Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Transportation Engineering
Subject Code: CE-404
Semester: 4th
Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Unit – 3
BRIDGES
Bridges: Site Investigation and Planning; Loading Standards & Component parts: Selection of site,
alignment, collection of bridge design data: essential surveys, hydraulic design, and scour, depth of
bridge foundation, Economical span, clearance, afflux, and type of road & railway bridges. : Design
loads and forces, Impact factor, Indian loading standards for Railways Bridges and Highway Bridges,
Bridge super-structure and sub-structures, abutments, piers, wing walls, return walls, approaches,
floors & flooring system, choice of super structure.

BRIDGES: SITE INVESTIGATION AND PLANNING

Selection Criteria For Bridge Site
1. The choice of the right site is a crucial decision in the planning and designing of a bridge.
2. It may not be possible always to have a wide choice of sites for a bridge.
3. This is particularly so in case of bridges in urban areas and flyovers.
4. For river bridges in rural areas, usually a wider choice may be available.
Selection Criteria For Bridge Site
1.For selecting a suitable site for a major bridge, the investigating engineer should make a
reconnaissance survey to get impression of the landscape and to decide on the type of the structure
to the site.
2. Care should be taken to investigate a number of probable alternative sites and then decide on the
site which is likely to serve the needs of the bridge at the least cost.
3. A brief description of the reasons for the selection of a particular site should be furnished in the
investigation report along with salient details of alternative sites investigated and rejected
Different studies perform during PRELIMINARY SURVEY are:
 Topography
 Catchment area
 Hydrology
 Geo-technical data
 Seismology
 Navigation

Page no: 1 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

 Construction resources
 Nearby bridges
 Traffic data
Loads and Load combinations
Loads on bridges : The following are the various loads to be considered for the purpose of computing
stresses, wherever they are applicable.
 Dead load
 Live load
 Impact load
 Longitudinal force
 Thermal force
 Wind load
 Seismic load
 Racking force
· Forces due to curvature. · Forces on parapets · Frictional resistance of expansion bearings
· Erection forces
Dead load – The dead load is the weight of the structure and any permanent load fixed thereon. The
dead load is initially assumed and checked after design is completed.
Live load – Bridge design standards specify the design loads, which are meant to reflect the worst
loading that can be caused on the bridge by traffic, permitted and expected to pass over it. In India,
the Railway Board specifies the standard design loadings for railway bridges in bridge rules.
ALIGNMENT OF BRIDGES-The alignment of a bridge along its centre line is governed by the following
factors:
1. RECTANGULAR OR SQUARE CROSSING-The angle of crossing should be near to 90º as possible, that
is, centre-line of the bridge should be at right angles to the direction of water flow.
2. STRAIGHT ALIGNMENT-The centre-line of the bridge should be straight and not curved,
alternatively, it can also be a series of straight lines. In mountains or hilly terrain it may become
inevitable to align the bridge on a curve.
3. ALIGNMENT OF APROACHES-Sometimes, approaches to the bridge may be aligned on curves in
order to avoid skew crossing and achieve square crossing for the bridge.
4. SILTING AND SCOURING-The alignment should be protected from the effects of silting and scouring
on the abutments, piers and embankments near approaches.
HYDRAULIC DESIGN-The hydraulics designer should identify the types of data that will be required
prior to conducting the hydraulic analysis. The effort necessary for data collection and compilation
should be tailored to the importance of the project. Data collection for a specific project should be
appropriate for the project scope and be tailored to:

