International Islamic University Islamabad

(IIUI)
Department Of Politics and International Relations
ASSIGNMENT
Course Title: Psychology
Assignment No: 01
Submitted To: Miss Tehmina
Submitted By: Faryal Khattak
Registration No: 528-FSS/BSPS/F-21
Date Of Submission: 20-12-2022
 Table Of Content
• Explain Freud, Jung, Adler, Roger and Tolman theory of
personality.
• What is social psychology?
• Explain stereotype and prejudice.
• What is organizational psychology?
• Explain advertising and marketing
 Explain Freud, Jung, Adler, Roger and Tolman theory of personality.

1: Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalysis
A system of psychological theory and therapy that aims to treat mental conditions by
investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing re
pressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation
and free association.
Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality:
Freud wrote that instincts were the basic elements of the personality, the motivating forces that
drive behavior and determine its direction, such as hunger, that drive a person to take certain
actions.

Two Types of Instincts Freud grouped the instincts into two categories:

Life instincts: The life instincts serve the purpose of survival of the individual and the species by
seeking to satisfy the needs for food, water, air, and sex. The life instincts are oriented toward
growth and development.

The psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido.

Death instincts: The unconscious drive toward decay, destruction, and aggression.

Aggressive drive the compulsion to destroy, conquer, and kill.

The Levels of Personality/Mind

Freud’s original conception divided personality into three levels: the conscious, the
preconscious, and the unconscious.

• The preconscious consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the
conscious mind.

• The conscious mind contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of
which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing that
 we can think and talk about rationally. This also includes our memory, which is not
always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily and brought into awareness.

• The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are
outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious contains contents that are
unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.

The Structure of Personality

• The Id According to Freudian theory, the id is the component of personality that forms
the basis of our most primitive impulses. The id is entirely unconscious, and it drives our
most important motivations, including the sexual drive (libido) and the aggressive or
destructive drive (Thanatos). According to Freud, the id is driven by the pleasure
principle — the desire for immediate gratification of our sexual and aggressive urges.

Example: The id is why we smoke cigarettes, drink alcohol, view pornography, tell mean
jokes about people, and engage in other fun or harmful behaviors, often at the cost of doing
more productive activities.

• The Superego represents our sense of morality and oughts. The superego tells us all the
things that we shouldn’t do, or the duties and obligations of society. The superego strives
for perfection, and when we fail to live up to its demands, we feel guilty.
• The Ego the function of the ego is based on the reality principle — the idea that we
must delay gratification of our basic motivations until the appropriate time with the
appropriate outlet. The ego is the largely conscious controller or decision-maker of
personality. The ego serves as the intermediary between the desires of the id and the
constraints of society contained in the superego. We may wish to scream, yell, or hit, and
 yet our ego normally tells us to wait, reflect, and choose a more appropriate response.

Anxiety: A Threat to the Ego

Anxiety To Freud, a feeling of fear and dread without an obvious cause; reality anxiety is a fear
of tangible dangers; neurotic anxiety involves a conflict between id and ego; moral anxiety
involves a conflict between id and superego.

The Major Freudian Defense Mechanisms Against Anxiety.

Defense
Definition Possible behavioral example
mechanism

A student who is angry at her professor

Diverting threatening impulses away
for a low grade lashes out at her
Displacement from the source of the anxiety and
roommate, who is a safer target of her
toward a more acceptable source
anger.

A man with powerful unconscious sexual

Disguising threatening impulses by
Projection desires for women claims that women
attributing them to others
use him as a sex object.
Defense
Definition Possible behavioral example
mechanism

Generating self-justifying A drama student convinces herself that

Rationalization explanations for our negative getting the part in the play wasn’t that
behaviors important after all.

Jane is sexually attracted to friend Jake,

Reaction Making unacceptable motivations
but she claims in public that she intensely
formation appear as their exact opposite
dislikes him.

Retreating to an earlier, more A university student who is worried

Regression childlike, and safer stage of about an important test begins to suck on
development his finger.

A person who witnesses his parents

Repression (or Pushing anxiety-arousing thoughts
having sex is later unable to remember
denial) into the unconscious
anything about the event.

A person participates in sports to

Channeling unacceptable sexual or
sublimate aggressive drives. A person
Sublimation aggressive desires into acceptable
creates music or art to sublimate sexual
activities
drives.
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development.

Approximate
Stage Description
ages

Birth to 18 Pleasure comes from the mouth in the form of sucking, biting, and
Oral
months chewing.

