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1. Introduction
2. Super capacitor types
2.1 Electrochemical double layer capacitors (EDLCs)

2.2 Pseudo capacitors

2.3 Hybrid capacitors

2.4 Composite

2.5 Asymmetric

2.6 Battery type

3.
Introduction
In past decades, the development of sustainable energy storage device has been

witnessed as one of the most important topics owing to the booming growth of renewable

energy sources and devices such as electric vehicles, digital devices and pulsing

techniques. Among the energy storage systems, super capacitor are of significance with

representative intrinsic advantages including high power density, superior rate capacity,

short charging time, safe operation, a long life, and moderate energy density.

In general, supercapacitors can be categorized into electrochemical double-layer

supercapacitor (EDLCS) and pseudocapacitors (PCs) according to the energy storage

mechanism. Firstly the energy storage mechanism of relies on the ion of adsorption /

desorption on the electrode surface electrolyte interface. Secondly PCs store electric

charge based on rapid redox reaction at the electrode surface. Compared to PCs, EDLCs

are widely used to offer high power density and superior cyclic stability but suffer from

moderate energy density.

Also referred to as the electrochemical capacitor or ultra-capacitor supercapacitor

technology has undergone considerable research and development in the recent years due

to its potential to allow the advancement of energy storage technology. Supercapacitor

employ thin dielectric layers and high surface area electrodes consequently. They exhibit

capacitances that are several orders of magnitude higher than traditional capacitors (kotz

and Carlen 2000; Burke 2000) supercapacitors can be employed in a variety of energy

capture and storage applications, either independently or in combination with batteries of

fuel cells. Supercapacitors can store a large amount of charge that can be supplied at a

higher power rating than rechargeable batteries (stroller et al 2008). However the energy

density of supercapacitors is lower than that of batteries and fuel cells.

Scs are emerging with promising potential for applications among different energy

storage device types. Because of their exceptional storage properties and power density,
Scs have overriding significance compared to the other contemporary energy storage

devices due to the fact that they have many advantages, like high power density, long

life cycle, high specific capacitance, high performance, environmental friendliness and

versatile operating temperature. In addition, they have been quickly charged with quick

power delivery and might be bridging the gaps between traditional condensers and

batteries.

These benefits make it ideal for viding power in the rural areas in which there

weren’t public grids or in which there was high costs of writing as well as energy

supply. In many application SCs can also be used such as wind power generation

photovoltaic generation, rail, electric cars, electric grid, etc. Because they are,

lightweight and versatile, they are often used as power supplies with regard to portable

devices including notebook computers, phones, digital cameras, and so on. SCs can be

used in electric and hybrid vehicles to provide the high power density needed for short

term acceleration in addition to energy recovery throughout braking thereby save

energy and protect batteries from rapid phase of high frequency charging discharge

(dynamic operation).

This review paper describes the advanced materials, their synthesis, and electrode

fabrication methods for super capacitors. It describes the challenges and future outlook

in these areas, and their general implications on super capacitor technology.

Chapter II

Super capacitor
types
 Supercapacitor
was divided into three groups based
on the mechanism of
energy storage as shown in figure.

Super capacitors types based on the mechanism of energy storage.

Electrochemical double layer capacitors (EDLCs)

EDLCs includes an electrolyte, two carbon based materials utilized an

electrode as well as a separator EDLC are either able to electro-statically store the charges
or via a non-faradic process that doesn’t need charge transfers between the electrolyte and
electrode. The electrochemical double layer is the concept of energy storage used by
EDLCs. There was no accumulation of charges on the surface of electrode when voltage is
applied. Since the difference in the potential there is opposite charge attraction, resulting in
the diffuse of electrolyte ions over the separation as well as on the opposite charged
electrode pores as shown in figure. A charge is double layer was created for preventing
ion’s recombination in electrodes. Together with the increment in specific surface area as
well as the reduction in distance between electrodes, EDLCs are enabled via the double
layer for achieving high energy density. Also because of the storage mechanism of EDLCs.
This enables for rapid energy uptake, distribution and excellent output of power. Because of
the non-faradic phase, that isn’t a chemical reaction, some variations might be identified
between batteries and EDLCs because EDLCs have the ability for withstanding millions
cycles in comparison to batteries that with the ability for withstanding maximum of few
thousand. Also the process of charging does not require an electrolyte solvent; in Li-ion
batteries, when high potential cathodes or graphite anodes were utilized, it to the solid
electrolyte inter-phase.