Page no: 2 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

• site o ditio s; • s ope of the h d auli a al sis; • so ial, e o o i , e i o e tal a d

archaeological requirements; • u i ue p oje t e ui e e ts; a d • egulato e ui e e ts.
TYPES OF DATA NEEDED
The hydraulics designer should compile the data that are specific to the subject site. Following are
the major types of data that may be required:
• Pe it e ui e e ts;
• Wate shed ha a te isti s;
• “t ea -reach data;
• Othe ph si al data ithi the i i it of the fa ilit e.g., utilities, ease e ts ;
• H d ologi a d meteorological data (e.g., stream-flow and rainfall data related to maximum or
historical peak and low-flow discharges and hydrographs applicable to the site);
• E isti g a d p oposed la d-use data in the subject drainage area and in the general vicinity of the
facility;
• A ti ipated ha ges i la d-use and/or watershed characteristics; and
• Floodplain limits, environmental regulations and archaeological data. Watershed, stream-reach and
site characteristic data and data on other physical characteristics can be obtained from a field
reconnaissance of the site. Examination of available maps and aerial photographs of the watershed
are also excellent methods of defining physical characteristics of the watershed.
Scour Potential Scour potential is an important consideration relative to the stability of the structure
over time. Scour potential will be determined by a combination of the stability of the natural
materials at the facility site, tractive shear force exerted by the stream and sediment transport
characteristics of the stream.
DEPTH OF BRIDGE FOUNDATION
Foundation types depend primarily on the depth and safe bearing pressures of the bearing stratum,
also restrictions placed on differential settlement due to the type of bridge deck. Generally in the case
of simply supported bridge decks differential settlements of about 20 to 25 mm can be tolerated,
whereas multi-span continuous decks 10 mm is usually considered as a maximum.
Bridge foundations generally fall into two categories:
1. Strip footings, one for each pier and abutment. However, it is sometimes convenient to split the
deck into two halves longitudinally along the centre line, this is then continued to the footing.
2. Piled foundations.
It is possible to have a combination of both (i.e. piers being piled with abutments on strip footings).
Design Considerations
The design of foundations comprise of the following stages :
1. From the site investigation report decide upon which stratum to impose the structure load and
its safe bearing pressure.
2. Select the type of foundation, possibly comparing the suitability of several types.

Page no: 3 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

3. Design the foundation to transfer and distribute the loads from the structure to the ground.
Ensure that the factor of safety against shear failure in the soil is not reached and settlement is
within the allowable limits.
Piled Foundations
The type of piles generally used for bridge foundations are :
1. Driven Piles; preformed piles of concrete or steel driven by blows of a power hammer or jacked
into the ground.
2. Preformed Driven Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube with a closed end and
filling the tube with concrete.
3. Driven Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube with a closed end and filling the
tube with concrete, simultaneously withdrawing the tube.
4. Bored and Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by boring a hole and filling it with concrete.

Dmin = Minimum depth of foundation in m

y= Density of unit weight of soil in kN/m3
Ø = Angle of repose in Degrees
q = Intensity of load or Safe bearing capacity of soil in kN/m2
ECONOMICAL SPAN OF BRIDGE
Fixing length of typical span in design of bridges across river/elevated road/metro project is very
important structural design decision. The cost of building one typical span can be broadly divided into
following two components
1. Cost of Substructure
2. Cost of Superstructure
The cost of substructure is covers cost of bridge bearing, pier cap/pier head, pier and foundation
(Open/Pile/Casino). To take decision on most economical length of typical span, initial design and
cost estimate is done for four to five different span lengths.
CLEARANCE - This is the vertical distance between the high flood level inclusive of afflux and the
bottom most part of bridge super structure like slab girder etc.
AFFLUX - It is the rise in the flood level of the river upstream of the bridge as a result of obstruction to
natural flow caused by the construction of the bridge.
Types of Bridges-B idges a e lassified i to so a t pes ased o diffe e t ite ia s. The a e
explained below.
Types of Bridges based on Type of Super Structure

Page no: 4 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

 Arch bridge
 Girder bridge
 Truss bridge
 Suspension bridge
Arch Bridge-Arch bridge is curve shaped bridge, in which horizontal thrust is developed and is
restrained by the abutments at each end of the bridge. There are many types of arch bridges are
there. In some cases, the arch may be under the deck slab also.

Arch Bridge

In case of Girder Bridge, the deck slab is supported by means of girders. The girder may be of rolled
steel girder or plate girder or box girder. Load coming from the deck are taken by girder and
transferred them to the piers and abutments.

