Explain corona effect

The ionization of air surrounding the high voltage transmission lines

causing the conductors to glow, producing a hissing noise, is
called Corona Discharge or Corona Effect.

This phenomenon occurs when the electrostatic field across the

transmission line conductors produces the condition of potential gradient.
The air gets ionized when the potential gradient at the conductor surface
reaches the value of 30kV/cm at normal pressure and temperature.

In transmission lines, conductors are surrounded by the air. Air acts as a

dielectric medium. When the electric field intensity is less than 30kV/cm, the
induced current between the conductor is not sufficient to ionize the air.
However, when the voltage of air surrounding the conductor exceeds the
value of 30kV/cm, the charging current starts to flow through the air, that is
air has been ionized. The ionized air act as a virtual conductor, producing a
hissing sound with a luminous violet glow.

Factors affecting corona:

The following are the factors affecting the corona

• Supply Voltage
• Conductor Surface:
• Air Density Factor
• Spacing between Conductors
• Atmosphere

How Corona Effect is Reduced:

• By Increasing Conductor Size:

• By Increasing Conductor Spacing:
By Using Corona Ring:
Enlist different types of insulators. Explain all in short
Types of Insulators
There are 3 different types of insulators applicable for DC transmission lines:
■ Cap and pin type
■ Long-rod porcelain type
■ Composite long-rod type
Explain function of Ground Electrodes in HVDC system.

Explain DC line faults in LCC systems.

 DC line faults in LCC (Line Commutated Converter) systems refer to abnormal
conditions that occur in the high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission
lines. LCC systems are used to transmit large amounts of power over long
distances. A fault in the DC line can disrupt the normal operation of the
system and pose risks to the equipment and personnel involved.

When a fault occurs in the DC line of an LCC system, it usually indicates a

short circuit or an electrical breakdown between the positive and negative
poles of the HVDC transmission line. This fault can be caused by various
factors such as insulation failure, equipment malfunction, or external
disturbances like lightning strikes.

During a DC line fault, the current flowing through the fault location can
increase significantly, leading to a sudden imbalance in the system. This
imbalance can affect the commutation process of the line-commutated
converter, which is responsible for converting AC power to DC and vice versa.
The fault can disrupt the normal commutation process, causing irregular
voltage and current waveforms.

To mitigate the effects of DC line faults in LCC systems, protective measures

such as circuit breakers and fault detection systems are employed. Circuit
breakers are used to isolate the faulty section of the line, while fault detection
systems monitor the system for abnormalities and trigger protective actions
when necessary.

Swift detection and prompt resolution of DC line faults are crucial to ensure
the reliability and stability of LCC-based HVDC systems, minimizing downtime
and preventing further damage.

Explain DC line faults in VSC systems.

DC line faults in VSC (Voltage Source Converter) systems refer to abnormal
conditions that occur in the direct current (DC) transmission line used to connect
VSC-based converters. Here's a short explanation of DC line faults in VSC systems:

