CSM 153 Circuit Theory

Akwasi Acheampong Aning

KNUST, GHANA

March 17, 2021

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Outline I

1 Unit Five
Field and Force
Ampere’s and Biot-Savart Laws
Inductance

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Circuit Theory Magnetism

UNIT FIVE
Magnetism
Field and Force
Ampere’s and Biot-Savart Laws
Inductance and Induction

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Circuit Theory Magnetism

Field and Force

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Circuit Theory Magnetism

Field and Force

Magnetism - It is a phenomenon associated with magnetic fields, which arise

from the motion of electric charges. This motion can take many forms:
It can be an electric current in a conductor or charged particles moving
through space, or
It can be the motion of an electron in an atomic orbital
Magnetism is also associated with elementary particles, such as the electron,
that have a property called spin.
Magnetic field - It is a vector field in the neighbourhood of a magnet, electric
current, or changing electric field, in which magnetic forces are observable.
Magnetic fields such as that of Earth cause magnetic compass needles and other
permanent magnets to line up in the direction of the field.
Magnetic force - It is an attraction or repulsion that arises between electrically
charged particles because of their motion. It is the basic force responsible for
such effects as the action of electric motors and the attraction of magnets for iron.
Electric forces exist among stationary electric charges
A magnet has two poles, north and south. The north pole is that end which points
toward geographic north when the magnet is freely suspended. Like poles of two
magnets repel each other, whereas unlike poles attract

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Circuit Theory Magnetism
Field and Force

Electric and magnetic forces exist among moving electric charges. The
magnetic force between two moving charges may be described as the
effect exerted upon either charge by a magnetic field created by the
other
The magnetic field around elementary particles is a basic characteristic
of the particles, just as their mass and electric charge are intrinsic
properties
The magnetic field of all the electrons in certain materials add together
to give a resultant magnetic field around the material
However, in other materials the magnetic fields of all the electrons
cancel out, giving no resultant magnetic field surrounding the material.
→
−
Magnetic field B is a vector quantity that can be defined at a point in
terms of the:
velocity →
−ν of a moving charged particle, and
−→
force F B that acts on the particle at that point
When an electrically charged particle of charge q moves with a velocity,
−ν through a point in a magnetic field, a magnetic force, −
→ →
F B is exerted on
the moving particle provided the velocity is inclined to an axis through
the point
Circuit Theory Magnetism
Field and Force

The magnetic force is proportional to the charge q of the particle

The magnetic force on a negative charge is directed opposite to the force on a
positive charge moving in the same direction
→−
The magnetic force is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field vector B
The magnetic force is proportional to the speed ν of the particle
If the velocity vector makes an angle θ with the magnetic field, the magnitude of
the magnetic force is proportional to sin θ
−→ −ν x→
−
F B = q→ B sinθ (1)
When a charged particle moves parallel to the magnetic field vector, the magnetic
force on the charge is zero
When a charged particle moves in a direction not parallel to the magnetic field
−ν and →
vector, the magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular to both →
−
B; that
→
− →−
is, the magnetic force is perpendicular to the plane formed by ν and B.
−→ −ν x→
−
F B = q→ B (2)
−→
This means the force, F B on the charged particle is equal to the charge q times
−ν and the magnetic field, →
the cross product of its velocity, →
−
B
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Circuit Theory Magnetism

Field and Force

Why is magnetism important?

Motors and generators are based on magnetic forces
Many forms of data storage, from hard disks to the stripe on your credit
card, are magnetic
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is essential to modern medicine
Magnetic levitation trains are being built around the world.
The earth’s magnetic field keeps the solar wind from sterilizing the
surface
Exploration of gold and other minerals are based on their magnetic
properties
Magnets are used to make a tight seal on the doors to refrigerators and
freezers
There would be no life and no modern technology without magnetism

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Circuit Theory Magnetism

Ampere’s and Biot-Savart

Laws

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Circuit Theory Magnetism
Ampere’s and Biot-Savart Laws