Girder Bridge
Truss is member consisting connected elements to form triangular units. In case of truss bridge the
super structure is provided with trusses. Generally, trusses are made of steel. There are several types
of trusses are available.

Page no: 5 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Truss Bridge
In case of Suspension bridge, deck slab is suspended with the help of cables and suspenders. These
will give good appearance. For long span bridges, this type of suspension is suitable.

Suspension bridge
Types of Bridges based on Materials
 Timber bridge
 Masonry bridge
 Steel bridge
 R.C.C bridge
 Pre stressed concrete bridge

Page no: 6 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Timber Bridge
Bridges constructed using timber are called timber bridges. These are generally constructed for short
spans or as temporary bridges. They are not useful for heavy loads.

Masonry Bridge
Masonry Bridge constructed by using bricks or stones. These are generally constructed for short spans
and in low depth canals.

Steel Bridge: Steel bridges are constructed using steel bars or trusses or steel cables. These are more
durable and bear heavy loads.

Page no: 7 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

R.C.C Bridge: R.C.C bridges are constructed using reinforced cement concrete. These are more stable
and durable. They can bear heavy loads and are widely using nowadays.

Pre--stressed Concrete Bridge: If concrete material is placed under compression before applying the
loads, then it is called as pre-stressed concrete. To construct pre stressed concrete bridge, pre-
stressed concrete blocks are arranged as deck slab with the help of girders. These blocks are suitable
for shorter span to longer span bridges.

Page no: 8 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Types of Bridges based on Span

 Culvert bridge
 Minor bridge
 Major bridge
 Long span bridge
Culvert Bridge
When the bridge span length is below 6meters then it is called as Culvert Bridge.

Page no: 9 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Minor Bridge: If the bridge span length is in between 8 to 30 meters, then it is called minor bridge.

Major Bridge: For major bridge, the span is generally about 30 to 120 meters.

Long Span Bridge: When the span of bridge is more than 120 meters then it is termed as long span
bridge.

Page no: 10 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Types of Bridges based on Level of Crossing

 Over bridge
 Under bridge

Over Bridge
To pass over another route (railway or highway), a bridge is constructed to allow traffic. This is called
over bridge or flies over bridge.

Under Bridge: If over bridge is not possible, an underground type bridge is constructed to pass
another route. This is called under bridge.

Page no: 11 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Types of Bridges based on Function

 Foot bridge
 Highway bridge
 Rail way bridge
 Aqueduct bridge
 Road cum railway bridge
Foot Bridge-Foot Bridge is generally constructed for humans to cross the roads or rail route or any
canal by foot. Vehicles are not allowed in this bridge.

Highway Bridge: High way or road Way Bridge is used for road transportation. These are constructed
over rivers or another routes to allow road way traffic. Girder type bridges are used as highway

Page no: 12 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

bridges over rivers or canals.

Railway Bridge: Rail bridges are constructed for rail transportation. Truss type bridges are preferred
for railways but however R.C.C bridges are also used.

Aqueduct Bridge: Aqueduct bridges are nothing but water carrying bridges which are constructed to0
transport water from source to system.

Page no: 13 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Road cum Railway Bridge: This type of bridge is useful for both road way and railway transport. It may
be of one floor or two floors. If one floor is there then, rail and road way are arranged side by side.
Otherwise roadway on top deck and railway in bottom deck is preferred.

DESIGN LOADS AND FORCES

Live load and dead load-
The primary function of a bridge is to carry traffic loads: heavy trucks, cars, and trains. Engineers must
estimate the traffic loading. On short spans, it is possible that the maximum conceivable load will be
achieved—that is to say, on spans of less than 30 meters (100 feet), four heavy trucks may cross at
the same time, two in each direction. On longer spans of a thousand meters or more, the maximum
conceivable load is such a remote possibility (imagine the Golden Gate Bridge with only heavy trucks
crossing bumper-to-bumper in each direction at the same time) that the cost of designing for it is
unreasonable. Therefore, engineers use probable loads as a basis for design. In order to carry traffic,
the structure must have some weight, and on short spans this dead load weight is usually less than
the live loads. On longer spans, however, the dead load is greater than live loads, and, as spans get
longer, it becomes more important to design forms that minimize dead load. In general, shorter spans