18 months to 3 Pleasure comes from bowel and bladder elimination and the
Anal
years constraints of toilet training.

Pleasure comes from the genitals, and the conflict is with sexual
Phallic 3 years to 6 years
desires for the opposite-sex parent.

Latency 6 years to puberty Sexual feelings are less important.

If prior stages have been properly reached, mature sexual orientation

Genital Puberty and older
develops.

Critical Evaluation
Freud's theory is good at explaining but not at predicting behavior (which is one of the goals of
science). For this reason, Freud's theory is unfalsifiable - it can neither be proved true or refuted.
For example, the unconscious mind is difficult to test and measure objectively. Overall, Freud's
theory is highly unscientific.

Despite the skepticism of the unconscious mind, cognitive psychology has identified
unconscious processes, such as procedural memory (Tulving, 1972), automatic processing
(Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Stroop, 1935), and social psychology has shown the importance of
implicit processing (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). Such empirical findings have demonstrated the
role of unconscious processes in human behavior.

However, most of the evidence for Freud's theories are taken from an unrepresentative sample.
He mostly studied himself, his patients and only one child (e.g., Little Hans). The main problem
here is that the case studies are based on studying one person in detail, and with reference to
Freud, the individuals in question are most often middle-aged women from Vienna (i.e., his
patients). This makes generalizations to the wider population (e.g., the whole world) difficult.
However, Freud thought this unimportant, believing in only a qualitative difference between
people.

2: Carl Jung
Analytical Psychology
Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System One of the first points on which Jung disagreed
with Freud involved the nature of libido. Jung did not believe that libido was primarily a sexual
energy; he argued instead that it was a broad, undifferentiated life energy.

Jung used the term libido in two ways: first, as a diffuse and general life energy, and second,
from a perspective similar to Freud’s, as a narrower psychic energy that fuels the work of the
personality, which he called the psyche. It is through psychic energy that psychological activities
such as perceiving, thinking, feeling, and wishing are carried out.

When a person invests a great deal of psychic energy in a particular idea or feeling, it is said to
have a high psychic value and can strongly influence the person’s life. For example, if you are
highly motivated to achieve power, then you will devote most of your psychic energy to devise
ways of obtaining it.
Principles of Psychic Energy

• Opposition principle Jung’s idea that conflict between opposing processes or tendencies
is necessary to generate psychic energy.
• Equivalence principle the continuing redistribution of energy within a personality; if the
energy expended on certain conditions or activities weakens or disappears, that energy is
transferred elsewhere in the personality.
• Entropy principle a tendency toward balance or equilibrium within the personality; the
ideal is an equal distribution of psychic energy over all structures of the personality

Aspects of Personality

Jung believed that the total personality, or psyche, is composed of several distinct systems or
aspects that can influence one another.

The Ego. To Jung, the conscious aspect of personality.

The Attitudes: Extraversion and Introversion

• Extraversion An attitude of the psyche characterized by an orientation toward the

external world and other people.
• Introversion An attitude of the psyche characterized by an orientation toward one’s own
thoughts and feelings.

Jung’s Psychological Types

• Extraverted thinking Logical, objective, dogmatic

• Extraverted feeling Emotional, sensitive, sociable; more typical of women than men
• Extraverted sensing Outgoing, pleasure seeking, adaptable
• Extraverted intuiting Creative, able to motivate others, and to seize opportunities
• Introverted thinking More interested in ideas than in people
• Introverted feeling Reserved, undemonstrative, yet capable of deep emotion
• Introverted sensing Outwardly detached, expressing themselves in aesthetic pursuits
• Introverted intuiting Concerned with the unconscious more than everyday reality
The Personal Unconscious The reservoir of material that was once conscious but has been
forgotten or suppressed.

Complexes To Jung, a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes in the
personal unconscious organized around a common theme, such as power or status.

The Collective Unconscious The deepest level of the psyche containing the accumulation
of inherited experiences of human and pre-human species.

Archetypes images of universal experiences contained in the collective unconscious.

1. The Persona The word persona refers to a mask that an actor wears to display various
roles or faces to the audience. Jung used the term with basically the same meaning. The
persona archetype is a mask, a public face we wear to present ourselves as someone
different from who we really are. The persona is necessary, Jung believed, because we are
forced to play so many roles in life in order to succeed in school and on the job and in
getting along with a variety of people.
2. The Anima and Animus The anima and animus archetypes refer to Jung’s recognition
that humans are essentially bisexual. On the biological level, each sex secretes the
hormones of the other sex as well as those of its own sex. On the psychological level, each
sex manifests characteristics, temperaments, and attitudes of the other sex by virtue of
centuries of living together. The psyche of the woman contains masculine aspects (the
animus archetype), and the psyche of the man contains feminine aspects (the anima
archetype).
3. The Shadow The dark side of the personality; the archetype that contains primitive animal
instincts.
4. The Self To Jung, the archetype that represents the unity, integration, and harmony of the
total personality.

