Multiplexer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about electronics switching. For telecommunications, see multiplexing.

Schematic of a 2-to-1 Multiplexer. It can be equated to a controlled switch.

Schematic of a 1-to-2 Demultiplexer. Like a multiplexer, it can be equated to a controlled switch.

In electronics, a multiplexer (or mux) is a device that selects one of several analog or digital input signals and

forwards the selected input into a single line. [1] A multiplexer of  inputs has  select lines, which are used to select
which input line to send to the output.[2] Multiplexers are mainly used to increase the amount of data that can be sent
over the network within a certain amount of time and bandwidth.[1] A multiplexer is also called adata selector.
Multiplexers can also be used to implement Boolean functions of multiple variables.
An electronic multiplexer makes it possible for several signals to share one device or resource, for example, oneA/D
converter or one communication line, instead of having one device per input signal.
Conversely, a demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking a single input signal and selecting one of many data-
output-lines, which is connected to the single input. A multiplexer is often used with a complementary demultiplexer
on the receiving end.[1]
An electronic multiplexer can be considered as a multiple-input, single-output switch, and a demultiplexer as
asingle-input, multiple-output switch.[3] The schematic symbol for a multiplexer is an isosceles trapezoid with the
longer parallel side containing the input pins and the short parallel side containing the output pin. [4] The schematic on
the right shows a 2-to-1 multiplexer on the left and an equivalent switch on the right. The  wire connects the desired
input to the output.

Cost saving[edit]

The basic function of a multiplexer: combining multiple inputs into a single data stream. On the receiving side, a demultiplexer
splits the single data stream into the original multiple signals.

One use for multiplexers is economizing connections over a single channel, by connecting the multiplexer's single
output to the demultiplexer's single input. The image to the right demonstrates this benefit. In this case, the cost of
implementing separate channels for each data source is higher than the cost and inconvenience of providing the
multiplexing/demultiplexing functions.
At the receiving end of the data link a complementary demultiplexer is usually required to break the single data
stream back down into the original streams. In some cases, the far end system may have functionality greater than
a simple demultiplexer; and while the demultiplexing still occurs technically, it may never be implemented discretely.
This would be typical when: a multiplexer serves a number of IP network users; and then feeds directly into a router,
which immediately reads the content of the entire link into its routing processor; and then does the demultiplexing in
memory from where it will be converted directly into IP sections.

Often, a multiplexer and demultiplexer are combined together into a single piece of equipment, which is
conveniently referred to as a "multiplexer". Both circuit elements are needed at both ends of a transmission link
because most communications systems transmit in both directions.

In analog circuit design, a multiplexer is a special type of analog switch that connects one signal selected from
several inputs to a single output.

Digital multiplexers[edit]

In digital circuit design, the selector wires are of digital value. In the case of a 2-to-1 multiplexer, a logic value of 0
would connect  to the output while a logic value of 1 would connect  to the output. In larger multiplexers, the number
of selector pins is equal to  where  is the number of inputs.

For example, 9 to 16 inputs would require no fewer than 4 selector pins and 17 to 32 inputs would require no fewer
than 5 selector pins. The binary value expressed on these selector pins determines the selected input pin.

A 2-to-1 multiplexer has a boolean equation where  and  are the two inputs,  is the selector input, and  is the output:

A 2-to-1 mux

Which can be expressed as a truth table:

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0
 0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 1

Or, in simpler notation:

0 A

1 B

These tables show that when  then  but when  then . A straightforward realization of this 2-to-1 multiplexer
would need 2 AND gates, an OR gate, and a NOT gate. While this is mathematically correct, a direct physical
implementation would be prone to race conditions that require additional gates to suppress.[5]

Larger multiplexers are also common and, as stated above, require  selector pins for  inputs. Other common
sizes are 4-to-1, 8-to-1, and 16-to-1. Since digital logic uses binary values, powers of 2 are used (4, 8, 16) to
maximally control a number of inputs for the given number of selector inputs.