Page no: 14 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

are built with beams, hollow boxes, trusses, arches, and continuous versions of the same, while
longer spans use cantilever, cable-stay, and suspension forms. As spans get longer, questions of
shape, materials, and form become increasingly important. New forms have evolved to provide
longer spans with more strength from less material.
Forces of nature-Dead and live weight are essentially vertical loads, whereas forces from nature may
be either vertical or horizontal. Wind causes two important loads, one called static and the
other dynamic. Static wind load is the horizontal pressure that tries to push a bridge
sideways. Dynamic wind load gives rise to vertical motion, creating oscillations in any direction. Like
the breaking of an overused violin string, oscillations are vibrations that can cause a bridge to fail. If a
deck is thin and not properly shaped and supported, it may experience dangerous vertical or torsional
(twisting) movements.
COMPONENTS OF BRIDGES-Every bridge can be divided broadly into three parts-
1. Superstructure
2. Substructure
3. Foundation
Superstructure-Superstructure is that part of the structure which supports traffic and includes deck,
slab and girders. All the parts of the bridge which is mounted on a supporting system can be classified
as a Super structure. Super-structure is that part of the structure which is above ground level, and
which serves the purpose of its intended use. A part of the super-structure, located between the
ground level and (he floor level is known as plinth.
Substructure-Substructure is that part of the structure, i.e. piers and abutments, which supports the
superstructure and which transfers the structural load to the foundations. Sub-structure or
Foundation is the lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground level, which
transmits the loads of the super-structure to the supporting soil. A foundation is therefore that part
of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are transmitted.
Plinth is therefore defined as the portion of the structure between the surface of the surrounding
ground and surface of the floor, immediately above the ground. The level of the floor is usually

ABUTMENTS
Choice of Abutment
The objective is to avoid the use of joints over abutments and piers. Expansion joints are prone to
leak and allow the ingress of de-icing salts into the bridge deck and substructure. In general all bridges

Page no: 15 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

are made continuous over intermediate supports, and decks under 60 meters long with skews not
exceeding 30° are made integral with their abutments. Full height integral abutments are generally
used for the shorter spans (< about 20m).
Integral abutments with piled foundations usually incorporate steel H piles in a single row; the H piles
are orientated so that bending occurs about their weaker axis. These abutments are suitable for the
larger span decks.Integral abutments with spread footings (DfT BA 42/96 call Bank Pad Abutments)
should only be used where settlement due to consolidation of founding strata is minimal. Where
decks exceed 60 meters long or have skews exceeding 30° then movement joints and bearings usually
need to be provide.

GeometriConsiderations
1.Open Side Span with Bank Seats
2.Solid Side Span with Full Height Abutments.
Usually the narrow bridge is cheaper in the open abutment form and the wide bridge is cheaper in the
solid abutment form. The exact transition point between the two types depends very much on the
geometry and the site of the particular bridge. In most cases the open abutment solution has a better
appearance and is less intrusive on the general flow of the ground contours and for these reasons is
to be preferred. It is the cost of the wing walls when related to the deck costs which swings the
balance of cost in favor of the solid abutment solution for wider bridges. However the wider bridges
with solid abutments produce a tunneling effect and costs have to be considered in conjunction with
the proper functioning of the structure where fast traffic is passing beneath. Solid abutments for
narrow bridges should only be adopted where the open abutment solution is not possible. In the case
of wide bridges the open abutment solution is to be preferred, but there are many cases where
economy must be the overriding consideration.
Design Considerations
Loads transmitted by the bridge deck onto the abutment are :
1. Vertical loads from self weight of deck.
2. Vertical loads from live loading conditions.
3. Horizontal loads from temperature, creep movements etc and wind.
4. Horizontal loads from braking and skidding effects of vehicles.
These loads are carried by the bearings which are seated on the abutment bearing platform. The
horizontal loads may be reduced by depending on the coefficient of friction of the bearings at the
movement joint in the structure.However, the full braking effect is to be taken, in either direction, on
top of the abutment at carriageway level.In addition to the structure loads, horizontal pressures
exerted by the fill material against the abutment walls is to be considered. Also a vertical loading
from the weight of the fill acts on the footing.
Vehicle loads at the rear of the abutments are considered by applying a surcharge load on the rear of
the wall. For certain short single span structures it is possible to use the bridge deck to prop the two
abutments apart. This entails the abutment wall being designed as a propped cantilever.
TYPES OF ABUTMENTS-

