , this indicates that the observations x1, x2, x3,...,xn are

close to the mean x and therefore, there is a lower degree of dispersion. On the
contrary, if this sum is large, there is a higher degree of dispersion of the observations
n

from the mean x . Can we thus say that the sum ∑ (x − x)

i =1
i
2
is a reasonable indicator

of the degree of dispersion or scatter?

Let us take the set A of six observations 5, 15, 25, 35, 45, 55. The mean of the
observations is x = 30. The sum of squares of deviations from x for this set is
6

∑ (x − x)
i =1
i
2
= (5–30)2 + (15–30)2 + (25–30)2 + (35–30)2 + (45–30)2 +(55–30)2

= 625 + 225 + 25 + 25 + 225 + 625 = 1750

Let us now take another set B of 31 observations 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45. The
mean of these observations is y = 30
Note that both the sets A and B of observations have a mean of 30.
Now, the sum of squares of deviations of observations for set B from the mean y is
given by
31

∑(y
i =1
i − y ) 2 = (15–30)2 +(16–30)2 + (17–30)2 + ...+ (44–30)2 +(45–30)2

= (–15)2 +(–14)2 + ...+ (–1)2 + 02 + 12 + 22 + 32 + ...+ 142 + 152

= 2 [152 + 142 + ... + 12]
15 × (15 + 1) (30 + 1)
= 2× = 5 × 16 × 31 = 2480
6
n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
(Because sum of squares of first n natural numbers = . Here n = 15)
6

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 STATISTICS 273

If ∑ (x − x)
i =1
i
2
is simply our measure of dispersion or scatter about mean, we

will tend to say that the set A of six observations has a lesser dispersion about the mean
than the set B of 31 observations, even though the observations in set A are more
scattered from the mean (the range of deviations being from –25 to 25) than in the set
B (where the range of deviations is from –15 to 15).
This is also clear from the following diagrams.
For the set A, we have

Fig 13.5
For the set B, we have

Fig 13.6
Thus, we can say that the sum of squares of deviations from the mean is not a proper
measure of dispersion. To overcome this difficulty we take the mean of the squares of
1 n
the deviations, i.e., we take ∑
n i =1
( xi − x ) 2 . In case of the set A, we have

1 1
Mean = × 1750 = 291.67 and in case of the set B, it is × 2480 = 80.
6 31
This indicates that the scatter or dispersion is more in set A than the scatter or dispersion
in set B, which confirms with the geometrical representation of the two sets.
1
Thus, we can take
n
∑ ( xi − x ) 2 as a quantity which leads to a proper measure

of dispersion. This number, i.e., mean of the squares of the deviations from mean is
called the variance and is denoted by σ 2 (read as sigma square). Therefore, the
variance of n observations x1, x2,..., xn is given by

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274 MATHEMATICS

1 n
σ2= ∑
n i =1
( xi − x ) 2

13.5.1 Standard Deviation In the calculation of variance, we find that the units of
individual observations xi and the unit of their mean x are different from that of variance,
since variance involves the sum of squares of (xi– x ). For this reason, the proper
measure of dispersion about the mean of a set of observations is expressed as positive
square-root of the variance and is called standard deviation. Therefore, the standard
deviation, usually denoted by σ , is given by

1 n
σ= ∑
n i =1
( xi − x ) 2 ... (1)

Let us take the following example to illustrate the calculation of variance and
hence, standard deviation of ungrouped data.
Example 8 Find the variance of the following data:
6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24
Solution From the given data we can form the following Table 13.7. The mean is
calculated by step-deviation method taking 14 as assumed mean. The number of
observations is n = 10
Table 13.7

xi − 14 Deviations from mean

xi di = (x i– x )
2 (x i– x )
6 –4 –9 81
8 –3 –7 49
10 –2 –5 25
12 –1 –3 9
14 0 –1 1
16 1 1 1
18 2 3 9
20 3 5 25
22 4 7 49
24 5 9 81
5 330

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 STATISTICS 275

∑d i
5
Therefore Mean x = assumed mean +
i =1
×h = 14 + × 2 = 15
n 10
10
1
and Variance ( σ ) =
2
n
∑ ( xi − x )2 = 101 × 330 = 33
i =1

Thus Standard deviation ( σ ) = 33 = 5.74

13.5.2 Standard deviation of a discrete frequency distribution Let the given discrete
frequency distribution be
x: x1, x2, x3 ,. . . , xn
f: f1, f2, f3 ,. . . , fn

1 n
In this case standard deviation (σ ) = ∑ fi (xi − x )2
N i =1
... (2)

n
where N = ∑ fi .
i =1

Let us take up following example.

Example 9 Find the variance and standard deviation for the following data:
xi 4 8 11 17 20 24 32
fi 3 5 9 5 4 3 1
Solution Presenting the data in tabular form (Table 13.8), we get
Table 13.8
xi fi f i xi xi – x ( xi − x ) 2 f i ( xi − x ) 2
4 3 12 –10 100 300
8 5 40 –6 36 180
11 9 99 –3 9 81
17 5 85 3 9 45
20 4 80 6 36 144
24 3 72 10 100 300
32 1 32 18 324 324
30 420 1374

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276 MATHEMATICS

7 7
∑ fi xi = 420, ∑ fi ( xi − x )
2
N = 30, = 1374
i =1 i =1

7
∑ fi xi 1
Therefore x= i =1
= × 420 = 14
N 30
7
1
Hence variance (σ ) =
N
2 ∑ fi (xi − x )2
i =1

1
= × 1374 = 45.8
30
and Standard deviation (σ ) = 45 .8 = 6.77

13.5.3 Standard deviation of a continuous frequency distribution The given

continuous frequency distribution can be represented as a discrete frequency distribution
by replacing each class by its mid-point. Then, the standard deviation is calculated by
the technique adopted in the case of a discrete frequency distribution.
If there is a frequency distribution of n classes each class defined by its mid-point
xi with frequency fi, the standard deviation will be obtained by the formula
n
1
σ =
N
∑ fi ( xi − x)2 ,
i =1

n
where x is the mean of the distribution and N = ∑ fi .
i =1

Another formula for standard deviation We know that

n n
1 1
Variance (σ ) =
2
N
∑ fi ( xi − x ) 2 = N
∑ fi ( xi 2 + x 2 − 2 x xi )
i =1 i =1

1  n n n

= N  ∑ fi xi 2 + ∑ x 2 fi − ∑ 2x fi xi 
 i =1 i =1 i =1 

1  n n n

= N  ∑ fi xi 2 + x 2 ∑ fi − 2 x ∑ xi fi 
 i =1 i =1 i =1 

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 STATISTICS 277

1 n  1 n n

= fi xi2 + x 2 N − 2 x . N x  Here ∑
N i =1
x f
i i = x or ∑ xi fi = Nx 
N i =1  i =1 
n n
1 1
=
N
∑ fi xi 2 + x 2 − 2x
2
=
N
∑ fi xi 2 − x
2

i =1 i =1

2
 n 
 ∑ fi xi   n 2

 = 1  N ∑ fi xi 2 −  ∑ fi xi  
n n
1
or σ =
2
∑ 2 
fi xi − i =1
 N  N 2  i =1
N i −1
  i =1  
 
 

2
1 n
 n 
Thus, standard deviation (σ ) = ∑fx ∑ f i xi 
2
N − ... (3)
 i =1 
i i
N i =1

Example 10 Calculate the mean, variance and standard deviation for the following
distribution :
Class 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100
Frequency 3 7 12 15 8 3 2
Solution From the given data, we construct the following Table 13.9.