Jung’s developmental stages

• Childhood Ego development begins when the child distinguishes between self and others.
• Puberty to young adulthood Adolescents must adapt to the growing demands of reality.
The focus is external, on education, career, and family. The conscious is dominant.
 • Middle age A period of transition when the focus of the personality shifts from external to
internal in an attempt to balance the unconscious with the conscious.

Critical Evaluation
Jung’s ideas have not been as popular as Freud’s. This might be because he did not write from
the layman and as such his ideas were not a greatly disseminated as Freud’s. It may also be
because his ideas were a little more mystical and obscure, and less clearly explained.

On the whole modern psychology has not viewed Jung’s theory of archetypes kindly. Ernest
Jones (Freud’s biographer) tells that Jung “Descended into a pseudo-philosophy out of which he
never emerged” and to many his ideas look more like New Age mystical speculation than a
scientific contribution to psychology.

However, while Jung’s research into ancient myths and legends, his interest in astrology and
fascination with Eastern religion can be seen in that light, it is also worth remembering that the
images he was writing about have, as a matter of historical fact, exerted an enduring hold on the
human mind.

Furthermore, Jung himself argues that the constant recurrence of symbols from mythology in
personal therapy and in the fantasies of psychotics support the idea of an innate collective
cultural residue. In line with evolutionary theory, it may be that Jung’s archetypes reflect
predispositions that once had survival value.

However, Jung’s work has also contributed to mainstream psychology in at least one significant
respect. He was the first to distinguish the two major attitudes or orientations of personality –
extroversion and introversion. He also identified four basic functions (thinking, feeling, sensing,
and intuiting) which in a cross-classification yield eight pure personality types.

Psychologists like Hans Eysenck and Raymond Cattell have subsequently built upon this. As
well as being a cultural icon for generations of psychology undergraduates Jung, therefore, put
forward ideas which were important to the development of modern personality theory.
 3: Alfred Adler

Individual Psychology
Developed by Alfred Adler, Individual Psychology is a theory of human behavior and a
therapeutic approach that encourages individuals to make positive contributions to society as
well as to achieve personal happiness.

Compensation, Overcompensation, and Complexes

Adler thought that the basic psychological element of neurosis was a sense of inferiority and
that individuals suffering with the symptoms of this phenomenon spent their lives trying to
overcome the feelings without ever being in touch with reality (White, 1917)

Compensation for Weaknesses

According to Adler (2013b), all infants have a feeling of inferiority and inadequacy immediately
as they begin to experience the world.

These early experiences, such as the need to gain the parents’ attention, shape the child’s
unconscious, fictive goals. They give the child a need to strive towards rectifying that inferiority
— a need to compensate for weakness by developing other strengths.

There are several outcomes that can occur on a child’s quest for compensation. First, if the child
receives adequate nurturing and care, the child can accept his challenges, and learn that they can
be overcome with hard work. Thus, the child develops “normally” and develops the “courage to
be imperfect” (Lazarsfeld, 1966, pp. 163-165).

Overcompensation
However, sometimes, the process of compensation goes awry. One way in which this happens is
that the feelings of inferiority become too intense, and the child begins to feel as though he has
no control over his surroundings. He will strive very strenuously for compensation, to the point
that compensation is no longer satisfactory.
This culminates in a state of overcompensation, where the child’s focus on meeting his goal is
exaggerated and becomes pathological. For example, Adler (1917) uses the ancient Greek figure
Demosthenes, who had a terrible stutter but ended up becoming the “greatest orator in Greece”

Here, Demosthenes started off with an inferiority due to his stutter, and overcompensated by not
just overcoming his stutter, but taking up a profession that would normally be impossible for a
stutterer.

Inferiority Complex
Overcompensation can lead to the development of an inferiority complex. This is a lack of self-
esteem where the person is unable to rectify his feelings of inferiority.

According to Adler (2013a), the hallmark of an inferiority complex is that “persons are always
striving to find a situation in which they excel”. This drive is due to their overwhelming feelings
of inferiority.