4-to-1 mux


8-to-1 mux

16-to-1 mux

The boolean equation for a 4-to-1 multiplexer is:

The following 4-to-1 multiplexer is constructed from 3-state buffers and AND gates (the AND gates are
acting as the decoder):

A 4:1 MUX circuit using 3 input AND and other gates

The subscripts on the  inputs indicate the decimal value of the binary control inputs at which that input is let
through.
Chaining multiplexers[edit]
Larger Multiplexers can be constructed by using smaller multiplexers by chaining them together. For
example, an 8-to-1 multiplexer can be made with two 4-to-1 and one 2-to-1 multiplexers. The two 4-to-1
multiplexer outputs are fed into the 2-to-1 with the selector pins on the 4-to-1's put in parallel giving a total
number of selector inputs to 3, which is equivalent to an 8-to-1.

List of ICs which provide multiplexing[edit]

The 7400 series has several ICs that contain multiplexer(s):

IC No. Function Output State

Quad 2:1
74157 Output same as input given
mux.

Quad 2:1
74158 Output is inverted input
mux.

74153 Dual 4:1 mux. Output same as input

74352 Dual 4:1 mux. Output is inverted input

74151A 8:1 mux. Both outputs available (i.e., complementary outputs)

74151 8:1 mux. Output is inverted input

74150 16:1 mux. Output is inverted input

Digital demultiplexers[edit]

Demultiplexers take one data input and a number of selection inputs, and they have several outputs. They
forward the data input to one of the outputs depending on the values of the selection inputs. Demultiplexers
are sometimes convenient for designing general purpose logic, because if the demultiplexer's input is
always true, the demultiplexer acts as a decoder. This means that any function of the selection bits can be
constructed by logically OR-ing the correct set of outputs.

If X is the input and S is the selector, and A and B are the outputs:
Example: A Single Bit 1-to-4 Line Demultiplexer

List of ICs which provide demultiplexing[edit]

Fairchild 74F138

The 7400 series has several ICs that contain demultiplexer(s):

IC No.
IC No. (4000) Function Output State
(7400)

Dual 1:4
74139 Output is inverted input
demux.

Dual 1:4
74156 Output is open collector
demux.
 74138 1:8 demux. Output is inverted input

74238 1:8 demux.

74154 1:16 demux. Output is inverted input

74159 CD4514/15 1:16 demux. Output is open collector and same as input

Multiplexers as PLDs[edit]

Multiplexers can also be used as programmable logic devices, specifically to implement Boolean functions.
Any Boolean function of n variables and one result can be implemented with a multiplexer with n selector
inputs. The variables are connected to the selector inputs, and the function result, 0 or 1, for each possible
combination of selector inputs is connected to the corresponding data input. This is especially useful in
situations when cost is a factor, for modularity, and for ease of modification. If one of the variables (for
example, D) is also available inverted, a multiplexer with n-1 selector inputs is sufficient; the data inputs are
connected to 0, 1, D, or ~D, according to the desired output for each combination of the selector inputs. [6]

Waveguide
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about waveguides in the most general sense. For ordinary metal-pipe waveguides, see Waveguide
(electromagnetism). For optical waveguides, see Waveguide (optics).

A section of flexible waveguide with a pressurizable flange

Electric field Ex component of the TE31 mode inside an x-band hollow metal waveguide.

A waveguide is a structure that guides waves, such as electromagnetic waves or sound, with minimal loss of
energy by restricting expansion to one dimension or two. There is a similar effect in water waves constrained within
a canal, or why guns have barrels that restrict hot gas expansion to maximize energy transfer to their bullets.
Without the physical constraint of a waveguide, wave amplitudes decrease according to the inverse square law as
they expand into three dimensional space.

There are different types of waveguides for each type of wave. The original and most common [1] meaning is a hollow
conductive metal pipe used to carry high frequency radio waves, particularly microwaves.

The geometry of a waveguide reflects its function. Slab waveguides confine energy in one dimension, fiber or
channel waveguides in two dimensions. The frequency of the transmitted wave also dictates the shape of a
waveguide: an optical fiber guiding high-frequency light will not guide microwaves of a much lower frequency. As
a rule of thumb, the width of a waveguide needs to be of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the
guided wave.