Table 13.9

Class Frequency Mid-point f ix i (x i– x ) 2 f i (x i – x ) 2

(f i ) (x i )
30-40 3 35 105 729 2187
40-50 7 45 315 289 2023
50-60 12 55 660 49 588
60-70 15 65 975 9 135
70-80 8 75 600 169 1352
80-90 3 85 255 529 1587
90-100 2 95 190 1089 2178
50 3100 10050

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278 MATHEMATICS

7
1 3100
Thus Mean x =
N
∑fx
i =1
i i =
50
= 62

7
1
( )
Variance σ =
2
N
∑ f i (xi − x )2
i =1

1
= × 10050 = 201
50
and Standard deviation (σ ) = 201 = 14.18

Example 11 Find the standard deviation for the following data :

xi 3 8 13 18 23
fi 7 10 15 10 6

Solution Let us form the following Table 13.10:

Table 13.10
xi fi f ix i x i2 f ix i 2
3 7 21 9 63
8 10 80 64 640
13 15 195 169 2535
18 10 180 324 3240
23 6 138 529 3174
48 614 9652

Now, by formula (3), we have

1
N∑ fi xi − ( ∑ fi xi )
2 2
σ =
N
1
= 48 × 9652 − (614) 2
48
1
= 463296 − 376996
48

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 STATISTICS 279

1
× 293.77 = 6.12
=
48
Therefore, Standard deviation ( σ ) = 6.12
13.5.4. Shortcut method to find variance and standard deviation Sometimes the
values of xi in a discrete distribution or the mid points xi of different classes in a
continuous distribution are large and so the calculation of mean and variance becomes
tedious and time consuming. By using step-deviation method, it is possible to simplify
the procedure.
1
Let the assumed mean be ‘A’ and the scale be reduced to times (h being the
h
width of class-intervals). Let the step-deviations or the new values be yi.
xi − A
i.e. yi = or xi = A + hyi ... (1)
h
n

∑fx i i
i =1
We know that x = ... (2)
N
Replacing xi from (1) in (2), we get
n

∑ f ( A + hy )
i i
x = i =1

 1 A 
n n
 n n

=  ∑ fi A + ∑ h fi yi  = N  ∑ i ∑ fi yi 
1
f + h
N  i =1 i =1   i =1 i =1 
n
∑ fi yi 
 because
n

∑ fi = N 
= A.N +h i =1
N N  i =1 

Thus x=A+h y ... (3)

n
1
Variance of the variable x, σ x = ∑ fi ( xi − x )
2 2
Now
N i =1

1 n
= ∑ fi (A + hyi − A − h y )2
N i =1
(Using (1) and (3))

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280 MATHEMATICS

n
1
=
N
∑ fi h2 (yi − y )2
i =1

h2 n
=
N
∑ fi (yi − y )2 = h × variance of the variable y
2
i
i =1

σ x2 = h σ y
2 2
i.e.

or σ x = hσ y ... (4)
From (3) and (4), we have
2
h n
 n 
σx =
N
N ∑ f y
i i
2
−  ∑ fi yi  ... (5)
i =1  i =1 
Let us solve Example 11 by the short-cut method and using formula (5)
Examples 12 Calculate mean, variance and standard deviation for the following
distribution.
Classes 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100
Frequency 3 7 12 15 8 3 2

Solution Let the assumed mean A = 65. Here h = 10

We obtain the following Table 13.11 from the given data :
Table 13.11
xi − 65
Class Frequency Mid-point yi= y i2 fi yi f i y i2
10
fi xi
30-40 3 35 –3 9 –9 27
40-50 7 45 –2 4 – 14 28
50-60 12 55 –1 1 – 12 12
60-70 15 65 0 0 0 0
70-80 8 75 1 1 8 8
80-90 3 85 2 4 6 12
9 0-100 2 95 3 9 6 18
N=50 – 15 105

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 STATISTICS 281

Therefore x= A+
∑ fi yi × h = 65 − 15 × 10 = 62
50 50

h2  2
 N ∑ fi yi − ( ∑ fi yi )
2
Variance σ2 = 
N2  
2
(10 ) 50 × 105 − (–15)2 
=  
(50) 
2

1
= [5250 − 225] = 201
25
and standard deviation (σ ) = 201 = 14.18

EXERCISE 13.2
Find the mean and variance for each of the data in Exercies 1 to 5.
1. 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 4, 8, 12
2. First n natural numbers
3. First 10 multiples of 3
4. xi 6 10 14 18 24 28 30
fi 2 4 7 12 8 4 3

5. xi 92 93 97 98 102 104 109

fi 3 2 3 2 6 3 3

6. Find the mean and standard deviation using short-cut method.

xi 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

fi 2 1 12 29 25 12 10 4 5

Find the mean and variance for the following frequency distributions in Exercises
7 and 8.

7. Classes 0-30 30-60 60-90 90-120 120-150 150-180 180-210

Frequencies 2 3 5 10 3 5 2

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282 MATHEMATICS

8. Classes 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

Frequencies 5 8 15 16 6

9. Find the mean, variance and standard deviation using short-cut method

Height 70-75 75-80 80-85 85-90 90-95 95-100 100-105 105-110 110-115
in cms
No. of 3 4 7 7 15 9 6 6 3
children

10. The diameters of circles (in mm) drawn in a design are given below:
Diameters 33-36 37-40 41-44 45-48 49-52
No. of circles 15 17 21 22 25

Calculate the standard deviation and mean diameter of the circles.

[ Hint First make the data continuous by making the classes as 32.5-36.5, 36.5-40.5,
40.5-44.5, 44.5 - 48.5, 48.5 - 52.5 and then proceed.]

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 13 The variance of 20 observations is 5. If each observation is multiplied by
2, find the new variance of the resulting observations.
Solution Let the observations be x1, x2, ..., x20 and x be their mean. Given that
variance = 5 and n = 20. We know that
20 1 20
Variance σ 2 = ( ) 1
n
∑ (xi − x )2 , i.e., 5 =
i =1
∑
20 i =1
(xi − x ) 2

20
or ∑ (xi − x )2 = 100
i =1

If each observation is multiplied by 2, and the new resulting observations are yi , then
... (1)
1
yi = 2xi i.e., xi = y i
2

Rationalised 2023-24
 STATISTICS 283

1 20 1 20 1 20
Therefore y= ∑
n i =1
yi = ∑
20 i =1
2 xi = 2 . ∑ xi
20 i =1

1
i.e. y=2x or x= y
2
Substituting the values of xi and x in (1), we get

20 2 20
1 1 
∑  2 yi − 2 y  = 100 , i.e.,
i =1
∑(y
i =1
i − y ) 2 = 400

1
Thus the variance of new observations = × 400 = 20 = 22 × 5
20

A Note The reader may note that if each observation is multiplied by a constant
2
k, the variance of the resulting observations becomes k times the original variance.
Example14 The mean of 5 observations is 4.4 and their variance is 8.24. If three of
the observations are 1, 2 and 6, find the other two observations.
Solution Let the other two observations be x and y.
Therefore, the series is 1, 2, 6, x, y.
1+ 2 + 6 + x + y
Now Mean x = 4.4 =
5
or 22 = 9 + x + y
Therefore x + y = 13 ... (1)
1 5
variance = 8.24 = ∑ ( xi −x )
2
Also
n i =1
1
i.e. 8.24 =  ( 3.4 )2 + ( 2.4 ) 2 + (1.6 )2 + x 2 + y 2 − 2 × 4.4 (x + y ) + 2 × ( 4.4 )2 
5
or 41.20 = 11.56 + 5.76 + 2.56 + x2 + y2 –8.8 × 13 + 38.72
Therefore x2 + y2 = 97 ... (2)
But from (1), we have
x2 + y2 + 2xy = 169 ... (3)
From (2) and (3), we have
2xy = 72 ... (4)
Subtracting (4) from (2), we get

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284 MATHEMATICS

x2 + y2 – 2xy = 97 – 72 i.e. (x – y)2 = 25

or x–y= ±5 ... (5)
So, from (1) and (5), we get
x = 9, y = 4 when x – y = 5
or x = 4, y = 9 when x – y = – 5
Thus, the remaining observations are 4 and 9.
Example 15 If each of the observation x1, x2, ...,xn is increased by ‘a’, where a is a
negative or positive number, show that the variance remains unchanged.
Solution Let x be the mean of x1, x2, ...,xn . Then the variance is given by
n
1
σ 12 =
n
∑ (xi − x ) 2

i =1

If ‘a is added to each observation, the new observations will be

yi = xi + a ... (1)
Let the mean of the new observations be y . Then
n n
1 1
y=
n
∑ yi = n ∑ (xi + a)
i =1 i =1

1n n
 1 n
na
= n ∑ xi + ∑ a  =
 i =1 i =1  n
∑x +
i =1
i
n
=x+a

i.e. y = x+a ... (2)

Thus, the variance of the new observations
1 n
1 n
∑ (yi − y ) = ∑ ( xi + a − x − a )
2
σ2 2 2
= [Using (1) and (2)]
n i =1 n i =1
n
1
=
n
∑ (xi − x )2 = σ 12
i =1

Thus, the variance of the new observations is same as that of the original observations.