There are two components of these feelings of inferiority: primary and secondary. Primary
inferiority is the “original and normal feeling” of inferiority maintained by an infant. This
feeling is productive, as it provides motivation for the child to develop.

Secondary inferiority, on the other hand, is the inferiority feeling in the adult results when the
child develops an exaggerated feeling of inferiority. These feelings in the adult are what is
harmful, and they comprise the inferiority complex.

Superiority Complex
The superiority complex occurs when a person has the need to prove that he is more superior
than he truly is. Adler (2013a) provides an example of a child with a superiority complex, who is
“impertinent, arrogant and pugnacious”.

When this child is treated through psychotherapy, it is revealed that the child behaves in this
impatient manner because he feels inferior.

Adler (2013a) claims that superiority complexes are born out of inferiority complexes; they are
“one of the ways which a person with an inferiority complex may use a method of escape from
his difficulties”.
Personality Typology, or Styles of Life
Adler did not approve of the concept of personality types; he believed that this practice could
lead to the neglect of each individual’s uniqueness.

However, he did recognize patterns that often formed in childhood and could be useful in
treating patients who fit into them. He called these patterns styles of life.

Adler (2013a) claimed that once a psychologist knows a person’s style of life, “it is possible to
predict his future sometimes just on the basis of talking to him and having him answer
questions”. Adler and his followers analyze a person’s style of life by comparing it to “the
socially adjusted human being”.

Birth Order

The term birth order refers to the order in which the children of a family were born. Adler
believed that birth order had a significant and predictable impact on a child’s personality:

First-Born children have inherent advantages due to their parents recognizing them as “the
larger, the stronger, the older.”

This gives first-born children the traits of “a guardian of law and order.” These children have a
high amount of personal power, and they value the concept of power with reverence.

Second-Born children are constantly in the shadow of their older siblings. They are incessantly
“striving for superiority under pressure,” driven by the existence of their older, more powerful
sibling.

If the second-born is encouraged and supported, he will be able to attain power as well, and he
and the first-born will work together.

Youngest Children operate in a constant state of inferiority. They are constantly trying to prove
themselves, due to their perceptions of inferiority relative to the rest of their family. According to
Adler, there are two types of youngest children.

The more successful type “excels every other member of the family, and becomes the family’s
most capable member.”
Another, more unfortunate type of youngest child does not excel because he lacks the necessary
self-confidence. This child becomes evasive and avoidant towards the rest of the family.

Only Children, according to Adler, are also an unfortunate case.

Due to their being the sole object of their parents’ attention, the only child becomes “dependent
to a high degree, waits constantly for someone to show him the way, and searches for support at
all times.”

They also come to see the world as a hostile place due to their parents’ constant vigilance.

Critical Evaluation
As with all psychodynamic approaches to human psychology, Adlerian individual psychology
receives criticism for being unscientific and difficult to empirically prove. Specifically, its focus
on the unconscious fictive goal makes it arguable that Adlerian psychology is unfalsifiable.

Though Adler’s theories are difficult to definitively prove, recent neuroscience has provided
some support. A recent study summarizing modern neuroscientific evidence, and how it relates
to Adlerian psychology, agreed with a statement made by Maslow in 1970:

“Adler becomes more and more correct year by year. As the facts come in, they give stronger
and stronger support to his image of man” (Miller & Dillman Taylor, 2016, p. 125).

In regards to Adlerian psychotherapy, the modern-day attitude is that while the practice is simple
and easy for the layman to understand, it is flawed because it is not empirically based.

Adler’s form of counseling is criticized for its lack of depth, notably, its lack of a foundation that
deals with issues not related to concepts such as birth order and early recollections (Capuzzi &
Stauffer, 2016, p. 142).
 4: Carl Rogers'

Humanistic Theory of Personality Development

Humanistic psychology is a perspective that emphasizes looking at the the whole person,
and the uniqueness of each individual. Humanistic psychology begins with the existential
assumptions that people have free will and are motivated to achieve their potential and self-
actualize.

Personality Development

Central to Rogers' personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept. This is defined as "the
organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself."

The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our inner
personality, and can be likened to the soul, or Freud's psyche. The self is influenced by the
experiences a person has in their life, and out interpretations of those experiences. Two primary
sources that influence our self-concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others.

According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are
consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-
self. The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent
we are and the higher our sense of self-worth.

A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is

unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image.

The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves.