Some naturally occurring structures can also act as waveguides. The SOFAR channel layer in the ocean can guide
the sound of whale song across enormous distances.[2]

History[edit]

The first structure for guiding waves was proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1893, and was first experimentally tested
by Oliver Lodge in 1894. The first mathematical analysis of electromagnetic waves in a metal cylinder was
performed by Lord Rayleigh in 1897.[3] For sound waves, Lord Rayleigh published a full mathematical analysis
of propagation modes in his seminal work, “The Theory of Sound”. [4] Jagadish Chandra Bose researched millimetre
wavelengths using waveguides, and in 1897 described to the Royal Institution in London his research carried out in
Kolkata.[5]

The study of dielectric waveguides (such as optical fibers, see below) began as early as the 1920s, by several
people, most famous of which are Rayleigh, Sommerfeld and Debye.[6] Optical fiber began to receive special
attention in the 1960s due to its importance to the communications industry.

The development of radio communication initially occurred at the lower frequencies because these could be more
easily propagated over large distances. The long wavelengths made these frequencies unsuitable for use in hollow
metal waveguides because of the impractically large diameter tubes required. Consequently, research into hollow
metal waveguides stalled and the work of Lord Rayleigh was forgotten for a time and had to be rediscovered by
others. Practical investigations resumed in the 1930s by George C. Southworth at Bell Labs and Wilmer L.
Barrow at MIT. Southworth at first took the theory from papers on waves in dielectric rods because the work of Lord
Rayleigh was unknown to him. This misled him somewhat; some of his experiments failed because he was not
aware of the phenomenon of waveguide cutoff frequency already found in Lord Rayleigh's work. Serious theoretical
work was taken up by John R. Carson and Sallie P. Mead. This work led to the discovery that for the TE 01 mode in
circular waveguide losses go down with frequency and at one time this was a serious contender for the format for
long distance telecommunications.[7]

The importance of radar in World War II gave a great impetus to waveguide research, at least on the Allied side.
The magnetron developed in 1940 by John Randalland Harry Boot at the University of Birmingham in the United
Kingdom provided a good power source and made microwave radars feasible. The most important centre of
research was at the Radiation Laboratory (Rad Lab) at MIT but many others took part in the US, and in the UK such
as the Telecommunications Research Establishment. The head of the Fundamental Development Group at Rad Lab
was Edward Mills Purcell. His researchers included Julian Schwinger, Nathan Marcuvitz, Carol Gray Montgomery,
and Robert H. Dicke. Much of the Rad Lab work concentrated on finding lumped element models of waveguide
structures so that components in waveguide could be analysed with standard circuit theory. Hans Bethe was also
briefly at Rad Lab, but while there he produced his small aperture theory which proved important for waveguide
cavity filters, first developed at Rad Lab. The German side, on the other hand, largely ignored the potential of
waveguides in radar until very late in the war. So much so that when radar parts from a downed British plane were
sent to Siemens & Halske for analysis, even though they were recognised as microwave components, their purpose
could not be identified.

At that time, microwave techniques were badly neglected in Germany. It was generally believed that it was of no use
for electronic warfare, and those who wanted to do research work in this field were not allowed to do so.

— H. Mayer, wartime vice-president of Siemens & Halske

German academics were even allowed to continue publicly publishing their research in this field because it was not
felt to be important.[8]

Immediately after World War II waveguide was the technology of choice in the microwave field. However, it has
some problems; it is bulky, expensive to produce, and the cutoff frequency effect makes it difficult to produce
wideband devices. Ridged waveguide can increase bandwidth beyond an octave, but a better solution is to use a
technology working in TEM mode (that is, non-waveguide) such as coaxial conductors since TEM does not have a
cutoff frequency. A shielded rectangular conductor can also be used and this has certain manufacturing advantages
over coax and can be seen as the forerunner of the planar technologies (stripline andmicrostrip). However, planar
technologies really started to take off when printed circuits were introduced. These methods are significantly
cheaper than waveguide and have largely taken its place in most bands. However, waveguide is still favoured in the
higher microwave bands from around Ku band upwards.[9]
Uses[edit]

Waveguide supplying power for theArgonne National Laboratory Advanced Photon Source.

The uses of waveguides for transmitting signals were known even before the term was coined. The phenomenon of
sound waves guided through a taut wire have been known for a long time, as well as sound through a hollow pipe
such as a caveor medical stethoscope. Other uses of waveguides are in transmitting power between the
components of a system such as radio, radar or optical devices. Waveguides are the fundamental principle
of guided wave testing (GWT), one of the many methods of non-destructive evaluation.