A Note We may note that adding (or subtracting) a positive number to (or from)
each observation of a group does not affect the variance.
Example 16 The mean and standard deviation of 100 observations were calculated as
40 and 5.1, respectively by a student who took by mistake 50 instead of 40 for one
observation. What are the correct mean and standard deviation?

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 STATISTICS 285

Solution Given that number of observations (n) = 100

Incorrect mean ( x ) = 40,
Incorrect standard deviation (σ) = 5.1
1 n
We know that x= ∑ xi
n i =1
1 100 100
i.e. 40 = ∑ xi or
100 i =1
∑ xi = 4000
i =1

i.e. Incorrect sum of observations = 4000

Thus the correct sum of observations = Incorrect sum – 50 + 40
= 4000 – 50 + 40 = 3990

correct sum 3990

Hence Correct mean = = = 39.9
100 100

2
1 n
1 n 
Also Standard deviation σ =
n
∑ xi 2
− 2  ∑ xi 
n  i =1 
i =1

n
1
∑ x − (x )
2 2
= i
n i =1

n
1
i.e. 5.1 = × Incorrect ∑ xi 2 − (40) 2
100 i =1

n
1
∑x
2
or 26.01 = × Incorrect i – 1600
100 i =1

n
Incorrect ∑ xi = 100 (26.01 + 1600) = 162601
2
Therefore
i =1

n n

Now Correct ∑ xi 2 = Incorrect ∑ xi 2 – (50) 2

+ (40)2
i =1 i =1

= 162601 – 2500 + 1600 = 161701

Therefore Correct standard deviation

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286 MATHEMATICS

∑x
2
Correct 2
− (Correct mean)
i
=
n

161701
− (39.9)
2
=
100

= 1617.01 − 1592.01 = 25 =5

Miscellaneous Exercise On Chapter 13

1. The mean and variance of eight observations are 9 and 9.25, respectively. If six
of the observations are 6, 7, 10, 12, 12 and 13, find the remaining two observations.
2. The mean and variance of 7 observations are 8 and 16, respectively. If five of the
observations are 2, 4, 10, 12, 14. Find the remaining two observations.
3. The mean and standard deviation of six observations are 8 and 4, respectively. If
each observation is multiplied by 3, find the new mean and new standard deviation
of the resulting observations.
4. Given that x is the mean and σ2 is the variance of n observations x1, x2, ...,xn.
Prove that the mean and variance of the observations ax1, ax2, ax3, ...., axn are
a x and a2 σ2, respectively, (a ≠ 0).
5. The mean and standard deviation of 20 observations are found to be 10 and 2,
respectively. On rechecking, it was found that an observation 8 was incorrect.
Calculate the correct mean and standard deviation in each of the following cases:
(i) If wrong item is omitted. (ii) If it is replaced by 12.
6. The mean and standard deviation of a group of 100 observations were found to
be 20 and 3, respectively. Later on it was found that three observations were
incorrect, which were recorded as 21, 21 and 18. Find the mean and standard
deviation if the incorrect observations are omitted.

Summary
® Measures of dispersion Range, Quartile deviation, mean deviation, variance,
standard deviation are measures of dispersion.
Range = Maximum Value – Minimum Value
® Mean deviation for ungrouped data
M.D. (x ) =
∑ xi – x , M.D. (M) =
∑ xi – M
n n

Rationalised 2023-24
 STATISTICS 287

® Mean deviation for grouped data

M.D. ( x ) =
∑ fi xi x
, M.D. ( M ) =
∑ fi xi M
, where N = ∑ f i
N N
® Variance and standard deviation for ungrouped data
1 1
∑ ∑
2
σ2 = (xi – x )2 , σ= ( xi – x )
n n
® Variance and standard deviation of a discrete frequency distribution
1 1
∑ fi ( xi − x ) , ∑ fi ( xi − x )
2 2
σ2 = σ =
N N
® Variance and standard deviation of a continuous frequency distribution
1 1
∑ fi ( xi − x ) , N ∑ fi xi2 − ( ∑ fi xi )
2 2
σ2 = σ=
N N
® Shortcut method to find variance and standard deviation.
h2  h
N∑ fi yi2 − ( ∑ fi yi )  , σ N ∑ fi yi2 − ( ∑ fi yi ) ,
2 2
σ2 = 2 
=
N   N
xi − A
where yi =
h

Historical Note
‘Statistics’ is derived from the Latin word ‘status’ which means a political
state. This suggests that statistics is as old as human civilisation. In the year 3050
B.C., perhaps the first census was held in Egypt. In India also, about 2000 years
ago, we had an efficient system of collecting administrative statistics, particularly,
during the regime of Chandra Gupta Maurya (324-300 B.C.). The system of
collecting data related to births and deaths is mentioned in Kautilya’s Arthshastra
(around 300 B.C.) A detailed account of administrative surveys conducted during
Akbar’s regime is given in Ain-I-Akbari written by Abul Fazl.
Captain John Graunt of London (1620-1674) is known as father of vital
statistics due to his studies on statistics of births and deaths. Jacob Bernoulli
(1654-1705) stated the Law of Large numbers in his book “Ars Conjectandi’,
published in 1713.

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288 MATHEMATICS

The theoretical development of statistics came during the mid seventeenth

century and continued after that with the introduction of theory of games and
chance (i.e., probability). Francis Galton (1822-1921), an Englishman, pioneered
the use of statistical methods, in the field of Biometry. Karl Pearson (1857-1936)
contributed a lot to the development of statistical studies with his discovery
of Chi square test and foundation of statistical laboratory in England (1911).
Sir Ronald A. Fisher (1890-1962), known as the Father of modern statistics,
applied it to various diversified fields such as Genetics, Biometry, Education,
Agriculture, etc.

—v —

Rationalised 2023-24
 Chapter 14

PROBABILITY

vWhere a mathematical reasoning can be had, it is as great a folly to

make use of any other, as to grope for a thing in the dark, when
you have a candle in your hand. – JOHN ARBUTHNOT v

14.1 Event
We have studied about random experiment and sample space associated with an
experiment. The sample space serves as an universal set for all questions concerned
with the experiment.
Consider the experiment of tossing a coin two times. An associated sample space
is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}.
Now suppose that we are interested in those outcomes which correspond to the
occurrence of exactly one head. We find that HT and TH are the only elements of S
corresponding to the occurrence of this happening (event). These two elements form
the set E = { HT, TH}
We know that the set E is a subset of the sample space S . Similarly, we find the
following correspondence between events and subsets of S.
Description of events Corresponding subset of ‘S’
Number of tails is exactly 2 A = {TT}
Number of tails is atleast one B = {HT, TH, TT}
Number of heads is atmost one C = {HT, TH, TT}
Second toss is not head D = { HT, TT}
Number of tails is atmost two S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
Number of tails is more than two φ
The above discussion suggests that a subset of sample space is associated with
an event and an event is associated with a subset of sample space. In the light of this
we define an event as follows.
Definition Any subset E of a sample space S is called an event.

