CE 6506 Earthquake Engineering

Introduction to
Seismology

Dr. Adil Zekaria

AAiT
Addis Ababa University

What is Seismology?
• Seismology (from the Greek words Seismos meaning
earthquake and Logos meaning science) is the science of
earthquakes, being a branch of a more general science of
Geophysics, which refers to the Earth structure.
• Its objective is the study and elaboration of theories
concerning the generation of an earthquake and the
propagation of seismic waves. At the same time
Seismology is involved with record and interpretation of
recorded seismograms.

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Who are Seismologists?

• The seismologists, as Earth scientists, are specialized in
geophysics and they are devoted to analyze the genesis
and propagation of seismic waves in geological
materials.
• Some of them study the relation between faults, stress
and seismicity, others interpret the mechanisms of
rupture from seismic wave data, others integrate
geoscientific information in order to define zones of
seismicity, and finally others collaborate with engineers
trying to minimize the damage caused to construction.

From Gioncu and Mazzolani “Earthquake Engineering for Structural Design”

Seismology and Engineering

Seismology
• Seismology is the branch of Geophysics concerned with
the study of the generation, propagation and recording of
elastic waves in the earth, and the sources that produce
them.
• Engineering Seismology is concerned with the solution of
engineering problems connected with the Earthquakes.
Seismology is very important because:
•Study of earthquakes gives us important clues about
the earth’s interior
• Understanding earthquakes allows us to minimize the
damage and loss of life

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Engineering Seismology and

Earthquake Engineering
• Engineering Seismology, developed to solve the problems of the
Earthquake hazard, is a branch of Seismology, having the purpose to
use the seismological knowledge for the seismic design of buildings,
by proposing the seismic actions function of the source and site
characteristics.
• Earthquake Engineering, with the task to solve the problems of
construction vulnerability, is a branch of more general field, the
Structural Engineering Science, having the purpose to develop
specific methodologies for analyzing the effects of seismic actions on
constructions, very different from that used in case of other actions
like dead, live, wind, snow, etc., loads.
From Gioncu and Mazzolani “Earthquake Engineering for Structural Design”

What is an Earthquake?
 An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced
by the rapid release of accumulated energy in
elastically strained rocks. It is the earth’s natural
means of releasing stress.
 Energy released radiates in all directions from its
source, the focus;
 Energy propagates in the form of seismic waves;
 Sensitive instruments around the world record the
event.

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Types of Earthquakes
•Tectonic Earthquakes : occur when rocks in the earth's
crust break due to geological forces created by movement
of tectonic plates.
• Volcanic Earthquakes: occur in conjunction with
volcanic activity.
• Collapse Earthquakes :are small earthquakes due to
collapse of underground mines,
• Explosion Earthquakes: result from the explosion of
nuclear and chemical devices.
* About 90% of all earthquakes result from tectonic
events, primarily movements on the faults

What causes an earthquake?

Movement of Tectonic Plates
Earth is divided into sections called Tectonic plates
that float on the fluid-like interior of the earth.
Earthquakes are usually caused by sudden movement
of earth’s tectonic plates
Rupture of rocks along a fault
Faults are localized areas of weakness in the surface
of the earth, sometimes the plate boundary itself.
Rupture of rocks along a fault cause earthquakes.

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Where do earthquakes occur?

plate boundaries
faults

Release of Accumulated Energy

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The Focus and Epicenter of an

Earthquake

 The point within earth

where faulting begins is
the focus, or hypocenter

 The point directly

above the focus on the
surface is the epicenter

Elastic Rebound Theory

• The gradual accumulation and release of stress and
strain is referred to as the ‘’elastic rebound theory’’ of
earthquakes.
• Mechanism for earthquakes was first explained by H.F.
Reid (Professor of Geology at Johns Hopkins
University). He concluded that earthquakes must have
involved an ‘’elastic rebound’’ of previously stored
elastic stress.
•Rocks bend under stress while storing elastic energy.
When the strain in the rocks exceeds their strength,
breaking will occur along the fault. Stored elastic energy
is released as the earthquake. Rocks “snap back”, or
rebound to their original condition.