Specific examples:

 Optical fibers transmit light and signals for long distances with low attenuation and a wide usable range of
wavelengths.
 In a microwave oven a waveguide transfers power from the magnetron, where waves are formed, to the cooking
chamber.
 In a radar, a waveguide transfers radio frequency energy to and from the antenna, where the impedance needs
to be matched for efficient power transmission (see below).
 Rectangular and Circular waveguides are commonly used to connect feeds of parabolic dishes to their
electronics, either low-noise receivers or power amplifier/transmitters.
 Waveguides are used in scientific instruments to measure optical, acoustic and elastic properties of materials
and objects. The waveguide can be put in contact with the specimen (as in a medical ultrasonography), in which
case the waveguide ensures that the power of the testing wave is conserved, or the specimen may be put inside
the waveguide (as in a dielectric constant measurement [10]), so that smaller objects can be tested and the
accuracy is better.
 Transmission lines are a specific type of waveguide, very commonly used.
Propagation modes and cutoff frequencies[edit]
A propagation mode in a waveguide is one solution of the wave equations, or, in other words, the form of the wave.
[6]
 Due to the constraints of the boundary conditions, there are only limited frequencies and forms for the wave
function which can propagate in the waveguide. The lowest frequency in which a certain mode can propagate is
the cutoff frequency of that mode. The mode with the lowest cutoff frequency is the fundamental mode of the
waveguide, and its cutoff frequency is the waveguide cutoff frequency.

Propagation modes are computed by solving the Helmholtz equation alongside a set of boundary conditions
depending on the geometrical shape and materials bounding the region. The usual assumption for infinitely long
uniform waveguides allows to assume a propagating form for the wave, i.e. stating that every field component has a
known dependency on the propagation direction (i.e. ). More specifically, the common approach is to first replace all
unknown time-varying unknown fields  (assuming for simplicity to describe the fields in cartesian components) with
their complex phasors representation , sufficient to fully describe any infinitely long single-tone signal at frequency ,
(angular frequency ), and rewrite the Helmholtz equation and boundary conditions accordingly. Then, every
unknown field is forced to have a form like , where the  term represents the propagation constant (still unknown)
along the direction along which the waveguide extends to infinity. The Helmholtz equation can be rewritten to
accommodate such form and the resulting equality needs to be solved for  and , yielding in the end an eigenvalue
equation for  and a corresponding eigenfunction for each solution of the former.[11]

The propagation constant  of the guided wave is complex, in general. For a lossless case, the propagation constant
might be found to take on either real or imaginary values, depending on the chosen solution of the eigenvalue
equation and on the angular frequency . When  is purely real, the mode is said to be "below cutoff", since the
amplitude of the field phasors tends to exponentially decrease with propagation; an imaginary , instead, represents
modes said to be "in propagation" or "above cutoff", as the complex amplitude of the phasors does not change with .
[12]

Impedance matching[edit]
In circuit theory, the impedance is a generalization of electrical resistivity in the case of alternating current, and is
measured in ohms ().[6] A waveguide in circuit theory is described by a transmission line having a length and
characteristic impedance. In other words, the impedance indicates the ratio of voltage to current of the circuit
component (in this case a waveguide) during propagation of the wave. This description of the waveguide was
originally intended for alternating current, but is also suitable for electromagnetic and sound waves, once the wave
and material properties (such as pressure, density, dielectric constant) are properly converted into electrical terms
(current and impedance for example).

Impedance matching is important when components of an electric circuit are connected (waveguide to antenna for
example): The impedance ratio determines how much of the wave is transmitted forward and how much is reflected.
In connecting a waveguide to an antenna a complete transmission is usually required, so an effort is made to match
their impedances.

The reflection coefficient can be calculated using: , where  is the reflection coefficient (0 denotes full transmission, 1
full reflection, and 0.5 is a reflection of half the incoming voltage),  and  are the impedance of the first component
(from which the wave enters) and the second component, respectively.

An impedance mismatch creates a reflected wave, which added to the incoming waves creates a standing wave. An
impedance mismatch can be also quantified with the standing wave ratio (SWR or VSWR for voltage), which is
connected to the impedance ratio and reflection coefficient by: , where  are the minimum and maximum values of
the voltage absolute value, and the VSWR is the voltage standing wave ratio, which value of 1 denotes full
transmission, without reflection and thus no standing wave, while very large values mean high reflection and
standing wave pattern.