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290 MATHEMATICS

14.1.1 Occurrence of an event Consider the experiment of throwing a die. Let E

denotes the event “ a number less than 4 appears”. If actually ‘1’ had appeared on the
die then we say that event E has occurred. As a matter of fact if outcomes are 2 or 3,
we say that event E has occurred
Thus, the event E of a sample space S is said to have occurred if the outcome
ω of the experiment is such that ω ∈ E. If the outcome ω is such that ω ∉ E, we say
that the event E has not occurred.
14.1.2 Types of events Events can be classified into various types on the basis of the
elements they have.
1. Impossible and Sure Events The empty set φ and the sample space S describe
events. In fact φ is called an impossible event and S, i.e., the whole sample space is
called the sure event.
To understand these let us consider the experiment of rolling a die. The associated
sample space is
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Let E be the event “ the number appears on the die is a multiple of 7”. Can you
write the subset associated with the event E?
Clearly no outcome satisfies the condition given in the event, i.e., no element of
the sample space ensures the occurrence of the event E. Thus, we say that the empty
set only correspond to the event E. In other words we can say that it is impossible to
have a multiple of 7 on the upper face of the die. Thus, the event E = φ is an impossible
event.
Now let us take up another event F “the number turns up is odd or even”. Clearly
F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,} = S, i.e., all outcomes of the experiment ensure the occurrence of
the event F. Thus, the event F = S is a sure event.
2. Simple Event If an event E has only one sample point of a sample space, it is
called a simple (or elementary) event.
In a sample space containing n distinct elements, there are exactly n simple
events.
For example in the experiment of tossing two coins, a sample space is
S={HH, HT, TH, TT}
There are four simple events corresponding to this sample space. These are
E1= {HH}, E2={HT}, E3= { TH} and E4={TT}.

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 PROBABILITY 291

3. Compound Event If an event has more than one sample point, it is called a
Compound event.
For example, in the experiment of “tossing a coin thrice” the events
E: ‘Exactly one head appeared’
F: ‘Atleast one head appeared’
G: ‘Atmost one head appeared’ etc.
are all compound events. The subsets of S associated with these events are
E={HTT,THT,TTH}
F={HTT,THT, TTH, HHT, HTH, THH, HHH}
G= {TTT, THT, HTT, TTH}
Each of the above subsets contain more than one sample point, hence they are all
compound events.
14.1.3 Algebra of events In the Chapter on Sets, we have studied about different
ways of combining two or more sets, viz, union, intersection, difference, complement
of a set etc. Like-wise we can combine two or more events by using the analogous set
notations.
Let A, B, C be events associated with an experiment whose sample space is S.
1. Complementary Event For every event A, there corresponds another event
A ′ called the complementary event to A. It is also called the event ‘not A’.
For example, take the experiment ‘of tossing three coins’. An associated sample
space is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
Let A={HTH, HHT, THH} be the event ‘only one tail appears’
Clearly for the outcome HTT, the event A has not occurred. But we may say that
the event ‘not A’ has occurred. Thus, with every outcome which is not in A, we say
that ‘not A’ occurs.
Thus the complementary event ‘not A’ to the event A is
A′ = {HHH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
or A′ = {ω : ω ∈ S and ω ∉A} = S – A.
2. The Event ‘A or B’ Recall that union of two sets A and B denoted by A ∪ B
contains all those elements which are either in A or in B or in both.
When the sets A and B are two events associated with a sample space, then
‘A ∪ B’ is the event ‘either A or B or both’. This event ‘A ∪ B’ is also called ‘A or B’.
Therefore Event ‘A or B’ = A ∪ B
= {ω : ω ∈ A or ω ∈ B}

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292 MATHEMATICS

3. The Event ‘A and B’ We know that intersection of two sets A ∩ B is the set of
those elements which are common to both A and B. i.e., which belong to both
‘A and B’.
If A and B are two events, then the set A ∩ B denotes the event ‘A and B’.
Thus, A ∩ B = {ω : ω ∈ A and ω ∈ B}
For example, in the experiment of ‘throwing a die twice’ Let A be the event
‘score on the first throw is six’ and B is the event ‘sum of two scores is atleast 11’ then
A = {(6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)}, and B = {(5,6), (6,5), (6,6)}
so A ∩ B = {(6,5), (6,6)}
Note that the set A ∩ B = {(6,5), (6,6)} may represent the event ‘the score on the first
throw is six and the sum of the scores is atleast 11’.
4. The Event ‘A but not B’ We know that A–B is the set of all those elements
which are in A but not in B. Therefore, the set A–B may denote the event ‘A but not
B’.We know that
A – B = A ∩ B´
Example 1 Consider the experiment of rolling a die. Let A be the event ‘getting a
prime number’, B be the event ‘getting an odd number’. Write the sets representing
the events (i) Aor B (ii) A and B (iii) A but not B (iv) ‘not A’.
Solution Here S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {1, 3, 5}
Obviously
(i) ‘A or B’ = A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 5}
(ii) ‘A and B’ = A ∩ B = {3,5}
(iii) ‘A but not B’ = A – B = {2}
(iv) ‘not A’ = A′ = {1,4,6}
14.1.4 Mutually exclusive events In the experiment of rolling a die, a sample space
is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Consider events, A ‘an odd number appears’ and B ‘an even
number appears’
Clearly the event A excludes the event B and vice versa. In other words, there is
no outcome which ensures the occurrence of events A and B simultaneously. Here
A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6}
Clearly A ∩ B = φ, i.e., A and B are disjoint sets.
In general, two events A and B are called mutually exclusive events if the
occurrence of any one of them excludes the occurrence of the other event, i.e., if they
can not occur simultaneously. In this case the sets A and B are disjoint.

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Again in the experiment of rolling a die, consider the events A ‘an odd number
appears’ and event B ‘a number less than 4 appears’
Obviously A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}
Now 3 ∈ A as well as 3 ∈ B
Therefore, A and B are not mutually exclusive events.
Remark Simple events of a sample space are always mutually exclusive.
14.1.5 Exhaustive events Consider the experiment of throwing a die. We have
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Let us define the following events
A: ‘a number less than 4 appears’,
B: ‘a number greater than 2 but less than 5 appears’
and C: ‘a number greater than 4 appears’.
Then A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3,4} and C = {5, 6}. We observe that
A ∪ B ∪ C = {1, 2, 3} ∪ {3, 4} ∪ {5, 6} = S.
Such events A, B and C are called exhaustive events. In general, if E1, E2, ..., En are n
events of a sample space S and if
n
E1 ∪ E 2 ∪ E 3 ∪ ... ∪ E n = ∪ Ei = S
i =1

then E1, E2, ...., En are called exhaustive events.In other words, events E1, E2, ..., En
are said to be exhaustive if atleast one of them necessarily occurs whenever the
experiment is performed.
Further, if Ei ∩ Ej = φ for i ≠ j i.e., events Ei and Ej are pairwise disjoint and
n
∪ E i = S , then events E1, E2, ..., En are called mutually exclusive and exhaustive
i =1

events.
We now consider some examples.
Example 2 Two dice are thrown and the sum of the numbers which come up on the
dice is noted. Let us consider the following events associated with this experiment
A: ‘the sum is even’.
B: ‘the sum is a multiple of 3’.
C: ‘the sum is less than 4’.
D: ‘the sum is greater than 11’.
Which pairs of these events are mutually exclusive?