1. VSC Systems: VSC systems are power electronic-based systems used for high-
voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission. They consist of converters that
convert AC power to DC power and vice versa, enabling efficient transmission
of electricity over long distances.
2. DC Transmission Line: In VSC systems, the DC transmission line connects the
converters, allowing the flow of DC power between them. It serves as a crucial
link in the HVDC system.
3. DC Line Faults: DC line faults occur when abnormal conditions arise in the DC
transmission line. These faults can result from various causes, such as
insulation failure, short circuits, or equipment malfunction.
4.
4. Impact: DC line faults can have several consequences in VSC systems. They can
lead to interruptions or disturbances in the transmission of DC power,
resulting in potential power outages or disruptions in the connected AC grids.
5. Protection Mechanisms: To mitigate the effects of DC line faults, protective
measures are implemented in VSC systems. These include fault detection
techniques, such as monitoring DC line voltage and current, as well as rapid
fault isolation methods to limit the faulted section and prevent further
damage.
6. Fault Clearance: Once a DC line fault is detected, the faulty section needs to
be cleared quickly to restore the system's normal operation. This involves
isolating the faulted segment and initiating actions to rectify the fault, such as
opening circuit breakers or activating fault-clearing devices.
Explain Mono-polar Operation of HVDC link.
12.2 POWERSYSTEM STABILITY-BASIC CONCEPTS
Power system stability is an important issue for secure system operation. Many major
are characterized by system instability. Historically, transient instability has beenblackouts
a major
Droblem. However, with the introduction of new technologies (such as static exciters with high
gain electronic AVRs) and increased operation under highly stressed conditions have
given risge
to new forms of instability. The problems of voltage instability and collapse, undamped interarea
Oscillations have become more significant than transient instability. The issue of frequency
control is also of concern when synchronism is lost and islands are formed with the loss of major
tie lines.
Aformal definition of power system stability is given in reference [3]by the IEEE/CIGRE
Joint Task Force on Stability Terms and Definitions. They define 'Power System Stability is
the ability of an electric power system, for a given operating condition, to regain a state of
operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables
bounded so that practically the entire system remains intact'.
It is to be noted that power systems are subjected to a wide range of disturbances, small
and large. Small disturbances in the form of random load variations occur continually. Large
disturbances such as short circuit on a transmission line followed by tripping of the line (by the
action of the prote ction system consisting of relays and circuit breakers) are major ones. The
disturbances. It is to be
loss of a large generator or connection of a large load are also large
noted that malfunction of the equipment, overloading or failure of the protection system can
Systems are designed to
result in disconnection of generators and/ or transmission lines. Power
handle Credible contingencies without loss of system integrity. The operating margins in
demand even under (credible)
generation and transmission should take care of the load
operating in a 'normal' state (where load
contingencies or disturbances. Thus, a power system
 HVDC Power Transmission
308
to operate in the no
Systerms
demands are met and equipment constraints are not violated) continues
in
state although the operating equilibrium may change; if the system 1s stable. Note that.
new equilibrium state, the network topology may be different than the initial topology, due
the tripping of some generators and/ or transmission lines.
Mathematically, the steady-state equilibrium in a power system can be represented as a
point in a suitably defined state space (of large dimensions). A disturbance (small or large) oo
result in the equilibrium shifting to another point in the state space. "The trajectory of the system
from the initial to the finalequilibrium point must be bounded in the state space to prevent
break up of the system, if it is to remain stable.
Classification of power system stability
There are three broad categories of power system stability.
Rotor Angle Stability refers to the ability of synchronous machines in an inter.
connected power system to remain in synchronism after being subjected to a
disturbance. It depends on the ability to maintain/restore equilibrium between the
electromagnetic torque and mechanical torque of each synchronous machine in the
system. Instability that may result, occurs in the form of loss of synchronism with
other machines.
The change in electromagnetic torque of a synchronous machine following a
can be resolved into two components: perturbation
1. Synchronizing torque component; in phase with rotor angle deviation
2. Damping torque component, in phase with the speed
deviation.
(Note there is an implicit assumption here, that the speed
and sinusoidal. System stability requires deviation is (initially) small
existence of
Inadequate synchronizing torque results in aperiodic orboth components of torque.
non-oscillatory instability,
whereas lack of damping torque results in oscillatory instability.
these definitions apply strictly for small It is to be noted that
For convenience of analysis, the rotor angle disturbances.
(a) Small-disturbance (or stability is divided into two subcate gories:
(b) Large-disturbance (or
small-signal) stability
transient) stability.
Mathematically, the small-signal stability (in the past, also called as dynamic
is the stability of equilibrium point. Linearized models are stability)
used to study this form of
stability. Eigenvalue analysis is the basic
swing modes and other important modes. approach to investigate the stability of various
are loosely divided into three Depending on the freguency, the swing modes
groups () Intraplant (iü) local
intraplant modes have the highest frequency and as and (iii) interarea. The
synchronous the name suggests, only
generators
of generators participate in within aplant
participate. the other hand, a large group
On
interarea
PSS on individual generators have modes which have the lowest frequency. While
their tuning requirements which been used extensively for damping swing modes,
depend
viewed as a problem (4]. It is in this on the system operating conditions, are stl
applied in modern power electronic context, the modulation controls are invariably
controllers
Transient stability depends on both the initial involving HVDC and FACTS.
disturbances. Mathematically, the system is operating stateof the system and the
transiently stable if the trajectoy
 Modulation
309
approaches a stable
equilibrium points haveequilibrium point after the
a region (in state
space) of
transients die down. All stable
starting from any point in the region attraction where all the trajectories
Hence, is adequate to check
it gravitate towards the (stable)
equilibrium point.
whether the
attraction for the post-disturbance equilibrium pont system trajectory enters the region of
whether the system is transiently stable. The (assuming it is stable), to determine
studies is usually 3-5 seconds following the time frame of interest in transient stability
with dominant interarea
swings.
disturbance. It may extend to 10-20 seconds
B. Voltage Stability refers to the
ability of the power system to maintain steady CHA
12
at all buses in the system
following a disturbance, It depends on the ability to voltages
restore equilibrium between load demand and maintain/
supply from thepower system. Voltage
instability results in voltage collapse at some load buses. The
operating state can be either aperiodic or oscillatory. The factors trajectory from the initial
that affect voltage
stability are primarily (a) reactive power constraints imposed by generator field
limiters, increased reactive power consumption in stressed transmission networks current
and
(6) dynamics of load restoration whether through inherent dynamics (in an induction
motor) or controller dynamics (HVDC converters, tap-changing transformers,
thermostatically or electronically controlled loads). Voltage stability is also divided into
two categories:
(a) Small disturbance (or small signal) voltage stability
(6) Large disturbance voltage stability .
In addition, the classification is also based on (i) Short term and (iü) Long term based
on the study period of interest. In the former case, the period is in the order of several
seconds. In the latter case, it may extend to several minutes.
C. Frequency Stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady
frequency following a significant imbalance between generation and load. It depends
load. Instability
on the ability to maintain/ restore equilibrium between generation and
generators and/
occurs in the form of sustained frequency swings leading to tripping of
processes or protection not
or loads. Modelling for frequency stability analysis involves
as boiler dynamics, Volts/
modelled in conventional transient stability analysis such
of frequency stability becomes essential
Hertz protection tripping of generators. The study
Modelling for frequency stability includes
following splitting of the system into islands. acting underfrequency load shedding and
from fast
a wide spectrum of control actions mover controls and load voltage regulators.
generator controls to slow response of prime
short-term or a long-term phenomenon.
Thus frequency stability may be a