Electromagnetic waveguides[edit]
Main articles: Waveguide (electromagnetism) and transmission line

Waveguides can be constructed to carry waves over a wide portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, but are
especially useful in the microwave and opticalfrequency ranges. Depending on the frequency, they can be
constructed from either conductive or dielectric materials. Waveguides are used for transferring bothpower and
communication signals.

In this military radar, microwave radiation is transmitted between the source and the reflector by a waveguide. The figure
suggests that microwaves leave the box in a circularly symmetric mode (allowing the antenna to rotate), then they are converted
to a linear mode, and pass through a flexible stage. Their polarisation is then rotated in a twisted stage and finally they irradiate
the parabolic antenna.

Optical waveguides[edit]
Main article: Waveguide (optics)

Waveguides used at optical frequencies are typically dielectric waveguides, structures in which a dielectric material
with highpermittivity, and thus high index of refraction, is surrounded by a material with lower permittivity. The
structure guides optical waves by total internal reflection. An example of an optical waveguide is optical fiber.

Other types of optical waveguide are also used, including photonic-crystal fiber, which guides waves by any of
several distinct mechanisms. Guides in the form of a hollow tube with a highly reflective inner surface have also
been used as light pipes for illumination applications. The inner surfaces may be polished metal, or may be covered
with a multilayer film that guides light by Bragg reflection (this is a special case of a photonic-crystal fiber). One can
also use small prisms around the pipe which reflect light via total internal reflection [2]—such confinement is
necessarily imperfect, however, since total internal reflection can never truly guide light within a lower-index core (in
the prism case, some light leaks out at the prism corners).

Acoustic waveguides[edit]
Main article: Waveguide (acoustics)

An acoustic waveguide is a physical structure for guiding sound waves. A duct for sound propagation also behaves
like atransmission line. The duct contains some medium, such as air, that supports sound propagation.

Mathematical waveguides[edit]
Main article: Wave equation

Waveguides are interesting objects of study from a strictly mathematical perspective. A waveguide (or tube) is
defined as type of boundary condition on the wave equation such that the wave function must be equal to zero on
the boundary and that the allowed region is finite in all dimensions but one (an infinitely long cylinder is an example.)
A large number of interesting results can be proven from these general conditions. It turns out that any tube with a
 bulge (where the width of the tube increases) admits at least one bound state. This can be shown using the
variational principles. An interesting result by Jeffrey Goldstone and Robert Jaffe [13] is that any tube of constant
width with a twist, admits a bound state.

Best Equipment for Radio Stations

Equipment
Here’s the best equipment for radio broadcasts we used to setup an advanced station.

1. Computer / Laptop: MacBook Air (Buy on Amazon USA or Amazon UK).

2. Mixing Desk: Behringer DX2000USB Pro Mixer (Buy on Amazon USA or Amazon UK).
3. Microphone: Blue Spark (Buy on Amazon USA or Amazon UK).
4. Boom Arm: Rode PSA1 (Buy on Amazon USA or Amazon UK).
5. Shock Mount: Samson SP01 (Buy on Amazon USA or Amazon UK).
6. Microphone Processor: DBX 286S (Buy on Amazon USA or Amazon UK (286S is
unavailable, but the 166XS is a good alternative)).
7. Headphones: Beyerdynamic DT770 (Buy on Amazon USA or Amazon UK).
8. Soundcard: External 7.1 Surround Soundcard (Buy on Amazon USA or Amazon UK).
9. Cables: x1 Headphone to jack L/R (Buy on Amazon USA or Amazon UK) – x1 Jack
headphone adapter converter plug (Buy on Amazon USA or Amazon UK) – x2 XLR to XLR
(male to female) (Buy on Amazon USA or Amazon UK) – x1 Male USB A to Male USB B (Buy
on Amazon USA orAmazon UK) – x1 Audio Line In (Phone Cable) (Buy on Amazon
USA or Amazon UK).

Mixing Desk – Behringer DX2000USB Pro Mixer

Let’s start with the hub of any radio studio, the mixing desk. We recommend the Behringer
DX2000USB Pro Mixer as a good option, which has plenty of inputs to power multiple mics
and full-length faders to give you precision control.
The DX2000USB takes in different audio channels and pushes them together ready for
broadcasting out online. This model offers 7 channels – 2 are preamp phantom power
microphone connections, ideal for you and a guest; the remaining 5 can be used to hook up
to your computer, or external devices such as CD players. The DX2000USB retails at $310 /
£250.