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Elastic Rebound Theory

Seismic Waves

body waves

surface waves

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Surface waves
travel along Earth’s
surface.

Body waves
(P and S)
travel inside
Earth.

While P- and S- waves radiate outward in all directions,

surface waves travel along the surface of the earth and
decrease in amplitude with depth.

Primary (P) Waves Animations

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating

compression and dilation. Particle motion is parallel to the
direction of propagation (longitudinal). Material returns to its
original shape after wave passes.

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Secondary (S) Waves Animations

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating

transverse motion. Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation (transverse). Transverse particle motion shown here is
vertical but can be in any direction. . Material returns to its original
shape after wave passes.

Rayleigh (R) Waves Animations

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of elliptical motions

(generally retrograde elliptical) in the vertical plane and parallel to the
direction of propagation. Amplitude decreases with depth. Material
returns to its original shape after wave passes.

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Love (L) Waves Animations

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating transverse

motions. Particle motion is horizontal and perpendicular to the direction of
propagation (transverse). To aid in seeing that the particle motion is purely
horizontal, focus on the Y axis (red line) as the wave propagates through it.
Amplitude decreases with depth. Material returns to its original shape after
wave passes.

Study of Earthquake waves

 The study of earthquake waves, Seismology,

dates back almost 2000 years to the Chinese
Seismographs, instruments that record seismic
waves. The first seismograph called Di-Dong-
Di was invented by Cheng Heng (132 A.D.).

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Ancient Chinese Seismograph

The ancient Chinese seismograph consist of a special

vase that had eight sculpted dragons mounted around
the vase in eight primary directions. Each dragon held
in its mouth a metal ball. When the ground shook, some
of the balls would fall from the mouths of the dragons
into the waiting mouths of the sculpted frogs to show
how the ground had moved.

Ancient Chinese Seismograph

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Earthquake Waves & Seismographs

 The energy released during the earthquake travels as

seismic waves
 Modern Seismograph can measure the intensity and
duration of these waves in different directions.
 Seismogram is visual record of arrival time and
magnitude of shaking associated with seismic wave,
generated by a seismograph.

Modern Seismographs

 Seismographs are instruments that record seismic

waves
 Records the movement of Earth in relation to a
stationary mass on a rotating drum or magnetic
tape
 More than one type of seismograph is needed to
record both vertical and horizontal ground motion
 The time, location, and magnitude of an earthquake
can be determined from the data recorded by
seismograph stations.

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Modern Seismograph (Horizontal)

Modern Seismograph (Horizontal)

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Modern Seismograph (Vertical)

Seismogram

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Continental Drift Theory

Theory that continents and plates move on
the surface of the Earth proposed by Alfred
Wegener in 1912.

Alfred Wegener

Continental Drift Theory

• Alfred Wegener (German meteorologist and
geophysicist) proposed the continental drift
theory.
• He proposed that at one time all the continents
were joined into one huge supercontinent
“Pangaea” and at a later date the continents split
apart, moving slowly to their present positions on
the globe.
• The idea has not been widely accepted, but new
evidence suggest that the principle is correct

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Maps by Wegener (1912), showing

continental drift

Continental Drift Theory

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Evidence for continental drift

 Matching coastlines
 Matching mountains
 Matching rock types and rock ages
 Matching glacier deposits
 Matching fossils

Evidence for continental drift

Matching
coastlines

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Evidence for continental drift

Matching
mountain
ranges

Evidence for continental drift

Matching rock
types and ages of
rocks

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Evidence for continental drift

Matching glacier
deposits 300
million years
ago

Evidence for continental drift

Fossils of Mesosaurus (aquatic reptile)

found on both sides of Atlantic

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Earth’s magnetic field

Basic Data used in

formulating plate tectonics:
Magnetic stripes on the sea-
floor. Magnetic field of
Earth reverses on semi-
regular basis. Minerals act
like compass needles and
point towards magnetic
north. “Hot” rocks record the
direction of the magnetic
field as they cool.