Three Components of Self Concept:

1. Self-worth Self-worth (or self-esteem) comprises what we think about ourselves. Rogers
believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the
interaction of the child with the mother and father.
2. Self-image How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-
image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. At a simple level,
 we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image
affects how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world.
3. Ideal-self This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and
ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e., forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is
not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.

Positive Regard and Self Worth

Two Faces Illustrating High Self Esteem Saying - I am the best

Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard from other
people and self-worth.

How we think about ourselves, our feelings of self-worth are of fundamental importance both to
psychological health and to the likelihood that we can achieve goals and ambitions in life and
achieve self-actualization.

Self-worth may be seen as a continuum from very high to very low. For Carl Rogers (1959) a
person who has high self-worth, that is, has confidence and positive feelings about him or
herself, faces challenges in life, accepts failure and unhappiness at times, and is open with
people.

A person with low self-worth may avoid challenges in life, not accept that life can be painful and
unhappy at times, and will be defensive and guarded with other people.

Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the
interaction of the child with the mother and father. As a child grows older, interactions with
significant others will affect feelings of self-worth.

Rogers believed that we need to be regarded positively by others; we need to feel valued,
respected, treated with affection and loved. Positive regard is to do with how other people
evaluate and judge us in social interaction. Rogers made a distinction between unconditional
positive regard and conditional positive regard.
Unconditional Positive Regard

Unconditional positive regard is where parents, significant others (and the humanist therapist)
accept and loves the person for what he or she is. Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person
does something wrong or makes a mistake.

The consequences of unconditional positive regard are that the person feels free to try things out
and make mistakes, even though this may lead to getting it worse at times.

People who are able to self-actualize are more likely to have received unconditional positive
regard from others, especially their parents in childhood.

Conditional Positive Regard

Conditional positive regard is where positive regard, praise, and approval, depend upon the child,
for example, behaving in ways that the parents think correct.

Hence the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she behaves
only in ways approved by the parent(s).

At the extreme, a person who constantly seeks approval from other people is likely only to have
experienced conditional positive regard as a child.

Congruence

A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in life and experiences of
the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience.
This is called incongruence.

Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state of
congruence exists. Rarely, if ever, does a total state of congruence exist; all people experience a
certain amount of incongruence.
The development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard. Carl Rogers
believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence.

According to Rogers, we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are consistent with
our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self.

The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we
are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if
some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the
self-image.

Incongruence is "a discrepancy between the actual experience of the organism and the self-
picture of the individual insofar as it represents that experience.

As we prefer to see ourselves in ways that are consistent with our self-image, we may use
defense mechanisms like denial or repression in order to feel less threatened by some of what
we consider to be our undesirable feelings.

A person whose self-concept is incongruent with her or his real feelings and experiences will
defend because the truth hurts.
Self-Actualization

"The organism has one basic tendency and striving - to actualize, maintain, and enhance the
experiencing organism” (Rogers, 1951, p. 487).

Rogers rejected the deterministic nature of both psychoanalysis and behaviorism and maintained
that we behave as we do because of the way we perceive our situation. "As no one else can know
how we perceive, we are the best experts on ourselves."

Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-
actualize - i.e., to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness' we
can.

Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is
constrained by its environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their
environment is good enough.

However, unlike a flower, the potential of the individual human is unique, and we are meant to
develop in different ways according to our personality. Rogers believed that people are
inherently good and creative.

They become destructive only when a poor self-concept or external constraints override the
valuing process. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must
be in a state of congruence.

This means that self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self” (i.e., who they would like
to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image).

Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main
determinant of whether we will become self-actualized is childhood experience.

The Fully Functioning Person

Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goal. This means that the person is in
touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings, continually growing
and changing.
In many ways, Rogers regarded the fully functioning person as an ideal and one that people do
not ultimately achieve. It is wrong to think of this as an end or completion of life’s journey;
rather it is a process of always becoming and changing.

Five Characteristics of The Fully Functioning Person:

1. Open to Experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not
denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense mechanisms).

2. Existential Living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding
prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always
looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for the moment).

3. Trust Feelings: feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People’s
own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices.

4. Creativity: creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person’s life. A person does not
play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new experiences.

5. Fulfilled Life: a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new
challenges and experiences.

For Rogers, fully functioning people are well adjusted, well balanced and interesting to know.
Often such people are high achievers in society.

Critical Evaluation
Critics claim that the fully functioning person is a product of Western culture. In other cultures,
such as Eastern cultures, the achievement of the group is valued more highly than the
achievement of any one person.
 4: Edward C. Tolman

Latent Learning
Latent learning is a type of learning which is not apparent in the learner's behavior at the time of
learning, but which manifests later when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear. This
shows that learning can occur without any reinforcement of a behavior.