Microphone – Blue Spark

The Blue Spark is an advanced condenser microphone ideal for studio setups as it’s highly
sensitive and provides a great warm sound, so it’s perfect for spoken word.

Sensitive condenser microphones like this are great for picking up every little bit of audio from
multiple people, instruments, and any other noises in your studio. The Blue Spark retails at
$240 / £190.
On a side note, there’s the Rode Procaster dynamic microphone as an alternative if you’re in
a loud area. As opposed to the Blue Spark, it only focuses on audio directly in front which
helps eliminate background noises.

Boom Arm & Shock Mount – Rode PSA1 & Samson

SP01
A boom arm and shock mount are tools used to maneuver and stabilise your microphone. A
swivelling boom arm can be adjusted for height and direction so it can be quickly moved on
the fly. The shock mount secures your mic in place and can be adjusted in different directions.

With the Rode PSA1 you can attach the boom arm to the edge of your table and use the
cable ties for a cleaner looking setup. The Samson SP01 fits with the Blue Spark to reduce
vibrations for better sounding audio. Rode PSA1 retails at $90 / £70 – Samson SP01 retails at
$40 / £30.

Microphone Processor – DBX 286S

The DBX 286S is a microphone processor that gives your audio a grander feel. It functions as
a power supply for condenser mics and has features to enhance your voice like a de-esser
which removes unwanted “S” noises and cleans up bad signals.
Essentially the microphone processor gives audio clarity and a warm presence that amplifies
your voice. The DBX 286S retails at $190 / £135.

Headphones – Beyerdynamic DT770 Pro (80 OHM)

The DT770 (80 OHM) are professional broadcasting headphones that are popular within the
radio industry as they’re comfortable for long periods of time and have a long cable.

As they cover the ears most sounds are muffled to reduce outside disruptions. DT770 retail at
£135 / £110.
Soundcard – CSL 7.1 Surround Soundcard
An external soundcard is just like an internal one as it offers multiple channels to connect up
and manage devices like a sound system, headphones, CD players, and more.

Basically the more channels you have then the greater flexibility and devices you can map to
your mixing desk. CSL 7.1 surround soundcard retails at $25 / £20.
Cables – Assorted Cables
x1 Headphone to Jack L/R
x1 Jack Headphone Adapter Converter Plug

x2 XLR to XLR (Male to Female)

x1 Male USB A to Male USB B

x1 Audio Line In (Phone Cable)

Antenna Tower Types
By Rick Carlton; Updated April 24, 2017

There are three primary tower types: mast, lattice and pole
systems, that are typically oriented to the construction of
today's cell and microwave antennas. These systems are
some of the largest man-made structures on the planet and
today's communications, broadcast and power systems
could not effectively operate without them.

Mast Towers
Depending on the particular industry the words "tower" and
"mast" can be used interchangeably. These antenna are
typically square-based, vertical structures used to elevate
communications equipment or radiate an electronic signal in
order to produce what is referred to as clear "line of sight"
between one or more receiving/transmitting sites. These
structures can be tall, for example the former Warsaw radio
mast was 2,120.67 feet tall, until it collapsed in 1991 due to
an engineering maintenance error. The advantage of this
configuration is cost, since these structures require minimal
real estate to construct in urban areas.

Lattice Towers
Lattice towers are similar to vertical mast structures,
however, these systems are more typically triangular, or of
an extended-box configuration. In the latter case, this
produces a wider base than its top, and the entire structure
is constructed by creating a series of horizontal ladders, or
internal triangular structures, that secure the tower's three, or
four base legs. In concert with masts, these systems can be
quite high, with the current Guangzhou TV and Sightseeing
Tower in Guangzhou China being the tallest tower structure
in the world at 2001 feet tall.

Pole Towers
Pole tower configurations became more fashionable, once
alternative construction materials began to exhibit greater
strength and flexibility without failing. With the advent of
urban cell and commercial microwave systems in the early
'90s, developers wanted a more efficient way to construct
and operate medium-height elevation systems, and they hit
on the idea of the pole configuration. Today these free-
standing towers are typically fabricated from concrete or
metal, and able to "lift" various medium-weight components
as high as 100 feet, without additional support such as wires.