Theory of Plate tectonics

 The theory of Plate tectonics was proposed in 1960s
based on the continental drift theory.
 This is the Unifying theory that explains the
formation and deformation of the Earth’s surface.
 According to this theory, continents are carried along
on huge plates (slabs) on the Earth’s outermost layer
(Lithosphere).
 Earth’s outermost layer is divided into 15 major
Tectonic Plates (~80 km deep). These plates move
relative to each other a few centimeters per year.

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Tectonic plates of Earth

What are Tectonic plates?

Lithospheric plate
 The ~100-km-thick surface of the Earth;
 Contains crust and part of the upper mantle;
 It is rigid and brittle;
 Fractures to produce earthquakes.

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Types of plate boundaries

 Divergent plate boundaries: where plates move

apart
 Convergent Plate boundaries: where plates
come together
 Transform plate boundaries: where plates slide
past each other

Types of plate boundaries

Divergent (Tension)

Convergent (Compression)

Transform (shearing)

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Types of plate boundaries

Three Basic Types of Plate

Divergent
Boundaries

Transform
Convergent

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Divergent Plate Boundaries

 Plates move away
from each other
(tension)
 New lithosphere is
formed
 normal faults
 Causes volcanism
 not very explosive

Divergent Plate Boundaries

Slow-spreading Ridge
Fast-spreading Ridge Examples:
Example:  Atlantic mid-ocean ridge

 East Pacific Rise (moving  Basin and Range, USA

apart at about 15 cm/year)  African Rift Valley

 Northern Red Sea

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Convergent Plate Boundary

 Plates move toward
each other
(compression)
 lithosphere is
consumed
 reverse/thrust faults

and folds
 Mountain building

 explosive volcanism

Ocean- Continent convergent margin

 Ocean-continent
plates collide
 Ocean plate
subducts below
continent
 Forms a subduction
zone
 Earthquakes and
volcanoes

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Ocean-ocean convergent margin

 2 oceanic plates collide

 One plate dives
(subducts) beneath
other
 Forms subduction zone
 Earthquakes and
volcanoes

Continent-continent convergent
margin
 2 continental
plates collide
 Neither plate
wants to subduct
 Collision zone
Example: Himalayas
forms high
mountains
 Earthquakes, no
volcanoes

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Transform plate margin

 Two plates slide

past each other
 strike slip faults.
 Lithosphere is
neither consumed
nor created.
 Earthquakes, no
volcanoes
 Responsible for Example: San Andreas CA
most of the N Anatolian, Turkey
earthquakes

How fast are the plates moving?

Plates move 1-10 centimeters per year (≈
rate of fingernail growth).

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What drives plate movement?

 Ultimately: heat transported from core
and mantle to surface
 Heat transported by convection
 Core is ~5,000°C and surface is ~0°C
 Where mantle rises: rifting
 Where mantle dives: subduction zones

What drives plate movement?

Convection is like a boiling pot. Heated soup rises to the surface,

spreads and begins to cool, and then sinks back to the bottom of the
pot where it is reheated and rises again.

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Layers of the Earth

 Crust:
 Continental crust (25-40 km)
 Oceanic crust (~6 km)
 Mantle
 Upper mantle (650 km)
 Lower mantle (2235 km)
 Core
 Outer core: liquid (2270 km)
 Inner core: solid (1216 km)

 Values in brackets represent the approximate thickness of each layer

Layers of the Earth - Crust

• outermost layer
• comprises the continents and ocean basins.
• has a variable thickness:
• 35-70 km thick in the continents
• 5-10 km thick in the ocean basins.
• composed mainly of alumino-Silicates

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Layers of the Earth - Mantle

• composed mainly of ferro-magnesium

silicates.
• It is about 2900 km thick, and is separated into
the upper and lower mantle.
• This is where most of the internal heat of the
Earth is located.
• heat is circulated and may drive plate tectonic
processes.