The idea of latent learning was not original to Tolman, but he developed it further. Edward
Tolman argued that humans engage in this type of learning everyday as we drive or walk the
same route daily and learn the locations of various buildings and objects. Only when we need to
find a building or object does learning become obvious Tolman conducted experiments with rats
and mazes to examine the role that reinforcement plays in the way that rats learn their way
through complex mazes. These experiments eventually led to the theory of latent learning

Cognitive maps as an example of latent learning in rats

Tolman coined the term cognitive map, which is an internal representation (or image) of external
environmental feature or landmark. He thought that individuals acquire large numbers of cues
(i.e. signals) from the environment and could use these to build a mental image of an
environment (i.e. a cognitive map).

By using this internal representation of a physical space they could get to the goal by knowing
where it is in a complex of environmental features. Short cuts and changeable routes are possible
with this model.

In their famous experiments Tolman and Honzik (1930) built a maze to investigate latent
learning in rats. The study also shows that rats actively process information rather than operating
on a stimulus response relationship.
Aim To demonstrate that rats could make navigational decisions based on knowledge of the
environment, rather than their directional choices simply being dictated by the effects of rewards.

Procedure In their study 3 groups of rats had to find their way around a complex maze. At the
end of the maze there was a food box. Some groups of rats got to eat the food, some did not, and
for some rats the food was only available after 10 days.

Group 1: Rewarded

• Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, given food (i.e. reinforced).

Group 2: Delayed Reward

• Day 1 - 10: Every time they got to end, taken out.

• Day 11 -17: Every time they got to end, given food (i.e. reinforced).

Group 3: No reward

• Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, taken out.

Results

The delayed reward group learned the route on days 1 to 10 and formed a cognitive map of the
maze. They took longer to reach the end of the maze because there was no motivation for them
to perform.

From day 11 onwards they had a motivation to perform (i.e. food) and reached the end before the
reward group.

This shows that between stimulus (the maze) and response (reaching the end of the maze) a
mediational process was occurring the rats were actively processing information in their brains
by mentally using their cognitive map (which they had latently learned).

Critical Evaluation
The behaviorists stated that psychology should study actual observable behavior, and that
nothing happens between stimulus and response (i.e. no cognitive processes take place).

Edward Tolman (1948) challenged these assumptions by proposing that people and animals are
active information processes and not passive learners as Behaviorism had suggested. Tolman
developed a cognitive view of learning that has become popular in modern psychology.

Tolman believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs,
attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman is virtually the only
behaviorists who found the stimulus-response theory unacceptable, because reinforcement was
not necessary for learning to occur. He felt behavior was mainly cognitive.

What is social psychology? Explain stereotype and prejudice

What Is Social Psychology?

According to psychologist Gordon Allport, social psychology uses scientific methods "to
understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced
by the actual, imagined, or implied the presence of other human beings."1 Essentially, social
psychology is about understanding how each person's individual behavior is influenced by
the social environment in which that behavior takes place.

You probably already realize that other people can have a dramatic influence on the way you
act and the choices you make. Consider how you might behave in a situation if you were all
alone versus if there were other people in the room.

The decisions you make and the behaviors you exhibit might depend on not only how many
people are present but exactly who you are around. For example, you are likely to behave
much differently when you are around a group of close friends than you would around a
group of colleagues or supervisors from work.

Social psychology encompasses a wide range of social topics, including:

• Group behavior

• Social perception

• Leadership

• Nonverbal behavior

• Conformity

• Aggression

• Prejudice
 It is important to note that social psychology is not just about looking at social
influences. Social perception and social interaction are also vital to understanding social
behavior.

The way that we see other people (and the way we think they see us) can play a powerful role
in a wide variety of actions and decisions. Just think for a moment about how you sometimes
act differently in a public setting than you might if you were at home by yourself. At home,
you might be loud and rambunctious, while in public you might be much more subdued and
reserved.

Why is this? Because the people around us shape our thoughts, feelings, moods, attitudes,
and perceptions. The presence of other people can make a difference in the choices we make
and the actions we take.

While social psychology tends to be an academic field, the research that social psychologists
perform has a powerful influence on our understanding of mental health and well-being. For
example, research on conformity helps explain why teenagers sometimes go to such great
lengths to fit in with their social group—sometimes to the detriment of their own health and
wellness.2

Understanding this helps psychologists develop public health programs and treatment
approaches for adolescents. These can help teenagers resist potentially harmful behaviors
such as smoking, drinking, and substance use.