POWER MODULATION: BASIC PRINCIPLES

12.3
12,3.1 Synchronous Link 12.1. Each area is represented by an equivalent
shown in Fig. classical models of voltage
sources
Consider a two area system are represented by
generators block diagram
generator. Assuming that the linearized system can be represented by the added to the
the
behind transient reactances, that the output of the auxiliary controller is
assumed
shown in Fig. 12.2. It is
 310 YStems
controllers. The total electrical toe
reference value at the summing junction before the power
the sum of Pac and Pno.
T is assumed to be same as the power output (P) which is
E, 26, X3 E, Z04
X
mm PAC
+Ppo
Local Load Local Load

Fig. 12.1: A two area system

K
|ATe1
ATm OB
2Hs

Ale2
Kg F(s)
1+S dc

V
AUX.
Controller

Fig. 12.2: System block diagram

Thecontroller and system dynamics are
be shown (with some represente d by a single time constant (Ta). It can
approximations) that
AP = AT, = APAC + APpc = K,AÑ,2 +
where K,APpc (12.1)

K, =(EE,/X )cos &2 K, =Xg[X (12.la)

X =X +X, +X, H =
The superscript 'o indicates the value at HH,(H, + H,), Ao =sAðj2 (12.2)
the operating point, 's' is the
Thecontrol signal y determines F(s). If bus Laplace variable.
signal, it can be shown that frequency deviation (sASaa)is used as thecontrol
F= K (12.3)
srability Analysis and Power
Modulation
T* is not
feasible to use signal Ao dire ctly. 311
twoconverter buses 1s thethe most The difference in
the frequency
appreciable, the control appropriate signal
signal can be generated by to be used. If the
length ofmeasured
at the
the DC line is
power in the AC line in
parallel. This is because, differentiating the signal derived from the
Controller structure (12.4)
If the time delay Tac can be
ignored, it is possible to improve the damping and
torgues in the system by having 12
CHAPT
controller structure as synchronizing
G(s) = Kp +(K,/s) (12.5)
The first term in the above
expression
contributes to the synchronizing torque.introduces damping torque, while the second term
The time delays in thefeedback path due
link controllers can be overcome by introducing phase to the DO
is to only damp oscillations, K, can be set lead compensators in series. If the objective
equal to zero.
The controller gain K, has to be chosen such that the
damping of the low frequency rotor
oscillations is maximum without destabilizing other modes. If an interarea mode (the dominant
mode of oscillations in the tie lines between two are as) is to be damped, it may be
filter the control signal such that other modes are eliminated before passing throughrequired to
the
controller.
The analysis presented above is simplified to indicate the basic nature of the effects of DC
power modulation on the system damping. In a large system,there are many generators and a
two machine idealization may not be adequate in accurate prediction of the performance of the
auxiliary controlers. However, even this simplified analysis shows that the effectiveness of the
controller is reduced considerably if X, <<(X, +X, +X¡). The controller gain cannot be
increased beyonda limit due to the DC link dynamics and reactive power constraints. The typical
locus of the rotor mode with variation in the controller gain is shown in Fig. 12.3.