Page no: 16 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

1.ABUTMENT WITHOUT WINGWALLS

2.STAIGHT ABUTMENTS
3.T-ABUTMENTS
4.ABUTMENTS WITH WINGWALLS
5.ABUTMENT WITH STRAIGHT WINGS
6.ABUTMENT WITH SPLAYED WINGS
7.ABUTMENTS WITH RETURN WINGS.
PIERS-The intermediate supports of a bridge superstructure are known as piers.
Normal piers are of following types:
1.Solid piers
2.Column Bents
3.Cylindrical piers
4.Dumb-bell piers
5.Pile bents
6.Trestle bents
WING WALLS-
Choice of Wing Wall
Wing walls are essentially retaining walls adjacent to the abutment. The walls can be independent or
integral with the abutment wall.Providing the bridge skew angle is small (less than 20°), and the
cutting/embankment slopes are reasonably steep then the wing wall cantilevering from the abutment
wall is likely to give the most economical solution.
Splayed wing walls can provide even more of an economy in material costs but the detailing and
fixing of the steel reinforcement is more complicated than the conventional wall.
Design Considerations
Loads effects to be considered on the rear of the wall are:
1. Earth pressures from the backfill material.
2. Surcharge from live loading or compacting plant.
3. Hydraulic loads from saturated soil conditions.
The stability of the wall is generally designed to resist 'active' earth pressures (Ka); whilst the
structural elements are designed to resist 'at rest' earth pressures (Co). The concept is that 'at rest'
pressures are developed initially and the structural elements should be designed to accommodate
these loads without failure. The loads will however reduce to 'active' pressure when the wall moves,
either by rotating or sliding. Consequently the wall will stabilize if it moves under 'at rest' pressures
providing it is designed to resist 'active' earth pressures.

Page no: 17 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

RETURN WALLS- A wall that makes a decided angle with and is approximately the same height as an
outer wall of a building and that is distinguished from a partition or a low wall carrying a partition
APPROACHES-Bridge approaches typically experience two types of settlement, global and
local. Global settlement consists of a consolidation of the underlying natural foundation soils, and is
evidence of possible long-term differential settlement between the bridge structure and the bridge
embankment. Local settlement consists of compression of fill materials directly beneath the
approach pavement, and is evidence of possible embankment consolidation within the upper 10 to 20
feet of the bridge embankment. It is the combination of global and local settlements adjacent to the
idge e d pie s that fo s the ha a te isti u p i the pa e e t at the idge e ds. The
purpose of the bridge approach slab is to significantly reduce local settlement and to accommodate
global settlement by providing a gradual transition between the roadway and the bridge deck.
Bridge approach slabs are required for all new and widened bridges, except when concurrence is
reached between the Materials Laboratory Geotechnical Branch, the Region
Design Project Engineer Office, and the Bridge and Structures Office, that approach slabs are not
appropriate for a particular site. In accordance with WSDOT Design Manual Chapter 1120, the State
Geotechnical Engineer will include a recommendation in the geotechnical report for a bridge on
whether or not bridge approach slabs should be used at the bridge site. Factors considered while
evaluating the need for bridge approach slabs include the amount of expected settlement and the
type of bridge structure.

Page no: 18 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

 We hope you find these notes useful.
You can get previous year question papers at
https://qp.rgpvnotes.in .

If you have any queries or you want to submit your

study notes please write us at
[email protected]