Stereotypes and Prejudice

The social groups we belong to, help form our identities (Tajfel, 1974) and people are often
biased against others outside of their own social group (out-groups), showing prejudice
(emotional bias), stereotypes (cognitive bias), and discrimination (behavioral bias). These
three aspects of bias are related, but they each can occur separately from the others (Dovidio
& Gaertner, 2010; Fiske, 1998).
 Stereotypes

A stereotype is a specific belief or assumption (thoughts) about individuals based solely on

their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics. Stereotypes can be
positive or negative and when overgeneralized are applied to all members of a group. For
example, the model minority stereotype of Asian Americans as highly intelligent, diligent
and good at math can be damaging professionally, academically (Trytten et al., 2012). These
beliefs are overgeneralized to all members of the group, even though many of the individual
group members may in fact be struggle academically and professionally.

Another example of a well-known stereotype involves beliefs about racial differences

among athletes. As Hodge, Burden, Robinson, and Bennett (2008) point out, black male athletes
are often believed to be more athletic, yet less intelligent, than their white male counterparts.
These beliefs persist despite a number of high-profile examples to the contrary. Sadly, such
beliefs often influence how these athletes are treated by others and how they view themselves
and their own capabilities. Stereotypes are universal. Whether or not you agree with a stereotype
the content of stereotypes is generally well-known within in a given culture (Devine, 1989).
What Is Prejudice?

Prejudice is an often-negative preconception or attitude toward members of a group.1 It can

have a strong influence on how people behave and interact with others—particularly with
those who are different in some regard—even if on an unconscious level.

Common features of prejudice include having negative feelings and holding stereotyped
beliefs about members of the group, as well as a tendency to discriminate against them. In
society, we often see prejudices based on characteristics like race, sex, religion, culture, and
more.

When people hold prejudicial attitudes toward others, they tend to view everyone with the
defining characteristic as being "all the same." They paint every individual who holds
specific characteristics or beliefs with a very broad brush and fail to look at each person as a
unique individual.

Prejudice vs. Discrimination

Sometimes, prejudice is confused with discrimination. While prejudice involves having

negative attitudes toward members of a certain group, discrimination occurs when those
feelings are acted upon.

Types of Prejudice

There are numerous types of prejudice, some of which include:

• Ageism, such as believing that someone is "too old" or "too young" to work in a
particular role or participate in a specific activity

• Classism, which may include having a negative belief about someone based on their
income or looking down on someone because they are "poor" or a member of the
working class

• Homophobia, often defined as feeling a sense of discomfort, fear, distrust, or hatred for
people who are members of the LGBTQ+ community and do not identify as heterosexual
 • Nationalism, which involves believing that the interests of your state's group are more
important than those of other groups

• Racism, which involves having a negative attitude toward members of a certain racial or
ethnic group rooted in systems of power and oppression

• Religious prejudice, which involves feeling negatively toward someone because of their
religious beliefs, practices, or ideologies

• Sexism, which involves holding certain stereotypes or beliefs about someone based on
their sex or gender, such as feeling as if they can't (or can) do something based on this
factor

• Xenophobia, which involves disliking or fearing someone who the person considers
"foreign" or "strange," often in the context of their native country

What is organizational psychology? Explain advertising and marketing

Organizational Psychology By definition organizational psychology is the area of

psychology concerns human behavior and interactions between people in the workplace. It is
often referred to as Industrial and Organizational Psychology or I O psychology, I O
psychologists apply psychological principles and practices to solve issues and improve moral
between superiors and staff, as well as between coworkers. They assist human resources
professionals in hiring the right employees and treating them properly when letting them go.
They help bosses:

• place their staff most efficiently

• motivate their employees
• create positive workplace cultures
They help businesses create success by organizing structure and studying consumer needs and
wants.
HOW IO PSYCHOLOGY WORKS

I O psychologists accomplish these tasks in a number of ways. They introduce reward systems,
both internal and external, to help motivate employees. Internal reward includes things like
praise, while external includes things like bonuses and benefits. The Global Institute for
Research & Education explains that according to Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation, employees
who are motivated work more efficiently. IO psychologists conduct a wide variety of surveys.
They use them to find out customer demands and satisfaction. They are helpful in assessing:

• employee morale
• goals
• opinion
I O psychologists are especially interested in opinions and attitudes employees are not
comfortable divulging directly to their superiors.

