BME 305

ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

LNO5
LEARNING OUTCOME

* At the end of this lesson, you should be able to

Identify and understand the following:

v' The nervous system and its subdivisions

v' The parts that makes up the Nervous system

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is the central processing unit of the body

It is subdivided into Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous

System.

The Central Nervous System consists of the Brain and the Spinal
Cord.

The Peripheral Nervous system consists of the sensory receptors,

nerves, ganglia and the plexuses.

The Peripheral nervous system is subdivided into Sensory and

motor division.

The motor division is divided into somatic nervous system and

autonomic nervous system.

The autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic and

parasympathetic
Central
Nervous —;

system

The Nervous System

Brain

nerves

LR i
A\ISARA
Wirpry
/ 12

J :

Peripheral

— Mervous
System
Nervous Tissue

* Nervous tissue 1s organized in both the CNS and the PNS so that axons
form bundles, and neuron cell bodies and their relatively short dendrites are
grouped together.

* Therefore, both the CNS and the PNS contain areas of gray matter and
areas of white matter.

* Gray matter consists of groups of neuron cell bodies and their dendrites,
where there is very little myelin. In the CNS, gray matter on the surface of
the brain is called the cortex, and clusters of gray matter located deeper
within the brain are called nuclei. In the PNS, a cluster of neuron cell
bodies is called a ganglion.

* White matter consists of bundles of parallel axons with their myelin

sheaths, which are whitish in color. White matter of the CNS forms nerve
tracts, or conduction pathways, which propagate action potentials from one
area of the CNS to another. In the PNS, bundles of axons and their
connective tissue sheaths are called nerves.

* The major cells that make up the nerve tissue are the nerve cells and
neuroglia.
Nerve Cells

Nerve cells are also called neurons.

* All neurons have: one axon, one cell body, and

one or more dendrite.

* Organelle of the cell body include: nucleus,

golgi apparatus and RER

* Organelles of the axon include: mitochondria,

neurofilaments and neurotubules.
Nerve cell
The Central Nervous System (CNS)

* The CNS is the major site for processing information,

Initiating responses, and integrating mental processes.

It has the ability to receive input, process and store

information, and generate responses

The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

* The brain 1s the part of the central nervous system (CNS)

that 1s contained within the cranial cavity.

* It consists of the (BCDC)

+» Brainstem

+» Cerebellum

++ Diencephalon

+s» Cerebrum.
11.

BRAINSTEM

The brainstem connects the spinal cord to the

remainder of the brain. The parts include:

The midbrain

The hindbrain (medulla oblongata and the

pons)
THE BRAIN

—
Anterior
Corpus callosum : o. — Cerebrum
[Th
Disncephalon J | AS Posterior
| Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Brainstem -{ pons
Cerebellum
Medulla
oblongata
Midbrain

The midbrain is the smallest region of the

brainstem. It 1s located just superior to the
pons.

It controls vision, hearing and the muscles.

Medulla Oblongata

The medulla oblongata often called the medulla, is about 3 cm

long.

It is the most inferior part of the brainstem and is continuous

inferiorly with the spinal cord.

e It connects the CEREBRUM with the SPINAL CORD

* The medulla oblongata contains sensory and motor tracts, cranial

nerve nuclei, and related nuclei.

* Superficially, the spinal cord blends into the medulla oblongata, but
internally several differences exist.

* It controls alertness, heart action, respiration (breathing) and blood

pressure.

The RIGHT side of the brain controls the LEFT side of the body
while the [LEFT side of the brain controls the RIGHT side of the
body
Pons

* The part of the brainstem just superior to the medulla

oblongata is the pons .

* It connects the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, and

cerebrum

* The pons contains ascending and descending tracts and

several nuclei.

* The pontine nuclei, located in the anterior portion of the

pons, relay information from the cerebrum to the
cerebellum.

* It 1s associated with sensory nerves: taste, hearing, and

balance.

* [It controls muscles of the face.

* [tis the site of reflex centres.
PARTS OF THE BRAIN

Reticular formation

Connects the spinal cord to the cerebrum;

consists of the medulla oblongata, pons,

and midbrain, with the reticular formation

scattered throughout the three regions; has
many important functions, as listed under each
subdivision; is the location of cranial nerve nuclei

Pathway for ascending and descending nerve

tracts; center for several important reflexes
(eq, heart rate, breathing, swallowing, vomiting)

Contains ascending and descending nerve tracts;

relays information between cerebrum and
cerebellum; site of reflex centers

Contains ascending and descending nerve tracts;

serves as visual reflex center; part of auditory

pathway

Scattered throughout brainstem; controls many

brainstem activities, including motor control,
pain perception, rhythmic contractions, and
the sleep-wake cycle

Basal nuclei

Limbic system

Controls muscle movement and tone; govems balance;

regulates extent of intentional movement; involved in
learning motor skills

Connects the brainstem to the cerebrum; has many

relay and homeostatic functions, as listed under
each subdivision

Major sensory relay center; influences mood and

movement

Contains nerve tracts and nuclei

Contains nuclei responding to olfactory stimulation

and contains pineal gland

Major control center for maintaining homeostasis

and regulating endocrine function

Controls conscious perception, thought, and conscious

motor activity; can override most other systems

Controls muscle activity and posture; largely inhibits

unintentional movement when at rest
Autonomic response to smell, emotion, mood,
memory, and other such functions
Cerebellum

* The cerebellum is attached to the brainstem posterior to the pons.