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Solution There are 36 elements in the sample space S = {(x, y): x, y = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Then
A = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 5), (4, 2), (4, 4),
(4, 6), (5, 1), (5, 3), (5, 5), (6, 2), (6, 4), (6, 6)}
B = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 5), (5, 1), (3, 3), (2, 4), (4, 2), (3, 6), (6, 3), (4, 5), (5, 4),
(6, 6)}
C = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (1, 2)} and D = {(6, 6)}
We find that
A ∩ B = {(1, 5), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 2), (5, 1), (6, 6)} ≠ φ
Therefore, A and B are not mutually exclusive events.
Similarly A ∩ C ≠ φ, A ∩ D ≠ φ, B ∩ C ≠ φ and B ∩ D ≠ φ.
Thus, the pairs of events, (A, C), (A, D), (B, C), (B, D) are not mutually exclusive
events.
Also C ∩ D = φ and so C and D are mutually exclusive events.
Example 3 A coin is tossed three times, consider the following events.
A: ‘No head appears’, B: ‘Exactly one head appears’ and C: ‘Atleast two heads
appear’.
Do they form a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events?
Solution The sample space of the experiment is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
and A = {TTT}, B = {HTT, THT, TTH}, C = {HHT, HTH, THH, HHH}
Now
A ∪ B ∪ C = {TTT, HTT, THT, TTH, HHT, HTH, THH, HHH} = S
Therefore, A, B and C are exhaustive events.
Also, A ∩ B = φ, A ∩ C = φ and B ∩ C = φ
Therefore, the events are pair-wise disjoint, i.e., they are mutually exclusive.
Hence, A, B and C form a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.
EXERCISE 14.1
1. A die is rolled. Let E be the event “die shows 4” and F be the event “die shows
even number”. Are E and F mutually exclusive?
2. A die is thrown. Describe the following events:
(i) A: a number less than 7 (ii) B: a number greater than 7
(iii) C: a multiple of 3 (iv) D: a number less than 4
(v) E: an even number greater than 4 (vi) F: a number not less than 3
Also find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, B ∪ C, E ∩ F, D ∩ E, A – C, D – E, E ∩ F′, F′

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 PROBABILITY 295

3. An experiment involves rolling a pair of dice and recording the numbers that
come up. Describe the following events:
A: the sum is greater than 8, B: 2 occurs on either die
C: the sum is at least 7 and a multiple of 3.
Which pairs of these events are mutually exclusive?
4. Three coins are tossed once. Let A denote the event ‘three heads show”, B
denote the event “two heads and one tail show”, C denote the event” three tails
show and D denote the event ‘a head shows on the first coin”. Which events are
(i) mutually exclusive? (ii) simple? (iii) Compound?
5. Three coins are tossed. Describe
(i) Two events which are mutually exclusive.
(ii) Three events which are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
(iii) Two events, which are not mutually exclusive.
(iv) Two events which are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive.
(v) Three events which are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive.
6. Two dice are thrown. The events A, B and C are as follows:
A: getting an even number on the first die.
B: getting an odd number on the first die.
C: getting the sum of the numbers on the dice ≤ 5.
Describe the events
(i) A ′ (ii) not B (iii) A or B
(iv) A and B (v) A but not C (vi) B or C
(vii) B and C (viii) A ∩ B′ ∩ C′
7. Refer to question 6 above, state true or false: (give reason for your answer)
(i) A and B are mutually exclusive
(ii) A and B are mutually exclusive and exhaustive
(iii) A = B′
(iv) A and C are mutually exclusive
(v) A and B′ are mutually exclusive.
(vi) A′, B′, C are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
14.2 Axiomatic Approach to Probability
In earlier sections, we have considered random experiments, sample space and
events associated with these experiments. In our day to day life we use many words
about the chances of occurrence of events. Probability theory attempts to quantify
these chances of occurrence or non occurrence of events.

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In earlier classes, we have studied some methods of assigning probability to an

event associated with an experiment having known the number of total outcomes.
Axiomatic approach is another way of describing probability of an event. In this
approach some axioms or rules are depicted to assign probabilities.
Let S be the sample space of a random experiment. The probability P is a real
valued function whose domain is the power set of S and range is the interval [0,1]
satisfying the following axioms
(i) For any event E, P (E) ≥ 0 (ii) P (S) = 1
(iii) If E and F are mutually exclusive events, then P(E ∪ F) = P(E) + P(F).
It follows from (iii) that P(φ) = 0. To prove this, we take F = φ and note that E and φ
are disjoint events. Therefore, from axiom (iii), we get
P (E ∪ φ) = P (E) + P (φ) or P(E) = P(E) + P (φ) i.e. P (φ) = 0.
Let S be a sample space containing outcomes ω1 , ω2 ,..., ωn , i.e.,
S = {ω1, ω2, ..., ωn}
It follows from the axiomatic definition of probability that
(i) 0 ≤ P (ωi) ≤ 1 for each ωi ∈ S
(ii) P (ω1) + P (ω2) + ... + P (ωn) = 1
(iii) For any event A, P(A) = ∑ P(ωi ), ωi ∈ A.

A Note It may be noted that the singleton {ω } is called elementary event and
for notational convenience, we write P(ω ) for P({ω }).
i

i i
1
For example, in ‘a coin tossing’ experiment we can assign the number to each
2
of the outcomes H and T.
1 1
i.e. P(H) = and P(T) =
2 2
(1)
Clearly this assignment satisfies both the conditions i.e., each number is neither
less than zero nor greater than 1 and
1 1
P(H) + P(T) = + =1
2 2
1 1
Therefore, in this case we can say that probability of H = , and probability of T =
2 2
1 3
If we take P(H) = and P(T) = ... (2)
4 4

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 PROBABILITY 297

Does this assignment satisfy the conditions of axiomatic approach?

1 3
Yes, in this case, probability of H = and probability of T =
.
4 4
We find that both the assignments (1) and (2) are valid for probability of
H and T.
In fact, we can assign the numbers p and (1 – p) to both the outcomes such that
0 ≤ p ≤ 1 and P(H) + P(T) = p + (1 – p) = 1
This assignment, too, satisfies both conditions of the axiomatic approach of
probability. Hence, we can say that there are many ways (rather infinite) to assign
probabilities to outcomes of an experiment. We now consider some examples.
Example 4 Let a sample space be S = {ω1, ω2,..., ω6}.Which of the following
assignments of probabilities to each outcome are valid?
Outcomes ω 1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5 ω6
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a)
6 6 6 6 6 6
(b) 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 1 1 1
(c) − −
8 3 3 3 4 3
1 1 1 1 1 3
(d)
12 12 6 6 6 2
(e) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Solution (a) Condition (i): Each of the number p(ωi) is positive and less than one.
Condition (ii): Sum of probabilities
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + + =1
6 6 6 6 6 6
Therefore, the assignment is valid
(b) Condition (i): Each of the number p(ωi) is either 0 or 1.
Condition (ii) Sum of the probabilities = 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 1
Therefore, the assignment is valid
(c) Condition (i) Two of the probabilities p(ω5) and p(ω6) are negative, the assignment
is not valid
3
(d) Since p(ω6) = > 1, the assignment is not valid
2

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298 MATHEMATICS

(e) Since, sum of probabilities = 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.4 + 0.5 + 0.6 = 2.1, the assignment
is not valid.
14.2.1 Probability of an event Let S be a sample space associated with the experiment
‘examining three consecutive pens produced by a machine and classified as Good
(non-defective) and bad (defective)’. We may get 0, 1, 2 or 3 defective pens as result
of this examination.
A sample space associated with this experiment is
S = {BBB, BBG, BGB, GBB, BGG, GBG, GGB, GGG},
where B stands for a defective or bad pen and G for a non – defective or good pen.
Let the probabilities assigned to the outcomes be as follows
Sample point: BBB BBG BGB GBB BGG GBG GGB GGG
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Probability:
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
Let event A: there is exactly one defective pen and event B: there are atleast two
defective pens.
Hence A = {BGG, GBG, GGB} and B = {BBG, BGB, GBB, BBB}
Now P(A) = ∑ P(ωi ),∀ωi ∈ A
1 1 1 3
= P(BGG) + P(GBG) + P(GGB) = + + =
8 8 8 8
and P(B) = ∑ P(ωi ),∀ ωi ∈ B
1 1 1 1 4 1
= P(BBG) + P(BGB) + P(GBB) + P(BBB) = + + + = =
8 8 8 8 8 2
Let us consider another experiment of ‘tossing a coin “twice”
The sample space of this experiment is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
Let the following probabilities be assigned to the outcomes
1 1 2 9
P(HH) = , P(HT) = , P(TH) = , P(TT) =
4 7 7 28
Clearly this assignment satisfies the conditions of axiomatic approach. Now, let
us find the probability of the event E: ‘Both the tosses yield the same result’.
Here E = {HH, TT}
Now P(E) = Σ P(wi), for all wi ∈ E