Pseudo capacitors:

Type of supercapacitor with metal oxide or coordinating polymer electrodes with

high electrochemical pseudocapacitance material. The mechanism for staring charge is

faradaic mechanism, like oxidation reduction reactions; involve charge’s transfer between

electrolyte and electrode as shown in figure. In the case of applying a potential to the

pseudo-capacitor reduction and the oxidation happens on electrode material that includes the

charge’s passage across a double layer, leading to the fact that the faradic current part

through an SC cell. In addition, the faradic mechanism involved in pseudo-capacitance as

well as energy densities in comparison to EDLCs.

Hybrid capacitors:

Types of supercapacitors with asymmetric electrodes one of them is majorly electro-

static, white the other was the electro-chemical capacitance. In addition, the hybrid

capacitors were a combination of performance properties which previously was

unachievable. Also, they are combining the best features related to pseudo-capacitors and

EDLCs into a unified SC. Even though hybrid capacitors were explored less compared to

pseudo-capacitors or EDLCs, attempts were expanding in terms of creating enhanced hybrid

capacitors and developing more precise quantitative models regarding the hybrid capacitors.

In addition to the increase in the focus towards creating high energy and high cycle life SCs

the massive simplicity to tune the performance and design of hybrid capacitors led them to

surprising EDLCs as the major SCs class. The mechanism for storing charge combination of

the two combines the two previous types as shown in figure. Hybrid capacitors were divided

into 3 categories differentiated via their electrode configuration composite asymmetric and
battery type.

Composite:

The composite electrodes are incorporating carbon-based materials with polymer

conduction or metal oxide in a single electrode, indicating that the single electrode is going

to have 2 mechanisms for storage, chemical and physical composites have two types in the

case when an electrode is made of only two materials, it is called binary composites but if it

consists of three different materials, then it is called ternary compares.

Asymmetric:

Asymmetric hybrid capacitors are combining the faradic and non-faradic process via

coupling a pseudocapacitors electrode with EDLCs. In such way, the carbon material was

utilized as a negative electrode, whereas either conducting polymer or metal oxide as a

positive electrode.

Battery type

A rare combination of a battery electrode and SC electrode. This design illustrates

the requirement for higher power batteries and high energy capacitors combining the SC

recharging times and battery properties and achieves both battery and SC characteristics in

one in one cell. Just a few studies on battery-type hybrids have been performed.
Figure: Schematic diagram of energy storage of SCs types; a) EDLCs b) Pseudo-capacitors

c) hybrid capacitors.

Chapter III
Supercapacitor

electrodematerials

Electrode materials are of high importance in the performance of SCs. To get

excellent SC performance results, the material must have high capacitance. The capacitance

of SC is on the basis of effective surface area related to its electrode materials. Yet, not the

whole effective area is totally available for the interaction of the electrolyte electrode, and

therefore the electrode materials’ capacitance isn’t strictly proportionate to their effective

surface area. Therefore, the electrochemically available area might be indicated as an active
electrochemical surface area. In addition, the pore size related to conducting materials is

determining the electrochemical active surface area that might be simply tuned via the use

of nanostructures. The researches states achieving 0.7 maximum capacitance. The distance

between the pores rises when the pore size will be increased; while there will be a decrease

in capacitance. Eventually, the capacitance, the region of the cross section and the size of

the pore depend on each other. For supercapacitors, the purity of the material is important,

since it is greatly affecting their cycle life and leakage current. Furthermore, the impurities

in electrolyte or electrode material are contributing to the SC’s unwanted leakage current as

well as consequent self-discharge. While it is simple to build devices for which output is not

significantly affected by self-discharge. On the basis of type of energy storage and capacity

ranges required for a specific application, SCs might be manufactured from various

materials, and by reference to the SC types indicated earlier, the electrode materials might

be divided into 3 types on the basis of their use in hybrid capacitors, pseudo-capacitors and

EDLCs, as shown in figure the first is focused on carbon, that is providing 3000 m2 g -1

surface area with the ability for producing a capacitance of 145 Fg-1. Carbon-formed SCs

were referred to as EDLCs. In addition, the second one is for SCs on the basis of redox

reaction (pseudo-capacitors) where electrodes were made from electronically conducting

polymers or metal oxides. Usually, their capacitance values are yielding between 300 and

400Fg-1, yet they have an issue of long-term stability giving just thousands of cycles over a

wide range of voltage. Furthermore, a combination of pseudo-capacitance electrode and

double layer electrode has been created in the third group are known as hybrid capacitor.