» It is the second largest part of the brain

* The cerebellum consists of three parts: a small inferior part, the

flocculonodular lobe; a narrow central vermis(worm-shaped); and
two large lateral hemispheres.

* The flocculonodular lobe, the simplest part of the cerebellum, helps

control balance and eye movements.

The vermis and the medial portion of the lateral hemispheres are
involved in controlling posture, locomotion, and fine motor
coordination, thereby producing smooth, flowing movements.

* The major portions of the lateral hemispheres of the cerebellum

function in concert with the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex in
planning, practicing, and learning complex movements.
Diencephalon

i.

ii.

iil.

iv.

The diencephalon is the part of the brain between the brainstem and the cerebrum.

Its main components are:

The thalamus: is by far the largest part of the diencephalon, constituting about
four-fifths
of its weight. It receives sensory information and sends it to the cerebral cortex.
It also
influences mood and actions associated with strong emotions, such as fear and rage.

The subthalamus: it is a small area immediately inferior to the thalamus. The

nuclei are
associated with the basal nuclei and are involved in controlling motor functions.

The epithalamus: it consists of the habenula and the pineal gland. It is a small
area
superior and posterior to the thalamus. The habenula is influenced by the sense of
smell
and is involved in emotional and visceral responses to odors. The pineal gland, or
pineal
body 1s involved in modulation of the sleep-wake cycle and other biorhythms.

Hypothalamus: They are involved in olfactory reflexes and emotional responses to

odors.
They may also be involved in memory. A funnel-shaped stalk, thconnects the
endocrine and
nervous systems.

It controls the autonomic nervous system, body temperature, carbohydrate and fat
metabolism,

appetite and emotions

Cerebrum

The cerebrum accounts for the largest portion of total brain weight, which is about
1200 g in
females and 1400 g in males. The cerebrum is divided into left and right
hemispheres by a
longitudinal fissure.

Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into lobes, which are named for the skull bones
overlying
each of them. They are:

The frontal lobe: It is important in voluntary motor function, motivation,

aggression, the
sense of smell, and mood. The anterior region, called the prefrontal cortex, is
involved in
personality, intelligence, creativity, memory, ideas and decision making.

The parietal lobe: is the major center for receiving and evaluating most sensory
information, except for smell, hearing, taste, and vision. It collects, recognizes,
and
organizes sensations: feelings of pain, temperature, touch, position and movement

The occipital lobe: functions in receiving and integrating visual input.

The temporal lobe: receives and evaluates input for smell and hearing and plays an
important role in memory. processes auditory (hearing) information stores auditory
(hearing) and visual (seeing) memories. Itincludes Broca’s speech area. Its
anterior and
inferior portions, called the “psychic cortex,” are associated with such brain
functions as
abstract thought and judgment.
CEREBRUM

(c) Schematic of a histological view

(b) Lateral view

Meninges are

Meninges

three connective tissue membranes that

surround and protect the brain and spinal cord.

They meninges are:

Dura mater:

The outer, hardest, toughest membrane

Arachnoid: T

he middle, web like membrane.

Pia mater: T|

he inner, thinner membrane

Subdural space: space between the dura mater and the

arachnoid.

Subarachnoid: space between the pia mater and the ara

chnoid
Spaces between the meninges

Dura mat
Subdural space
~~ Subarachnoid spac
Arachnoid

Pia mater BRAIN

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear fluid

similar to blood serum with most of the proteins
removed.

It bathes the brain and the spinal cord

It provides a protective cushion around the CNS.

CSF allows the brain to float within the cranial

cavity, so that it does not rest directly on the
surface of the skull or dura mater.

In addition, it protects the brain against the shock

of rapid head movements. It also provides some
nutrients to CNS tissues.
Spinal Cord

* The spinal cord is the major communication

link between the brain and the PNS inferior to

the head.

It integrates incoming information and

produces responses through reflex
mechanisms.
The Spinal Cord
Spinal Cord

* The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum to

the level of the second lumbar vertebra .

* It is considerably shorter than the vertebral column.

The spinal cord 1s composed of cervical, thoracic,

lumbar, and sacral segments, named according to the
portion of the vertebral column from which their nerves
enter and exit.

* The spinal cord is larger in diameter at its superior end,

and it gradually decreases in diameter toward its
inferior end
REFLEX ARC

* The basic structural unit of the nervous system is the

neuron .