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 PROBABILITY 299

1 9 4
= P(HH) + P(TT) = + =
4 28 7
For the event F: ‘exactly two heads’, we have F = {HH}
1
and P(F) = P(HH) =
4
14.2.2 Probabilities of equally likely outcomes Let a sample space of an
experiment be
S = {ω1, ω2,..., ωn}.
Let all the outcomes are equally likely to occur, i.e., the chance of occurrence of each
simple event must be same.
i.e. P(ωi) = p, for all ωi ∈ S where 0 ≤ p ≤ 1
n
Since ∑ P(ωi ) =1 i.e., p + p + ... + p (n times) = 1
i=1

1
or np = 1 i.e., p =
n
Let S be a sample space and E be an event, such that n(S) = n and n(E) = m. If
each out come is equally likely, then it follows that
m Number of outcomes favourable to E
P(E) = =
n Total possible outcomes

14.2.3 Probability of the event ‘A or B’ Let us now find the probability of event
‘A or B’, i.e., P (A ∪ B)
Let A = {HHT, HTH, THH} and B = {HTH, THH, HHH} be two events associated
with ‘tossing of a coin thrice’
Clearly A ∪ B = {HHT, HTH, THH, HHH}
Now P (A ∪ B) = P(HHT) + P(HTH) + P(THH) + P(HHH)
If all the outcomes are equally likely, then
1 1 1 1 4 1
P ( A ∪ B) = + + + = =
8 8 8 8 8 2
3
Also P(A) = P(HHT) + P(HTH) + P(THH) =
8

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300 MATHEMATICS

3
and P(B) = P(HTH) + P(THH) + P(HHH) =
8
3 3 6
Therefore P(A) + P(B) = + =
8 8 8
It is clear that P(A ∪ B) ≠ P(A) + P(B)
The points HTH and THH are common to both A and B. In the computation of
P(A) + P(B) the probabilities of points HTH and THH, i.e., the elements of A ∩B are
included twice. Thus to get the probability P(A ∪ B) we have to subtract the probabilities
of the sample points in A ∩ B from P(A) + P(B)
i.e. P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − ∑ P(ωi ) , ∀ωi ∈ A ∩ B
= P( A ) + P(B) − P( A ∩ B)
Thus we observe that, P( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P( B) − P (A ∩ B)
In general, if A and B are any two events associated with a random experiment,
then by the definition of probability of an event, we have
P ( A ∪ B ) = ∑ p ( ωi ) , ∀ωi ∈ A ∪ B .
Since A ∪ B = (A–B) ∪ (A ∩ B) ∪ (B–A) ,
we have
P(A ∪ B) = [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ ωi ∈ (A–B) ] + [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ ωi ∈ A ∩ B ] + [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ ωi ∈ B – A ]
(because A–B, A ∩ B and B – A are mutually exclusive) ... (1)
Also P(A) + P(B) = [ ∑ p(ωi ) ∀ ωi ∈ A ] +[ ∑ p(ωi ) ∀ ωi ∈ B ]
= [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (A–B) ∪ (A ∩ B) ] + [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (B – A) ∪ (A ∩ B) ]
= [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (A – B) ] +[ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (A ∩ B) ] + [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (B–A) ] +

[ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (A ∩ B)]

= P(A ∪ B) + [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ ωi ∈ A ∩ B ] [using (1)]
= P(A ∪ B) + P(A ∩ B) .
Hence P(A ∪ B) = P (A) +P(B) – P(A ∩ B) .
Alternatively, it can also be proved as follows:
A ∪ B = A ∪ (B – A), where A and B – A are mutually exclusive,
and B = (A ∩ B) ∪ (B – A), where A ∩ B and B – A are mutually exclusive.
Using Axiom (iii) of probability, we get

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 PROBABILITY 301

P (A ∪B) = P (A) + P (B – A) ... (2)

and P(B) = P ( A ∩ B) + P (B – A) ... (3)
Subtracting (3) from (2) gives
P (A ∪ B) – P(B) = P(A) – P (A ∩ B)
or P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P (B) – P (A ∩ B)
The above result can further be verified by observing the Venn Diagram (Fig 14.1)

Fig 14.1

If A and B are disjoint sets, i.e., they are mutually exclusive events, then A ∩ B = φ
Therefore P(A ∩ B) = P (φ) = 0
Thus, for mutually exclusive events A and B, we have
P( A ∪ B) = P (A ) + P (B) ,
which is Axiom (iii) of probability.
14.2.4 Probability of event ‘not A’ Consider the event A = {2, 4, 6, 8} associated
with the experiment of drawing a card from a deck of ten cards numbered from
1 to 10. Clearly the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, ...,10}
If all the outcomes 1, 2, ...,10 are considered to be equally likely, then the probability
1
of each outcome is
10
Now P(A) = P(2) + P(4) + P(6) + P(8)
1 1 1 1 4 2
= + + + = =
10 10 10 10 10 5
Also event ‘not A’ = A ′ = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10}
Now P(A′) = P(1) + P(3) + P(5) + P(7) + P(9) + P(10)

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302 MATHEMATICS

6 3
= =
10 5
3 2
Thus, P(A′) = = 1 − = 1 − P ( A)
5 5
Also, we know that A′ and A are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events i.e.,
A ∩ A′ = φ and A ∪ A′ = S
or P(A ∪ A′) = P(S)
Now P(A) + P(A′) = 1, by using axioms (ii) and (iii).
or P( A ′ ) = P(not A) = 1 – P(A)
We now consider some examples and exercises having equally likely outcomes
unless stated otherwise.
Example 5 One card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. If each outcome
is equally likely, calculate the probability that the card will be
(i) a diamond (ii) not an ace
(iii) a black card (i.e., a club or, a spade) (iv) not a diamond
(v) not a black card.
Solution When a card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards, the number of
possible outcomes is 52.
(i) Let A be the event 'the card drawn is a diamond'
Clearly the number of elements in set A is 13.
13 1
Therefore, P(A) = =
52 4
1
i.e. probability of a diamond card =
4
(ii) We assume that the event ‘Card drawn is an ace’ is B
Therefore ‘Card drawn is not an ace’ should be B′.
4 1 12
We know that P(B′) = 1 – P(B) = 1 − =1 − =
52 13 13
(iii) Let C denote the event ‘card drawn is black card’
Therefore, number of elements in the set C = 26
26 1
i.e. P(C) = =
52 2

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 PROBABILITY 303

1
Thus, probability of a black card = .
2
(iv) We assumed in (i) above that A is the event ‘card drawn is a diamond’,
so the event ‘card drawn is not a diamond’ may be denoted as A' or ‘not A’
1 3
Now P(not A) = 1 – P(A) = 1 − =
4 4
(v) The event ‘card drawn is not a black card’ may be denoted as C′ or ‘not C’.
1 1
We know that P(not C) = 1 – P(C) = 1 − =
2 2
1
Therefore, probability of not a black card =
2
Example 6 A bag contains 9 discs of which 4 are red, 3 are blue and 2 are yellow. The
discs are similar in shape and size. A disc is drawn at random from the bag. Calculate
the probability that it will be (i) red, (ii) yellow, (iii) blue, (iv) not blue,
(v) either red or blue.
Solution There are 9 discs in all so the total number of possible outcomes is 9.
Let the events A, B, C be defined as
A: ‘the disc drawn is red’
B: ‘the disc drawn is yellow’
C: ‘the disc drawn is blue’.
(i) The number of red discs = 4, i.e., n (A) = 4
4
Hence P(A) =
9
(ii) The number of yellow discs = 2, i.e., n (B) = 2
2
Therefore, P(B) =
9
(iii) The number of blue discs = 3, i.e., n(C) = 3
3 1
Therefore, P(C) = =
9 3
(iv) Clearly the event ‘not blue’ is ‘not C’. We know that P(not C) = 1 – P(C)