Ampere’s Law Ampere’s Law

→
− −
→
Assume that B and ds are tangential
to the loop at every point along the
loop
Then at every point, the angle θ
between them is zero, so that cos θ =
cos 0 = 1
H→− →
B.d−s = Bcosθds = B(2πr) = µ0 I
H
Ampere’s Law states that the line integral of
the tangential component of the magnetic
→−
field, B around a closed loop (path) is equal to µ0 I
the current I enclosed by the loop ∴B= (4)
2πr
Please note:
I
→
− →
B.d−s = µ0 I (3) H →
d−s is the summation of all
Consider a concentric circular Amperian loop
the line segment lengths ds
of radius r that lies outside a wire carrying a around
H → the circular loop
current I d−s gives the
→
− circumference 2πr of the
Let the magnetic field, B have the same
magnitude B at every point on the loop circular loop
Circuit Theory Magnetism
Ampere’s and Biot-Savart Laws
Ampere’s Law
Ampere’s Law
→
−
Assuming that magnetic field B and
−
→
ds are tangential to the loop, we have
H→− →
B.d−s = B ds = B(2πR) = µ0 I
H

But since the current is uniformly

Ampere’s law can be used to find magnetic
distributed the current I encircled by
field that a current produces inside a long
the loop is proportional to the area
straight wire of circular cross section
encircled by the loop.
The current is uniformly distributed over the
cross section of the wire and emerges from Solve for B:
the page µ0 I
∴B= (5)
The Amperian loop is a concentric circle that 2πR
lies inside the wire (for R ≥ r)
Consider circular Amperian loop of radius r
drawn inside a wire or radius R carrying a Now consider the interior of the wire,
current I where r < R. Here the current I 0
passing through the plane of
Let the current be uniformly distributed over
Amperian loop is less than the total
the cross section of the wire so that the
→
− current I
magnetic field B has cylindrical symmetry
Circuit Theory Magnetism
Ampere’s and Biot-Savart Laws
Ampere’s Law Ampere’s Law
I0
Set the ratio of the current enclosed by the Expressions for the magnetic field
Amperian loop to the entire current I equal to outside and inside the wire yield the
the ratio of the area πr2 enclosed by circle 2 to same result at the surface of the wire
the cross-sectional area πR2 of the wire: at r = R
I0 πr2 r2 Magnetic field variation inside and
= ∴ I0 = I outside a cylindrical conductor
I πR2 R2
The magnetic field B is zero at the
Apply Ampère’s law to the loop:
centre of the conductor, and then
H→
− → r2
! increases linearly with r up to r = R
B.d−s = B ds = B(2πr) = µ0 I 0 = µ0 2 I
H
R However, with r>R, B decreases
 µ I  inversely with r as 1/r.
0
∴B= r (6)
2πR2
(for r<R)

Inside the wire, the magnitude B of the

magnetic field is proportional to r The field is proportional to r inside
The magnitude B is zero at the centre and the wire and varies as 1/r outside the
maximum at the surface, where r = R wire
Circuit Theory Magnetism
Ampere’s and Biot-Savart Laws
Ampere’s Law
Question A long straight wire of radius 3.0 cm is
carrying current 1.5 A out of the page. Calculate the
magnitude of the magnetic field at
i 2 cm radius from the centre
Ampere’s Law
ii Mid-point of the wire i At r = R
iii Surface of the wire (Bmax )  µ I  "
4πx10−7 x1.5
#
0
B= R =
iv 3.5 cm outside the wire 2πR2 2πx3x10−2
Solution
= 1.0 x 10−6 T = 10.0 µ T
 µ I  "
4πx10−7 x1.5
#
ii Outside the surface
0
i Using B = r = (2x10−2 )
2πR2 2πx(3x10−2 )2  µ I  " 4πx10−7 x1.5 #
0
B= =
= 6.7 x 10−6 T = 6.7 µ T 2πr 2πx3.5x10−2
ii At mid-point = 8.57 x 10−6 T = 8.57 µ T
 µ I  "
4πx10−7 x1.5
#
0
B= r = (1.5x10−2 )
2πR2 2πx(3x10−2 )2