Im (s)

0.0
Re(s)

variation in controller gain

Fig. 12.3: Locus of rotor mode eigenvalue with

12.3.2 Asynchronous Link signal contains two components, derived

In the case of an asynchronous DClink, the control
of the link and can be combined in any
from the frequency deyiations at the two terminals
 312 HVDC Power Transmission Systems
proportion. The major objective here is to use the DClink for the frequency control of the two
areas interconnected by the link. In addition, as the control is fast, it also helps to damp
Oscillations in ACties which may be at some distance fromn the DC link.
Consider, for example, the system shown in Fig. 12.4. It is assumed that the areas 2 and
3 are very large compared to area 1. For the equivalent generator representing area 1, we have
the following equation (considering classical model)
p°(Aö,) = -(o, /2H, (AP c +APpc) (12.6)

2 3

Poc PAC
Fig. 12.4: System with asynchronous DC link
where
p=dldt
It can be assumed that

APAC = K, A6, (12.7)

By proper design of the auxiliary controller, we can arrange to have
APpc = K(pAð,) (12.8)
In this case, it can be seen that the oscillations in Aô, and consequently in the power flow
in the AC tie are damped. If the size of the area 3 is not very large, it would be necessary to
obtain the feedback from the frequency deviation of area 3also, to obtain satisfactory damping
[5].
12.5 VOLTAGE STABILITY IN AC/DC SYSTEMS
12.5.1 General
The incidence of heavily loaded long
reactive support can lead toproblemsdist£nce transmission lines coupled with the problems of
of voltage instability - the system
slow voltage collapse. This problem has
occurred in AC
breakdown caused by
France in 1978, being a well known incident. systems; the major power failure in
The load characteristics also influence the
the reactivepower requirement reduces with the
voltage stability. The load characteristic, where
problem. increase in the voltage, accentuates the stability
The DO link may be viewed as dynamic loads at the
at the constant value of the control angle (usually converter buses. The converter operation
extinction angle at the inverter), combined
with low short circuit ratio at the converter bus, can lead to the
problem of
Before investigating the problem of voltage stability in AC/DC systems, the voltage instability.
explanation of the
phenomenon is given below considering the example of a simple two bus system.
12:5,2 Explanation of Voltage Stability Problem
Consider a single machine system feeding power to a large load centre as shown in Fig. 12.9.
As mentioned earlier, the voltagestability is related to the steady-state stability, which can be
analyzed, as a first approximation, using the algebraic network equations.
2
Gen 1

Local Load

Fig. 12.9: A single machine system

 318 HVDC Power Transmission Systerme

eqivalent
It can be assumed that the generator is represented by a voltage source behind an
reactance. The system can be represented by the simple equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 12,l0
where bus 1is the internal bus of the generator. If bus 2 is assumed to be an infinite bus, its
voltage is constant both in magnitude and angle. In this case, the criterion for steady state e

stability is given by
K= (dPlds)> 0 (12.9) wh

EZ8
Z
Ps, Qs

A
Fig. 12.10: A two bus system
The characteristics of the load connected to bus 2 has no effect on the stability.
In most of the cases, the assumption of an infinite bus is unre alistic. If the capacity of the
generators connected to bus 2 is much larger than the capacity of generator 1, it is realisticto
consider the frequency at bus 2 as constant. However, if the reactive power available at bus 2
is limited and has slow control (with manually switched capacitors /reactors) it is not realistic
to assume the voltage magnitude as constant. In such cases, the bus 2 may be called as semi
infinite bus (SIB), where reactive power and angle ô are specified.
If the power output of the generator is varied slowly, allowing enough time for the control
of voltage at bus 2 using manually switched capacitors/reactors, the maximum power that can
be transmitted on the line is still given by Eq.(12.9). However, the system will lose stability
prior to the power level at which K= 0. This can be shown as follows:
If the voltage at bus 2 is variable due to reactive power constraints, the criterion for stability
now becomes