* The basic functional unit of the nervous system is the

reflex arc because it is the smallest, simplest portion
capable of receiving a stimulus and producing a response.

* The reflex arc generally has five basic components:

i. a sensory receptor

11. a sensory neuron

111. an interneuron

1v. a motor neuron

v. an effector organ .

The simplest reflex arcs do not involve interneurons

Spinal cord

Effector organ
© 4 sensory receptor detects a stimulus.

©) A sensory neuron conducts acson potentials through the nerve and

dorsal root fo the spinal cord.

©)n the spinal cord, the sensory neuron synapses with an infemeuron.
{An intemeuon is not involved in a monosynaptic reflex arc.)

Q Me intemeuron synapses with a motor neuron.

© A motor neuron axon conducts action potentials through the ventral root
and spinal nerve to an efector organ.
Reflex

A reflex is an automatic response to a stimulus

produced by a reflex arc.

It occurs without conscious thought.

Action potentials initiated in sensory receptors are

transmitted along the axons of sensory neurons to the
CNS, where the axons usually synapse with
interneurons.

Interneurons synapse with motor neurons, which send

axons out of the spinal cord and through the PNS to
muscles or glands, where the action potentials of the
motor neurons cause these effector organs to respond
Reflex cont.d

Reflex can be inborn (a baby has it at birth, such as sucking, swallowing,

urinating
) can be learned (such as talking, walking, driving).
LEARNED

+ reading
+ typing

+ swimming
+ dancing

+ skating

+ playing football
INBORN

knee jerk reflex

pupillary reflex
Babinski
swallowing
coughing
blinking
Peripheral Nervous System

* The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nervous tissue
outside the CNS. It includes sensory receptors, nerves, ganglia, and
plexuses.

1. Sensory receptors are the endings of neurons, or separate, specialized

cells that detect temperature, pain, touch, pressure, light, sound, odor, and
other stimuli. Sensory receptors are located in the skin, muscles, joints,
internal organs, and specialized sensory organs, such as the eyes and ears.

2. A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers, called axons, and their sheaths; it

connects the CNS to sensory receptors, muscles, and glands. There are 12
pairs of cranial nerves that originate from the brain and 31 pairs of
spinal nerves that originate from the spinal cord

3. A ganglion (knot) is a collection of neuron cell bodies located outside the

CNS. It has a crucial role in sensory transmission in the human body.

4. A plexus (braid) is an extensive network of axons and, in some cases,

neuron cell bodies, located outside the CNS. A plexus serves as an area
where spinal nerves come together, are sorted, and then travel to their
respective areas of the body.
Peripheral Nervous System

Cranial nerves transmit and relay information to the brain

analogous to the spinal nerves, except they do so by direct
connections to the brain instead of the spinal cord.

There are 12 cranial nerves

By convention, the 12 pairs of cranial nerves are indicated

by Roman numerals (I-XII) from anterior to posterior

The first 2 pairs of cranial nerves connect directly to the

cerebrum (I) or the diencephalon (II). Nine pairs of cranial
nerves connect to the brainstem. The remaining pair of
cranial nerves (XI) 1s connected to the spinal cord and has
no direct connection to brain structures.
Cranial Nerve
Somatic motor

c Exs 28 a.
* A given cranial nerve may have one or more of three
functions:

1. sensory,

11. somatic motor

111. parasympathetic

* Sensory functions include the special senses, such as vision,

and the more general senses, such as touch and pain.

Somatic motor functions involve the control of skeletal

muscles through motor neurons.

* Parasympathetic(feed or breed) function involves the

regulation of glands, smooth muscles, and cardiac muscle.
Peripheral Nervous System

* Spinal nerves transmit and relay information to

spinal cord.

* The spinal cord gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal

nerves, which exit the vertebral column
through intervertebral and sacral foramina.

* All of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves, except the

first pair and those in the sacrum, exit the
vertebral column through intervertebral
foramina located between adjacent vertebrae
Spinal Nerve

There are many spinal nerves.

Spinal nerves are identified by numbers and letters.

C = A nerve connected to one of the cervical (neck) vertebrae

T = A nerve connected to one of the thoracic (upper body) vertebrae

L = A nerve connected to one of the lumbar ( middle body) vertebrae
S = A nerve connected to one of the sacral (lower body) vertebrae
EX: L4 means the fourth lumbar vertebra

* The cervical nerves are designated C1-C8, the thoracic nerves T1—
T12, the lumbar nerves L1-L5, and the sacral nerves S1-S5

* The single coccygeal nerve is often not designated, but when it is the symbol
Co is usually used
a
|

Yenosnoralranenonn 0 o
-

© NOG EE WN

Thoradc in breathing,
nerves rtebral column
I movement, and
tone in postural
back musdes

Hip movement

Lower limb
movement

Coccygeal