= 5.0 x 10−6 T = 5.0 µ T

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Circuit Theory Magnetism
Ampere’s and Biot-Savart Laws
Biot-Savart Law
Biot-Savart Law
The expression for the Biot–Savart law is →
−
based on the following experimental The magnitude of d B is inversely
→
− proportional to r2 , where r is the distance
observations for the magnetic field d B at a
point P associated with a length element d→ −s of from d→−s to P.
→
−
a wire carrying a steady current I as shown in The magnitude of d B is proportional to
the figure below: the current I and to the magnitude ds of
the length element d→ −s
→
−
The magnitude of d B is proportional to
sinθ, where θ is the angle between the
vectors d→−s and r̂

These observations are summarized in

the Biot–Savart law as
→
− µ0 Id→
−s xr̂
dB = (7)
4π r2
where µ0 is a constant called permeability
→− of free space µ0 = 4πx10−7 T m/A
The vector d B is perpendicular both to The Biot–Savart law describes the
→−
d s (which points in the direction of the magnetic field produced by a current
current) and to the unit vector r̂ directed element.
from d→
−s toward P.
Circuit Theory Magnetism

Inductance

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Circuit Theory Magnetism
Inductance
Faraday and Lens’ Laws
Faraday and Lens’ Laws
Faraday’s law of induction states that the emf
induced in a loop is directly proportional to the
time rate of change of magnetic flux through
the loop, or
dΦB
ε=− (8)
dt
R→− →−
where ΦB = B.d A is the magnetic flux
through the loop
If a coil consists of N loops with the same d
area, and ΦB is the magnetic flux through one ∴ε=− (BA cos θ) (10)
dt
loop, an emf is induced in every loop. If the where θ is the angle between the magnetic
loops are in series, their emfs add; therefore, field and the normal to loop
the total induced emf in the coil is given by
Lenz’s law states that the induced
dΦB current and induced emf in a
ε = −N (9)
dt conductor are in such a direction as
→− to set up a magnetic field that
If the area A lies in a uniform magnetic B as opposes the change that produced
shown in figure on the right, the magnetic flux them.
through the loop is equal to BA cos θ