EDLCs electrode materials

General electric engineers discovered EDLCs in series of experiments in the

year 1957 with devices on the basis of porous carbon electrodes. After that, it has been

indicated that energy is contained inside the carbon pores. Although they did not make

much effort to improve it, The Standard Oil of Ohio, in the year 1961, unintentionally made
the discovery when running on fuel cells. They constructed it with the use of an activated

charcoal as the electrode material where a thin insulator separates the electrodes . This is

serving as a base to date for designing SCs. The company didn’t commercialize such

discovery, yet the technology was licensed to NEC, which after that marketed in 1978.

Activated carbon

This is considered as one of the treated carbon forms that is produced

through a series of relatively simple and inexpensive activation processes. It is obtained by

burning carbon materials without oxygen and then the burned material is chemically and

physically treated. It is treated to obtain small, finite pores that increases the surface area

provided for chemical reactions or absorption. Due to the fact that they are less costly and

have high surface area compared with the other carbon based materials, the activated carbon

was the major utilized electrode material in SCs [9, 11]. Activated carbon has the ability for

storing specific capacitance in range of (50-150) Fg-1 for organic electrolytes and (100-200)

Fg-1 for aqueous electrolytes and achieving capacitances of 225 and 160 Fg-1 , respectively,

with KOH treated activated carbon in the aqueous electrolytes

Carbon aerogels

Carbon aerogels have been formed with interspersed mesopores from

continuous network related to the conductive carbon nano-particles. External adhesive

binding agent doesn’t need to be applied via carbon aerogels, due to such continuous

structures as well as their capability for chemically bonding to current collector. Also,

carbon aerogels have low ESR compared to activated carbon as binder less electrode. The

main interest area in SC studies including carbon aerogels was such reduced ESR, which

yields greater strength.

Graphene

Recently, there was a significant focus on graphene. Also, it is specified as a

2D structure with a single atom thick layer, emerging as a distinctive carbon material that is
utilized for energy-storage devices since it is absorbing wide surface area, high electrical

conductivity, and chemical stability characterizes. It was recently suggested that graphene

might be utilized as one of the substrates for the applications of SC, due to the fact when

utilizing graphene as SC electrode materials, in contrary to the other carbon materials

including carbon nanotube, activated carbon and so on; it isn’t based on the pores’

distribution at solid state. Graphene has the ability of producing 550 Fg-1 capacitances in

the case when totally exploiting the whole precise surface area. Another advantage of

utilizing graphene as one of the electrode materials was that graphene's main surfaces were

external and electrolyte-friendly. Researches are conducted on developing many forms of

graphene, which include micro-mechanical exfoliation, arc discharge, chemical vapor

deposition, electrochemical and chemical methods, and graphite intercalation methods.

Carbon nanotubes

There was a major development in the engineering and the science related to

carbon materials with the discovery of CNTs. The total resistance of the components is the

element that defines the power density in a supercapacitor. Because of its distinctive pore

structures, strong thermal and mechanical stability as well as the excellent electrical

characteristics, a lot of focus was steered towards CNTs as SC electrode materials. Different

from the other carob based electrodes, CNTs have interconnected mesopores, which allows

continuous distributions regarding the charge which applies the majority of accessible

surface region. CNTs might be graded as single walled CNTs or multi walled CNTs, all of

them were examined as materials for SC electrodes [29, 30]. CNT materials were indicated

as high power electrode materials as a result of their simply accessible surface area as well

as their high electrical conductivity. In the case of the high-power electrode materials

carbon nanotube were regarded. In general, the surface area of the carbon nanotube is small

(<500 m2/g), that is contributing to low-energy density in comparison with the activated

carbon. In order to increase its basic capacitance, the carbon nanotube might be activated by

means of KOH. The above method will significantly result in an increase in carbon
nanotube surface area and still retain its Nano-tubular morphology.

Pseudocapacitor electrode materials

Commonly, the electrically conductive polymers and transition metal oxides

are chosen as pseudocapacitor electrode materials. Also, the pseudo-capacitor electrodes are

using redox reactions on the electro active materials’ surfaces. While the redox reactions

were dependent on the electrode potential and changing according to the discharging and

charging. This process is providing excellent energy density and capacitance in comparison

to the purely carbon based EDLCs. Yet, such significant characteristics were typically

counter-balanced with bad life-cycles. For instance, the EDLCs might be achieving up to

500,000 cycles, while the pseudo-capacitors have been compromised with the issues of

cycling. This is due to the fact that multiple cycles related to the chemical reactions might

be damaging the pseudo-capacitive materials along with inducing unwanted morphology

changes, resulting in a performance decrease with the progress of cycling. In response,

carbon supports were frequently added for resolving the detriment.