Advertising and Marketing

Marketing is a business practice that involves identifying, predicting and meeting customer
needs. Effective marketing strategies help businesses isolate how best to serve their client base,
while maximizing revenue at the same time. In business-to-consumer (B2C) marketing,
marketing efforts are directed toward consumers. In business-to-business (B2B) marketing,
marketing efforts are directed toward other businesses. In both B2C and B2B efforts, there are
several important factors to consider when developing a marketing strategy. More specifically,
savvy marketers will evaluate:

• Orientation — marketing orientation refers to the guiding principles of the business itself,
often referred to as business philosophy or corporate culture. Typically, organizations will decide
to orient around product, sales, production or marketing.
• Mix — the marketing mix functions as a decision-making guide for a company’s marketing
efforts. A modern marketing mix will usually focus on the four Cs: client/customer, cost,
convenience and communication.

• Environment — the marketing environment refers to every factor that could impact a
company in the execution of marketing strategy or decision-making. In this vein, companies
should consider the internal environment within their organization. External factors—such as
macro and micro environments—are also important to consider.

• Market — the target market refers to the characteristics of a company’s ideal client case.
Research and segmentation efforts can help isolate the geographic and demographic factors that
will help a company market and sell its products or services. After a careful evaluation of the
orientation, mix, environment and market, it is possible to assess the costs and benefits of various
marketing methods and strategies. This part of the planning process is vitally important, as there
are many different ways a business can engage in marketing efforts.

Types of Marketing

• Digital Marketing — Digital marketing refers to application of marketing strategies to

electronic communication devices, such as computers or smartphones. Digital marketing
strategies often leverage search engines, email, websites, blogs and other techniques to reach
customers.

• Social Media Marketing — a subset of digital marketing, social media marketing uses social
platforms such as Facebook or Twitter to reach potential clients. This style of marketing allows
companies to take advantage of earned media from individuals outside of their organization. An
evolving part of social media marketing is influencer marketing, where popular users are
compensated for promoting a company’s products or services.
• Global Marketing — between globalization and the internet, some of the world’s largest
companies have developed global brands. Accordingly, global marketing enables these
companies to employ a unified strategy to reach customers at the local, regional, national and
international levels at the same time.
• Relationship Marketing — Relationship marketing eschews invasive strategies such as
commercials or ads and relies on customer happiness instead. Relying on strategies that help
retain and satisfy customers, relationship marketing strives to establish a long-time and loyal
client base.

• Brand Management — Brand management attempts to create a bond between customer and a
particular company’s brand. To do so, it is necessary to evaluate a company’s products or
services as well as logo, design, packaging and other elements. Brand management also assesses
aspects of the target market, direct competition and existing customer relationships

• Product Development — Product development is the process of transforming a business

opportunity into a sellable product or service. Development can occur with existing products or
new products. Successful product development involves many marketing concepts, including
identification of client needs as well as market research and analysis.

Advertising is defined as any form of paid communication by an identified sponsor aimed to

inform and/or persuade target audiences about an organization, product, service or idea.

Market psychology deals with human behavior in markets. Explains and makes forecast about
market behavior in terms of supply and demand. The study of individuals, groups, or
organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services,
experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer
and society.

Functions of advertising

• Commercial sponsorship
 • Facilitates competition among firms
• Funding mass media
• Serving as key employer to thousands of professionals worldwide
• Informing and persuading

Approaches to Advertising

• Naive approach, assumes, advertising must be effective because it is omnipresent,

expenditures are large and ever increasing.
• Economic approach, tries to address efficiency by correlating expenditures with
aggregated changes in sales volume.
• Media approach, effectiveness is defined as number of persons in target population
who have been exposed to message.
• Creative approach, equates effectiveness with creativity, widespread among
advertising agencies.
• Psychological approach, aims at identifying effects of advertising at the individual
level. Investigates intrapersonal, interpersonal or group-level psychological processes
responsible for relationship between ad stimuli and consumer responses.

Psychological approach

• Psychological approach goes back to Walter Scott, publishing a paper about The
Psychology of Advertising in 1904.
• Focus on types of consumer responses, types of advertising stimuli affecting these
responses, and the types of postulated, causal relations between advertising stimuli
and consumer responses.
• Cognitive consumer responses are beliefs and thoughts about brands, also attitudes
and preferences.
• Affective consumer responses entail various more or less transient emotions and
moods towards an ad, e.g. warmth, fear, pride, anger.
• Behavioral responses include the intention and actual behavior in response to
advertising.