Layers of the Earth - Core

• separated into the liquid outer core and the

solid inner core.
• The outer core is 2300 km thick and the
inner core is 1200 km thick.
• The outer core is composed mainly of a
nickel-iron alloy, while the inner core is
almost entirely composed of iron.

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Faults
• The nature of the interactions that occur between
tectonic plates are replicated at more smaller scales
by faults. The optimal orientation of a fault plane
depends upon the stress field of the region
containing the fault.
•Just as plate margins were classified as
divergent, convergent, or transform depending
upon the relative sense of movement between
the two plates, a similar convention is employed
to describe individual faults.
•Depending on the orientation and relative
movements, faults can be classified as Normal,
Reverse or Thrust and strike-slip faults

Types of Faults
Normal Reverse Strike slip

Basin & Range Himalayas San Andreas, Calif.

African Rift Rocky Mountains N. Anatolian, Turkey

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Earthquake Depth
Earthquakes usually occur at some depth below the ground
Surface. The depth can also be calculated from seismograph
records
Earthquake foci are described as:
Shallow: less than 70 km depth
Intermediate: 70 - 300 km depth
Deep: 300 - 700 km depth
90% of earthquake foci are less than 100 km deep
Large earthquakes are mostly at < 60 km depth
No earthquakes occur deeper than 700 km

Foreshocks and aftershocks

Adjustments that follow a major earthquake often
generate smaller earthquakes called aftershocks

Small earthquakes, called foreshocks, often precede

a major earthquake by days or, in some cases, by as
much as several years

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Measures of Earthquake
(Earthquake Magnitude and Intensity)

Magnitude and Intensity

 Both Magnitude and Intensity are ways to

describe the size of a seismic event

 The magnitude is the measure of energy set free

by earthquake at the focal point in the form of
elastic waves
 There is one magnitude per seismic event
 There are different magnitude scales

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Magnitude and Intensity (cont’d)

 The intensity is a measure of the damage caused

by the earthquake. It is based on subjective
feelings and observations of local damages.
 There are many intensity scales per seismic event
 Depends on magnitude, focal depth, epicentral
distance, soil type at the site, local effects (topography),
frequency content, duration, (quality of the
construction at the site), …..
 There are different intensity scales

The Richter Magnitude Scale

•The Richter Magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by
Charles F. Richter.
•The magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the
logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by
seismographs.
• On the Richter Scale, magnitude is expressed in whole
numbers and decimal fractions. For example, a
magnitude of 5.3 might be computed for a moderate
earthquake, and a strong earthquake might be rated as
magnitude 6.3, which corresponds to the release of
about 32 times more energy than the 5.3 magnitude one.

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Earthquake Magnitude

Different Magnitude Scales

 Local (or Richter) magnitude (ML): measures the maximum
seismic wave amplitude A (in microns) recorded on
standard Wood – Anderson seismographs located at a
distance of 100 km from the earthquake epicenter.

ML = log10 A + 3log10[ 8Dt ]-2.92

where A is the maximum wave amplitude in μm

Dt is the time interval between P and S waves arrival

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Different Magnitude Scales

 Body wave magnitude (mb): measures the amplitude of P -
waves with a period of about 1.0 second, i.e. less than 10 -
km wavelengths. This scale is suitable for deep
earthquakes that have few surface waves. Moreover, mb
can measure distant events, e.g. epicentral distances not less
than 600 km.