Metal Oxides

Metal oxides have been employed as electrode material in super capacitors

because of their high conductivity (kotz and Carlen 2000: Burke 2000:zheng and Jaw 1995).

Metal oxide based supercapacitors show large specific capacitance and long operation time

(Jogade et al. 2011). Ruthenium oxide is a material of considerable interest in

supercapacitor technology. Ruthenium oxide in its hydrous form after higher capacitance

then carbon materials and conducting polymers. It combines metal type conducting and

reversible redox reactions, which co-occur at electrode electrolyte interface and also in the

materials bulk. The primary drawback of this material is its high cost, which is driving

research activities in competitive materials and fabrication methodologies to reduce costs

while retaining the performance of ruthenium oxide.

Manganese oxide is one of the most promising materials for supercapacitor

electrodes. It allows good capacitive performance and it relating in nanostructured

manganese oxides for supercapacitors. These oxides have been synthesized by different

methods. The primary drawback with this material is its poor conductivity, unlike ruthenium

oxide. Also the charges discharges processes in this material involves surface atoms only

thereby resulting in low material utilization some effects have already commenced to

address this primarily by employing this material in competitive iron with CNTs.

Conducting polymers:

Conducting polymers are employed in supercapacitors because their

relatively high capacitance and conductivity and low equivalent series resistance.

Conducting polymers have redox storage capability and provide a large surface area:

therefore they are employed ion supercapacitors for high capacitance. These compounds can

be duped to have metallic conductivity which is a desirable property for supercapacitor

electrode materials. In some aspect, they are considered superior to some carbon materials

including activated carbons. Some of the commonly used conducting polymers include

polypyrrole. Polyamine and poly which have been shown to exhibitspecific capacitance

comparable to that of metal oxides like ruthenium oxide.

The challenges with conducting polymers include a lack of efficient n-type doped

conducting polymer material. Another problem is the insufficient mechanical stability

during charge discharge cycles due to mechanical stress.

Hybrid supercapacitors electrode Materials

Materials have been utilized in hybrid-type SCs. The composite materials consist of

combinations regarding conducting polymers or metal oxides with carbon materials; thus,

incorporate the aspects related to pseudo-capacitor and EDLC materials that are offering

chemical and physical charge storage process together in one electrode.

Chapter IV

Advantages of supercapacitors
Advantages of supercapacitors

 Very high efficiency

 Supercapacitors offer high energy density and high power density

 Changing rate is high and they offer higher performance reliability

 Supercapacitors have a longer life than a battery (around 10 to 15 years)

 The supercapacitors can withstand any temperature between -30 to 65 0 C

whereas a battery can withstand -10 to 40 0 C.

 The supercapacitors is very light in weigh

 Supercapacitors can be installed in a small area as they have very small size

 The supercapacitors have a very fast transient response.

Disadvantages of supercapacitors

They discharge themselves more frequently this is significantly higher than a battery.

Low voltages exist within individual cells. Because of this series connections are necessary

to attain greater voltages.

Compared to an electrochemical battery, there is a significantly lesser amount of

energy stored per unit weight for an ultra-capacitors this is equivalent to 3 to 5 whl kg as

opposed to 30 to 40 wh l kg for a battery.

In comparison to batteries it derives a poor energy density this is equivalent to between one-

fifth and a tenth of the battery’s energy.

It cannot be utilized in circuits with AC or higher frequencies.

Chapter V

Conclusions
 This paper offered a simple overview of supercapacitors as well as rundown of

recent development it was discussed how these super capacitor architectures can be

classified into three different group based on how they store charge and then classified

based on electrode material used. Electrochemical double-layer capacitor, pseudo-capacitor,

and hybrid capacitor are the three types. Super capacitors have the ability for storing

potential energy as electric charge, and capacitance values charging from the pico-farad to

the microfarad. Scs were farads that are considered as 1000

times that related to electrolytic capacitor. Also the sc’s energy density was more compared

to that of capacitor, yet not more than the battery yet due to their flexibility;Scs might be

adapted for serving in certain roles for which the electrochemical batteries weren’t well

suited. Scs have a few intrinsic properties which is make them suitable to specialized roles

as well as application complimenting the batteries strength, particularly,Scs have

considerable potential for the application requiring a combination of short charging time,

high power long shelf life and high cycling stability various electrode materials were

utilized for studying the behavior and enhancing the Sc’s performance now researchers are

focused on ternary composite which has been reported

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