AP
Kç = = [(OP /08) + (OP/•VOV /O8)] > 0 (12.10)
The Jacobian of the power flow equations at bus 2, can be expressed as

(12.11)
where

J, = (OP/ O6),J, =(aP /OV), J, =(0Q/08), J4 =(0Q/•v)

For alossless line, it can be shown that
PEVsin& EV cos 8-y?
X
,Q=
X
where X is the net reactance of the line.
 dhd Power Modulation
J, and J, are 319
normally positive while J, and J, are
Q =Q, -Q negative. Since
where GQ. is the reactive power (12.12)
we can obtain supplied by the local sources at bus 2, and if Q, remain8
constant,
where
AP =(J,-J,JJ,) Aö
(12,13)
J{ =(0Q/OV) -(0Q, /•V) 12
CH
From Egs.(12.10) and (12.13), the
steady-state stability criterion can be expressed as
Kç =(J, -J,J;,)>0 (12.14)
As J, and J are both negative,
Kç < K (12.15)
as, K = (OPOS) =J
If the load characteristics are such that (0Q,OV)>0, the stability limit is increased as
Kç willbe increased. On the other hand, if (aQ,,/àv) <0, the stability limit will decrease.
The voltage stability criterion is usually given as [22, 33]
VSF = (AV/AQ,) p=const> 0 (12.16)
when VSF is termed as voltage stability (or sensitivity) factor.
It can be shown that Eg.(12.16) is equivalent to Eq. (12.14). This follows from the fact that

VSF =(J; -JzJJ,) (12.17)

(J,J;' ).
The inequality (12.16) can be derived from Eq. (12.14) by multiplying the latter by
the voltage instability
The equivalence between Eqs. (12.14) and (12.16) shows clearly, thatpower constraints. The
the reactive
occurrence coincides with the steady state instability under
reactive power supply, the bus voltage
condition VSF <0impies that with the increase in the
As all the reactive power controllers
reduces. This is contrary to what is normally expected.
on the principle of boosting the reactive power when the voltage drops, it is obvious that
work regulators, the bus voltage will collapse.
even with slow acting automatic voltage with
problem, fast acting reactive power controllerstimes
To overcome the voltage instability that the voltage support is available at all
adequate margins have to be provided such
(withvarying load conditions of the system). Controller
Qso
Vref G(s)

System
G (s)
diagram
Fig. 12.11: Reactive power controller-block
320 HVDC Power Transmission Systems

In designing the reactive power controller. the system characteristics will influence the
choice of the gain. This is illustrated from the block diagram shown in Fig. 12.11. As afirst
approximation, the system dynamics can be neglected and the transfer function becom
G(s)= VSF = dV ldQ (12.18)

The magnitude and the sign of VSF will affect the controller design. Thus, adaptive control in
voltage regulation can overcome the problems of voltage instability.
How to enhance frequency stability using HVDC control ; short and point wise

* Implement active power control in HVDC systems to regulate the power flow between
interconnected AC systems and stabilize frequency.
Utilize inertia emulation techniques in HVDC control to mimic the inertial response of
traditional synchronous generators and provide virtual inertia to the AC system, aiding in
frequency stability during disturbances.
* Apply frequency droop control in HVDC systems, allowing the power flow to
automatically adjust in response to frequency deviations and aid in frequency regulation.
Employ AC-side voltage control strategies to maintain stable voltage levels, which
indirectly contribute to frequency stability.
" Implement advanced control algorithms and coordination schemes that enable effective
communication and coordination between HVDC systems and AC grid control systems,
facilitating frequency stability.
" Continuously monitor frequency deviations in the AC system and use real-time
measurements and feedback to adjust HVDC power flow and maintain stable frequency.
" Conduct thorough system modeling, analysis, and simulations to optimize HVDC control
parameters and strategies for frequency stability enhancement.
" Conduct research and development to improve HVDCcontrol technologies, explore new
control approaches, and enhance system performance and stability.
Coordinate HVDC control with other grid control mechanisms, such as automatic
generation control (AGC), to ensure effective frequency stability enhancement across the
interconnected AC systems.