𝑚 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑉 − 0.01𝑙𝑜𝑔 ∆ + 5.1

where Vp is the velocity of P wave in μm/s

D is the angle (in degrees) between the epicenter and the station

Different Magnitude Scales

 Surface wave magnitude (MS): is a measure of the amplitudes
of LR - waves with a period of 20 seconds, i.e. wavelength
of about 60 km, which are common for very distant
earthquakes, e.g. where the epicenter is located at more
than 2,000 km. MS is used for large earthquakes. However, it
cannot be used to characterize deep or relatively small,
regional earthquakes.

𝑀 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑉 − 1.66𝑙𝑜𝑔 ∆ + 2.5

where Vs is the velocity of surface wave in μm/s

D is the angle (in degrees) between the epicenter and the station

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Different Magnitude Scales

 Moment magnitude (Mw): accounts for the mechanism of
shear that takes place at earthquake sources. It is not related
to any wavelength. As a result, Mw can be used to measure
the whole spectrum of ground motions. Moment
magnitude is defined as a function of the seismic
moment M0 .

M0 = μAd
Where μ (dyne/cm2) is the shear strength of rocks
A (cm2) is fault area
d (cm) is the slip distance

Different Magnitude Scales

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Different Magnitude Scales

 Where
 ML = local richter magnitude
 mb = body wave magnitude

 Ms = surface wave magnitude

 Mw = moment magnitude

Relationship between different

Magnitude scales

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Magnitude Scale & Intensity Scale

•The Magnitude Scale is not used to express the

damage.
• An earthquake in a densely populated area which
results in considerable damages to man made
structures and many deaths.
• whereas an earthquake of the same magnitude as a
shock in a remote area that does nothing more than
frighten the wildlife.

Magnitude Scale & Intensity Scale

Intensity – magnitude relationships are essential for the use of
historical earthquakes for which no instrumental
records exist. Several simple methods to convert intensity into
magnitude have been proposed; most of which exhibit large
scatter because of the inevitable bias present in the definition
of intensity. Gutenberg and Richter (1956) proposed a linear
relationship between local magnitude ML and epicentral
intensity I0 for Southern California, given by:
ML = 0.67I0 + 1.00
in which the intensity I0 is expressed in the MM scale. The above equation
shows, for example, that the epicentral intensity I0 of VI corresponds to ML
= 5.02, indicating that the earthquake is likely to cause significant damage.

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Earthquake Intensity is what

you feel.

What Controls the Level of Shaking?

Magnitude — Amount of energy released

Distance — Shaking decays with distance
Geology — Local soils amplify the shaking
Building style — Construction, not height
Duration of shaking

Seismic intensity is affected by soil type.

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Seismic intensity is affected by soil type.

Amplitude of oscillation increasing

Different Intensity Scales

 Mercalli-Cancani-Seiberg (MCS) 1931
 Southern Europe – 12 scales
 Modified –Mercalli (MM)1983
 California and several countries – 12 scales
 Medvedev-Sponheur-Karnik (MSK)1964
 Central and eastern Europe – 12 scales
 European Macroseismic Scale (EMS)1998
 Europe – 12 scales
 Japanese Metrological agency (JMA) 1949
 Japan – 7 scales
 Rossi-Forel (RF) 1883
 Italy – 10 sclaes

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Comparison between seismic scales

Modified Mercalli Scale (MM)

• The intensity scale consists of a series of certain key
responses such as people awakening, movement of
furniture, damage to chimneys, & finally total destruction.
• Numerous intensity scales have been developed over the
last several hundred years to evaluate the effects of
earthquakes, one example is the Modified Mercalli (MM)
Intensity Scale.
• This scale, composed of 12 increasing levels of intensity
that range from imperceptible shaking to catastrophic
destruction, is designated by Roman numerals.
• It does not have a mathematical basis; instead it is an
arbitrary ranking based on observed effects.

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Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

The following is an abbreviated description of the 12 levels of
Modified Mercalli intensity (MMI).
I.
Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable
conditions.
II.
Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors
of buildings. Delicately suspended objects may swing.
III.
Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper
floors of buildings. Many people do not recognize it as an
earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibration
similar to the passing of a truck.