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1 2
Therefore P(not C) = 1 −=
3 3
(v) The event ‘either red or blue’ may be described by the set ‘A or C’
Since, A and C are mutually exclusive events, we have
4 1 7
P(A or C) = P (A ∪ C) = P(A) + P(C) = + =
9 3 9
Example 7 Two students Anil and Ashima appeared in an examination. The probability
that Anil will qualify the examination is 0.05 and that Ashima will qualify the examination
is 0.10. The probability that both will qualify the examination is 0.02. Find the
probability that
(a) Both Anil and Ashima will not qualify the examination.
(b) Atleast one of them will not qualify the examination and
(c) Only one of them will qualify the examination.
Solution Let E and F denote the events that Anil and Ashima will qualify the examination,
respectively. Given that
P(E) = 0.05, P(F) = 0.10 and P(E ∩ F) = 0.02.
Then
(a) The event ‘both Anil and Ashima will not qualify the examination’ may be
expressed as E´ ∩ F´.
Since, E´ is ‘not E’, i.e., Anil will not qualify the examination and F´ is ‘not F’, i.e.,
Ashima will not qualify the examination.
Also E´ ∩ F´ = (E ∪ F)´ (by Demorgan's Law)
Now P(E ∪ F) = P(E) + P(F) – P(E ∩ F)
or P(E ∪ F) = 0.05 + 0.10 – 0.02 = 0.13
Therefore P(E´ ∩ F´) = P(E ∪ F)´ = 1 – P(E ∪ F) = 1 – 0.13 = 0.87

(b) P (atleast one of them will not qualify)

= 1 – P(both of them will qualify)
= 1 – 0.02 = 0.98
(c) The event only one of them will qualify the examination is same as the event
either (Anil will qualify, and Ashima will not qualify) or (Anil will not qualify and Ashima

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 PROBABILITY 305

will qualify) i.e., E ∩ F´ or E´ ∩ F, where E ∩ F´ and E´ ∩ F are mutually exclusive.

Therefore, P(only one of them will qualify) = P(E ∩ F´ or E´ ∩ F)
= P(E ∩ F´) + P(E´ ∩ F) = P (E) – P(E ∩ F) + P(F) – P (E ∩ F)
= 0.05 – 0.02 + 0.10 – 0.02 = 0.11
Example 8 A committee of two persons is selected from two men and two women.
What is the probability that the committee will have (a) no man? (b) one man? (c) two
men?
Solution The total number of persons = 2 + 2 = 4. Out of these four person, two can
be selected in 4 C 2 ways.
(a) No men in the committee of two means there will be two women in the committee.
Out of two women, two can be selected in 2 C 2 = 1 way.
2
C 2 1× 2 × 1 1
Therefore P ( no man ) = = =
4
C2 4×3 6

(b) One man in the committee means that there is one woman. One man out of 2
can be selected in 2 C1 ways and one woman out of 2 can be selected in 2 C1 ways.

Together they can be selected in 2 C1 × 2 C1 ways.

2
C1 × 2 C1 2 × 2 2
Therefore P ( One man ) = = =
4
C2 2×3 3

(c) Two men can be selected in 2 C 2 way.

2
C2 1 1
Hence P ( Two men ) = 4
= 4 =
C2 C2 6

EXERCISE 14.2
1. Which of the following can not be valid assignment of probabilities for outcomes
of sample Space S = {ω1 , ω2 , ω3 , ω4 , ω5 , ω6 , ω7 }

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Assignment ω 1
ω 2
ω 3
ω 4
ω 5
ω 6
ω 7

(a) 0.1 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.2 0.6

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(b)
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
(c) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
(d) – 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 – 0.2 0.1 0.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 15
(e)
14 14 14 14 14 14 14
2. A coin is tossed twice, what is the probability that atleast one tail occurs?
3. A die is thrown, find the probability of following events:
(i) A prime number will appear,
(ii) A number greater than or equal to 3 will appear,
(iii) A number less than or equal to one will appear,
(iv) A number more than 6 will appear,
(v) A number less than 6 will appear.
4. A card is selected from a pack of 52 cards.
(a) How many points are there in the sample space?
(b) Calculate the probability that the card is an ace of spades.
(c) Calculate the probability that the card is (i) an ace (ii) black card.
5. A fair coin with 1 marked on one face and 6 on the other and a fair die are both
tossed. find the probability that the sum of numbers that turn up is (i) 3 (ii) 12
6. There are four men and six women on the city council. If one council member is
selected for a committee at random, how likely is it that it is a woman?
7. A fair coin is tossed four times, and a person win Re 1 for each head and lose
Rs 1.50 for each tail that turns up.
From the sample space calculate how many different amounts of money you can
have after four tosses and the probability of having each of these amounts.
8. Three coins are tossed once. Find the probability of getting
(i) 3 heads (ii) 2 heads (iii) atleast 2 heads
(iv) atmost 2 heads (v) no head (vi) 3 tails
(vii) exactly two tails (viii) no tail (ix) atmost two tails
2
9. If is the probability of an event, what is the probability of the event ‘not A’.
11
10. A letter is chosen at random from the word ‘ASSASSINATION’. Find the
probability that letter is (i) a vowel (ii) a consonant

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 PROBABILITY 307

11. In a lottery, a person choses six different natural numbers at random from 1 to 20,
and if these six numbers match with the six numbers already fixed by the lottery
committee, he wins the prize. What is the probability of winning the prize in the
game? [Hint order of the numbers is not important.]
12. Check whether the following probabilities P(A) and P(B) are consistently defined
(i) P(A) = 0.5, P(B) = 0.7, P(A ∩ B) = 0.6
(ii) P(A) = 0.5, P(B) = 0.4, P(A ∪ B) = 0.8
13. Fill in the blanks in following table:
P(A) P(B) P(A ∩ B) P(A ∪ B)
1 1 1
(i) ...
3 5 15
(ii) 0.35 ... 0.25 0.6
(iii) 0.5 0.35 ... 0.7
3 1
14. Given P(A) = and P(B) = . Find P(A or B), if A and B are mutually exclusive
5 5
events.
1 1 1
15. If E and F are events such that P(E) = , P(F) = and P(E and F) = , find
4 2 8
(i) P(E or F), (ii) P(not E and not F).
16. Events E and F are such that P(not E or not F) = 0.25, State whether E and F are
mutually exclusive.
17. A and B are events such that P(A) = 0.42, P(B) = 0.48 and P(A and B) = 0.16.
Determine (i) P(not A), (ii) P(not B) and (iii) P(A or B)
18. In Class XI of a school 40% of the students study Mathematics and 30% study
Biology. 10% of the class study both Mathematics and Biology. If a student is
selected at random from the class, find the probability that he will be studying
Mathematics or Biology.
19. In an entrance test that is graded on the basis of two examinations, the probability
of a randomly chosen student passing the first examination is 0.8 and the probability
of passing the second examination is 0.7. The probability of passing atleast one of
them is 0.95. What is the probability of passing both?
20. The probability that a student will pass the final examination in both English and
Hindi is 0.5 and the probability of passing neither is 0.1. If the probability of
passing the English examination is 0.75, what is the probability of passing the
Hindi examination?

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308 MATHEMATICS

21. In a class of 60 students, 30 opted for NCC, 32 opted for NSS and 24 opted for
both NCC and NSS. If one of these students is selected at random, find the
probability that
(i) The student opted for NCC or NSS.
(ii) The student has opted neither NCC nor NSS.
(iii) The student has opted NSS but not NCC.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 9 On her vacations Veena visits four cities (A, B, C and D) in a random
order. What is the probability that she visits
(i) A before B? (ii) A before B and B before C?
(iii) A first and B last? (iv) A either first or second?
(v) A just before B?
Solution The number of arrangements (orders) in which Veena can visit four cities A,
B, C, or D is 4! i.e., 24.Therefore, n (S) = 24.
Since the number of elements in the sample space of the experiment is 24 all of these
outcomes are considered to be equally likely. A sample space for the
experiment is
S = {ABCD, ABDC, ACBD, ACDB, ADBC, ADCB
BACD, BADC, BDAC, BDCA, BCAD, BCDA
CABD, CADB, CBDA, CBAD, CDAB, CDBA
DABC, DACB, DBCA, DBAC, DCAB, DCBA}
(i) Let the event ‘she visits A before B’ be denoted by E
Therefore, E = {ABCD, CABD, DABC, ABDC, CADB, DACB
ACBD, ACDB, ADBC, CDAB, DCAB, ADCB}
n(E) 12 1
Thus P(E) = = =
n ( S) 24 2
(ii) Let the event ‘Veena visits A before B and B before C’ be denoted by F.
Here F = {ABCD, DABC, ABDC, ADBC}
n ( F) 4 1
Therefore, P ( F) = n S = 24 = 6
( )
Students are advised to find the probability in case of (iii), (iv) and (v).

