Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 7th Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill, 2011©

Chapter 4
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF
CLOSED SYSTEMS
 Energy balance for a constant-pressure
expansion or compression process
General analysis for a closed system For a constant-pressure expansion
undergoing a quasi-equilibrium or compression process:

U + Wb = H
constant-pressure process. Q is to the
system and W is from the system.

An example of constant-pressure process

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 SPECIFIC HEATS
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the pressure is maintained constant.

Constant-
volume and
constant-
Specific heat is the energy pressure specific
required to raise the heats cv and cp
temperature of a unit mass (values are for
of a substance by one helium gas).
degree in a specified way. 9
• The equations in the figure are valid for any substance undergoing any
process.
• cv and cp are properties.
• cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in
enthalpy.
• A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg · °C or kJ/kg · K. Are these units
identical?

Formal definitions of cv and cp.

The specific heat of a substance

changes with temperature.

True or False?
cp is always greater than cv.
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INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY,
AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES

Joule showed
using this
experimental Internal energy and
apparatus that For ideal gases,
enthalpy change of
u=u(T) u, h, cv, and cp
an ideal gas
vary with
temperature only.
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• At low pressures, all real gases approach • u and h data for a number of
ideal-gas behavior, and therefore their gases have been tabulated.
specific heats depend on temperature only. • These tables are obtained by
• The specific heats of real gases at low choosing an arbitrary reference
pressures are called ideal-gas specific point and performing the
heats, or zero-pressure specific heats, and integrations by treating state 1
are often denoted cp0 and cv0. as the reference state.

Ideal-gas
constant-
pressure
specific heats
for some
gases (see In the preparation of ideal-gas
Table A–2c tables, 0 K is chosen as the
for cp reference temperature.
equations). 12
Internal energy and enthalpy change when
specific heat is taken constant at an
average value

(kJ/kg)

For small temperature intervals, the

specific heats may be assumed to vary
linearly with temperature.

The relation  u = cv T
is valid for any kind of
process, constant-
volume or not.
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Three ways of calculating u and h
1. By using the tabulated u and h data.
This is the easiest and most
accurate way when tables are
readily available.
2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table
A-2c) as a function of temperature
and performing the integrations. This
is very inconvenient for hand
calculations but quite desirable for
computerized calculations. The
results obtained are very accurate.
3. By using average specific heats.
This is very simple and certainly very
convenient when property tables are
not available. The results obtained Three ways of calculating u.
are reasonably accurate if the
temperature interval is not very
large.

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 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
The relationship between cp, cv and R

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis

Specific
heat ratio

• The specific ratio varies with

temperature, but this variation is
very mild.
• For monatomic gases (helium,
argon, etc.), its value is essentially
constant at 1.667.
The cp of an ideal gas can be
determined from a knowledge of • Many diatomic gases, including air,
cv and R. have a specific heat ratio of about
1.4 at room temperature.
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INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND
SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume
(or density) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible
substances.

The specific volumes of The cv and cp values of

incompressible substances incompressible substances are
remain constant during a identical and are denoted by c.
process.
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Internal Energy Changes

Enthalpy Changes

The enthalpy of a
compressed liquid
A more accurate relation than 17
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Summary
• Moving boundary work
✓ Wb for an isothermal process
✓ Wb for a constant-pressure process
✓ Wb for a polytropic process
• Energy balance for closed systems
✓ Energy balance for a constant-pressure expansion or
compression process
• Specific heats
✓ Constant-pressure specific heat, cp
✓ Constant-volume specific heat, cv
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gases
✓ Specific heat relations of ideal gases
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of
incompressible substances (solids and liquids)

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