IV.
Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At
night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed;
walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck
striking building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably.
V.
Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes,
windows broken. Unstable objects overturned. Pendulum
clocks may stop.
Vl.
Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture
moved; a few instances of fallen plaster. Slight Damage.

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Vll.
Damage negligible in buildings of good design and
construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary
structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly
designed structures; some chimneys broken.
Vlll.
Slight Damage in specially designed structures; considerable
damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse.
Great Damage in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys,
factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture
overturned.
IX.
Considerable Damage in specially designed structures; well-
designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Great Damage
in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings
shifted off foundations.

X.
Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most
masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations.
Rails bent.
Xl.
Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges
destroyed. Rails bent greatly.
Xll.
Total Damage. Lines of sight and level are distorted.
Objects thrown into the air.

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Magnitudes and Energy of Earthquakes

Annual Numbers of EQs

Predicting Earthquakes
Strange Animal Behavior
stress in the rocks causes tiny hairline fractures to form, the
cracking of the rocks evidently emits high pitched sounds and
minute vibrations imperceptible to humans but noticeable by
many animals.
Foreshocks
unusual increase in the frequency of small earthquakes before
the main shock
Changes in water level
porosity increases or decreases with changes in strain
Seismic Gaps
based of the chronological distribution of major earthquakes

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Seismic Hazard, Vulnerability and

Risk
 Seismic Hazard is any physical phenomenon
(e.g. ground shaking, ground failure) associated
with an earthquake that may produce adverse
effects on human activities.
 (EERI 1984)

Seismic Hazard, Vulnerability and

Risk
 Vulnerability is the amount of damage, induced
by a given degree of hazard, and expressed as a
fraction of the Value of the damaged item under
consideration
 (EERI 1984)

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Seismic Hazard, Vulnerability and

Risk
 Seismic Risk is the probability that social or
economic consequences of earthquakes will
equal or exceed specified values at a site, at
several sites, or in an area, during a specified
exposure time

Seismic Hazard, Vulnerability and

Risk
 It follows that seismic risk is an outcome of seismic
hazard as described by relationships of the form
 Risk = Hazard × Vulnerability × Value
 Risk - probability of disaster occurrence
 Hazard - potential threat to humans and their welfare
 Vulnerability - exposure and susceptibility to loss of life or
dignity
 Value – value of the damaged item

From Dorwick 2009 “Earthquake Resistant Design and Risk Reduction”

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Disaster Prevention,
Mitigation & Preparedness

Disaster = f(hazard, vulnerability)

Disaster Prevention,
Mitigation & Preparedness
 Prevention requires the elimination of risk while
mitigation is the reduction of risk.
 Disaster Preparedness : Forecast and take
precautionary measures in advance of an
imminent threat.

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While Hazards Are Inevitable, Each Hazard Need Not Convert

Into A Disaster… As What Comes In Between Is
The Culture of Safety And Prevention

Let us Work Together to Build a Culture of Prevention !

Earthquake Do Not Kill People

Improperly Designed Structures Do!

Dr. Adil Z. (AAiT) 49

CE 6506 Earthquake Engineering

References
 Dorwick D. J., Earthquake Risk Reduction, John Wiley and Sons, 2003
 Borzorgnia, Y, & Bertero V., Earthquake Engineering : From Seismology
to Performance Based Design, CRC Press, 2006.
 Elnashai A. S. & Di Sarno L., Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering,
John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
 Gioncu V. & Mazzolani F., Earthquake Engineering for Structural Design,
Spons Press, 2011.
 Chen W.-F. & Scawthorn C., Earthquake Engineering Handbook, CRC
Press,2002.
 Naeim, F., Seismic Design Handbook, 2ndEdition, Kluer Press, 2001.
 Kramer, S. L., Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice-Hall, 1996

That is all for today

Dr. Adil Z. (AAiT) 50