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 PROBABILITY 309

Example 10 Find the probability that when a hand of 7 cards is drawn from a well
shuffled deck of 52 cards, it contains (i) all Kings (ii) 3 Kings (iii) atleast 3 Kings.
52
Solution Total number of possible hands = C7
(i) Number of hands with 4 Kings = 4 C4 × 48
C3 (other 3 cards must be chosen from
the rest 48 cards)
4
C 4 × 48 C3 1
Hence P (a hand will have 4 Kings) = 52
=
C7 7735

(ii) Number of hands with 3 Kings and 4 non-King cards = 4 C3 × 48 C 4

4
C3 × 48 C 4 9
Therefore P (3 Kings) = 52
=
C7 1547
(iii) P(atleast 3 King) = P(3 Kings or 4 Kings)
= P(3 Kings) + P(4 Kings)
9 1 46
= + =
1547 7735 7735

Example 11 If A, B, C are three events associated with a random experiment,

prove that
P ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P ( A ) + P ( B ) +P ( C ) − P ( A ∩ B ) − P ( A ∩ C )
– P ( B ∩ C) + P ( A ∩ B ∩ C)
Solution Consider E = B ∪ C so that
P (A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P (A ∪ E )
= P ( A) + P ( E) − P ( A ∩ E ) ... (1)
Now
P ( E ) = P ( B ∪ C)

= P ( B) + P ( C ) − P ( B ∩ C ) ... (2)

Also A ∩ E = A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ) [using distribution property of

intersection of sets over the union]. Thus
P ( A ∩ E ) = P ( A ∩ B ) + P ( A ∩ C ) – P ( A ∩ B ) ∩ ( A ∩ C ) 

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310 MATHEMATICS

= P ( A ∩ B) + P ( A ∩ C ) – P [ A ∩ B ∩ C] ... (3)
Using (2) and (3) in (1), we get
P [ A ∪ B ∪ C] = P ( A ) + P ( B ) + P ( C ) − P ( B ∩ C )

– P ( A ∩ B) − P ( A ∩ C ) + P ( A ∩ B ∩ C )

Example 12 In a relay race there are five teams A, B, C, D and E.

(a) What is the probability that A, B and C finish first, second and third,
respectively.
(b) What is the probability that A, B and C are first three to finish (in any order)
(Assume that all finishing orders are equally likely)
Solution If we consider the sample space consisting of all finishing orders in the first
5!
three places, we will have 5 P3 , i.e., = 5 × 4 × 3 = 60 sample points, each with
( 5 − 3 )!
1
a probability of .
60
(a) A, B and C finish first, second and third, respectively. There is only one finishing
order for this, i.e., ABC.
1
Thus P(A, B and C finish first, second and third respectively) = .
60
(b) A, B and C are the first three finishers. There will be 3! arrangements for A, B
and C. Therefore, the sample points corresponding to this event will be 3! in
number.
3! 6 1
So P (A, B and C are first three to finish) = = =
60 60 10

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 14

1. A box contains 10 red marbles, 20 blue marbles and 30 green marbles. 5 marbles
are drawn from the box, what is the probability that
(i) all will be blue? (ii) atleast one will be green?
2. 4 cards are drawn from a well – shuffled deck of 52 cards. What is the probability
of obtaining 3 diamonds and one spade?

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3. A die has two faces each with number ‘1’, three faces each with number ‘2’ and
one face with number ‘3’. If die is rolled once, determine
(i) P(2) (ii) P(1 or 3) (iii) P(not 3)
4. In a certain lottery 10,000 tickets are sold and ten equal prizes are awarded.
What is the probability of not getting a prize if you buy (a) one ticket (b) two
tickets (c) 10 tickets.
5. Out of 100 students, two sections of 40 and 60 are formed. If you and your friend
are among the 100 students, what is the probability that
(a) you both enter the same section?
(b) you both enter the different sections?
6. Three letters are dictated to three persons and an envelope is addressed to each
of them, the letters are inserted into the envelopes at random so that each envelope
contains exactly one letter. Find the probability that at least one letter is in its
proper envelope.
7. A and B are two events such that P(A) = 0.54, P(B) = 0.69 and P(A ∩ B) = 0.35.
Find (i) P(A ∪ B) (ii) P(A´ ∩ B´) (iii) P(A ∩ B´) (iv) P(B ∩ A´)
8. From the employees of a company, 5 persons are selected to represent them in
the managing committee of the company. Particulars of five persons are as follows:
S. No. Name Sex Age in years
1. Harish M 30
2. Rohan M 33
3. Sheetal F 46
4. Alis F 28
5. Salim M 41
A person is selected at random from this group to act as a spokesperson. What is
the probability that the spokesperson will be either male or over 35 years?
9. If 4-digit numbers greater than 5,000 are randomly formed from the digits
0, 1, 3, 5, and 7, what is the probability of forming a number divisible by 5 when,
(i) the digits are repeated? (ii) the repetition of digits is not allowed?
10. The number lock of a suitcase has 4 wheels, each labelled with ten digits i.e.,
from 0 to 9. The lock opens with a sequence of four digits with no repeats. What
is the probability of a person getting the right sequence to open the suitcase?

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312 MATHEMATICS

Summary
In this Chapter, we studied about the axiomatic approach of probability. The main
features of this Chapter are as follows:
® Event: A subset of the sample space
® Impossible event : The empty set
® Sure event: The whole sample space
® Complementary event or ‘not event’ : The set A′ or S – A
® Event A or B: The set A ∪ B
® Event A and B: The set A ∩ B
® Event A and not B: The set A – B
® Mutually exclusive event: A and B are mutually exclusive if A ∩ B = φ
® Exhaustive and mutually exclusive events: Events E1, E2,..., En are mutually
exclusive and exhaustive if E1 ∪ E2 ∪ ...∪ En = S and Ei ∩ Ej = φ V i ≠ j
® Probability: Number P (ωi) associated with sample point ω i such that
(i) 0 ≤ P (ωi) ≤ 1 (ii) ∑ P ( ω ) for all ω ∈ S = 1
i i

(iii) P(A) = ∑ P ( ω ) for all ω ∈ A. The number P (ω ) is called probability

i i i

of the outcome ωi.

® Equally likely outcomes: All outcomes with equal probability
® Probability of an event: For a finite sample space with equally likely outcomes
n(A)
Probability of an event P(A) = , where n(A) = number of elements in
n(S)
the set A, n(S) = number of elements in the set S.
® If A and B are any two events, then
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
equivalently, P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
® If A and B are mutually exclusive, then P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
® If A is any event, then
P(not A) = 1 – P(A)

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 PROBABILITY 313

Historical Note
Probability theory like many other branches of mathematics, evolved out of
practical consideration. It had its origin in the 16th century when an Italian
physician and mathematician Jerome Cardan (1501–1576) wrote the first book
on the subject “Book on Games of Chance” (Biber de Ludo Aleae). It was
published in 1663 after his death.
In 1654, a gambler Chevalier de Metre approached the well known French
Philosopher and Mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) for certain dice
problem. Pascal became interested in these problems and discussed with famous
French Mathematician Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665). Both Pascal and Fermat
solved the problem independently. Besides, Pascal and Fermat, outstanding
contributions to probability theory were also made by Christian Huygenes (1629–
1665), a Dutchman, J. Bernoulli (1654–1705), De Moivre (1667–1754), a
Frenchman Pierre Laplace (1749–1827), the Russian P.L Chebyshev (1821–
1897), A. A Markov (1856–1922) and A. N Kolmogorove (1903–1987).
Kolmogorov is credited with the axiomatic theory of probability. His book
‘Foundations of Probability’ published in 1933, introduces probability as a set
function and is considered a classic.

—v —

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