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Circuit Theory Magnetism
Inductance
Faraday and Lens’ Laws Self and Mutual Inductance
From Eqn. 10, we see that an emf can be
induced in the circuit in several ways:
→
−
The magnitude of B can change with time
The area enclosed by the loop can
change with time
→
−
The angle θ between B and the normal to
the loop can change with time
Any combination of the above can occur
Consider a circuit consisting of a switch, a
Faraday’s law also tells us that a changing resistor, and a source of emf as shown
magnetic field produces an electric field; above. When the switch is closed the
and that a straight wire of length l moving current does not immediately jump from
with speed v perpendicular to a magnetic zero to its maximum value.
field of strength B has an emf induced
After the switch is closed, the current
between its ends equal to
produces a magnetic flux through the
dΦB ∆ΦB B∆A Blν∆t area enclosed by the loop. As the current
ε= = = = increases toward its equilibrium value, this
dt ∆t ∆t ∆t
magnetic flux changes in time and
∴ ε = Blν (11) induces an emf in the loop
Circuit Theory Magnetism
Inductance
Self and Mutual Inductance
The increasing flux creates an induced Self and Mutual Inductance
emf in the circuit. The direction of the
induced emf is such that it would cause Self-induced emf in a circuit is always
an induced current in the loop (if the loop proportional to the time rate of change of
did not already carry a current), which the current in the circuit. For any loop of
would establish a magnetic field opposing wire, we can write this proportionality as
the change in the original magnetic field. di
εL = −L (12)
The direction of the induced emf is dt
opposite the direction of the emf of the where L is a proportionality constant
battery, which results in a gradual rather called the inductance of the loop and it
than instantaneous increase in the current depends on the geometry of the loop and
to its final equilibrium value other physical characteristics
This effect is called self-induction The SI unit of inductance is the henry (H)
because the changing flux through the
The inductance is a measure of the
circuit and the resultant induced emf arise
opposition to a change in current
from the circuit itself. The emf εL set up in
this case is called a self-induced emf The magnitude of L depends on the size
and shape of the coil and on the presence
The magnetic flux is proportional to the of an iron core
magnetic field, which in turn is
proportional to the current in the circuit.
Circuit Theory Magnetism
Inductance
Self and Mutual Inductance
Self and Mutual Inductance
The mutual inductance M12 of coil 2 with
respect to coil 1:
N2 Φ12
M12 = (13)
i1
Mutual inductance depends on the
geometry of both circuits and on their
orientation with respect to each other. As
the circuit separation distance increases,
the mutual inductance decreases
because the flux linking the circuits
If two coils of wire are near one another,
decreases
as in fig. above, a changing current in one
will induce an emf in the other From Faraday’s law and Eqn. 13, if the
current i1 varies with time, then the emf
We apply Faraday’s law to coil 2: the emf induced by coil 1 in coil 2 is
ε2 induced in coil 2 is proportional to the !
rate of change of magnetic flux passing dΦ12 d M12 i1 di1
ε2 = −N2 = −N2 = −M12
through it dt dt N2 dt
A changing flux in coil 2 is produced by a (14)
changing current I1 in coil 1
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Circuit Theory Magnetism
Inductance
Self and Mutual Inductance Self and Mutual Inductance
If the current i2 varies with time, then the emf This induced emf will be larger or
induced by coil 2 in coil 1, will be smaller than the original emf,
depending on the number of turns in
di2
ε1 = −M21 (15) the coils
dt
Mutual inductance has other uses as
In mutual induction, the emf induced in one well, including inductive charging of cell
coil is always proportional to the rate at which phones, electric cars, and other
the current in the other coil is changing. devices with rechargeable batteries
Although the proportionality constants M12 The energy stored in a magnetic field
and M21 have been treated separately, it can can be expressed as:
be shown that they are equal
M12 = M21 = M 1 2
UB = LI (16)
A transformer is an example of mutual 2
inductance in which the coupling is maximized This energy is the magnetic
so that nearly all flux lines pass through both counterpart to the energy stored in the
coils. electric field of a charged capacitor.
The transformer consists of two coils: the The energy density at a point where
primary and the secondary arranged close the magnetic field is B is:
together. The emf supplied to the primary
B2
produces a current which induces an emf in uB = (17)
the secondary. 2µ0
Circuit Theory Magnetism
Inductance
The Transformer The Transformer
If the potential difference across the
secondary coil is larger than the potential
difference across the primary coil, the
current in the secondary coil is smaller
than the current in the primary coil, and
vice versa
A transformer is a device used to increase Actual power distribution transformers
or decrease the voltage in a circuit without often have efficiencies of 98% or more
an appreciable loss of power If φturn is the magnetic flux per turn of the
The figure above shows a simple primary coil of N1 turns, then the potential
transformer consisting of two wire coils drop V1 across the primary coil is:
around a common iron core dφturn
V1 = N1 (18)
The coil carrying the input power is called dt
the primary, and the other coil is called If there is no flux leakage out of the iron
the secondary. Either coil of a transformer core, the flux through each turn is the
can be used for the primary or secondary. same for both coils.
The transformer operates on the principle dφturn
that an alternating current in one circuit V2 = N2 (19)
dt
induces an alternating emf in a nearby
circuit due to the mutual inductance of the N2
V2 = V1 (20)
two circuits N1
Circuit Theory Magnetism
Inductance

The Transformer
The Transformer
If N2 is greater than N1 , the potential
difference across the secondary coil is ∆V2
greater than the potential drop across the I2 = (22)
RL
primary coil, and the transformer is called
a step-up transformer The current in the primary is:

If N2 is less than N1 , the potential ∆V1

I1 = (23)
difference across the secondary coil is Req
less than the potential drop across the
where
primary coil, and the transformer is called !2
N1
a step-down transformer Req = RL (24)
N2
In an ideal transformer where there are no
Req is the equivalent resistance of the load
losses, the power supplied by the source
resistance when viewed from the primary
is equal to the power in the secondary
side
circuit.Thus:
The ratio of secondary to primary current
I1 ∆V1 = I2 ∆V2 (21) is in the inverse ratio of turns:
N1
The value of the load resistance RL I2 = I1 (25)
determines the value of the secondary N2
current

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Circuit Theory Magnetism

THANK YOU FOR YOUR

ATTENTION

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