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85 views461 pagesAntenna Book CH 4-4.2d
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Muhammad AbdullahCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 461
THIRD EDITION
Antennas
For All Applications
f o i
7 j 7
\ ] fj m\
j . Ve
i —_—_~ Ve
John B. Kraus Ronald. Marhetka
att] — ANTENNAS
JOHN D. KRAUS
Second Edition SYMBOLS, PREFIXES
AND ABBREVIATIONS
See inside back cover for Constants and Conversions
A ampere HH
A angstrom = 107° m HPBW
A vector potential, Wb m~* Hz
A,@ area, m? Ay
A, collecting aperture Li
A, effective aperture J
Am maximum effective aperture ds
Ae effective aperture, receiving I
Ay effective aperture, transmitting = K
A, geometric aperture KK
A, physical aperture Kk
A scattering aperture k
AR axial ratio kg
AU astronomical unit L
a atto = 107'* (prefix) L
a unit vector t
B,B magnetic fiux density, LL
T= Wbm?* ‘
B susceptance, & Lep
B susceptance/unit length, m=! LEP
BWFN beam width, first nuils In
Cc coulomb log
c capacitance, F M
c capacitance/unit length, m=‘ = M, M
Ce aconstant,c = velocity of light = M
oc cubic centimeter M,
Cc degree Celsius m
D,D — clectric flux density, C m-* m
D directivity min
d distance, m N
deg degree, angle Nin
dB decibel = 10 log (P/P ,) Np
dBi decibels over isotropic n
a element of length (salar), m a
a element of length (vector), m PP
ds element of surface (scalar), m* P
ds element of surface (vector), m? P
dv element of votume (scalar), m? P
EE electric fleld intensity, ¥ m- ‘ P,
E exa = 10°* (prefix)
emf electromotive force, ¥ Pp
e electric charge, C Qa
F farad R
F,F force,N R,
fF fernto = 107 '§ (prefix) RCP
f frequency, Hz REP
Ga giga = 10° (prefix) r
G conductance, & r
G conductance/unit length, 3 m7"
G gain -
& gram rad
H heary sad?
:
magnetic field, A m=*
half-power beam width
hertz = 1 cycle per second
effective height
current, A
joule
current density, A m=?
jansky, 10-?° Wm? Hz~*
kelvin
shect-current density, Am” *
a constant
kilo = 10° (prefix)
kilogram
inductance, H
inductance/unit length, H m~*
liter
length (scalar), m
length (vector), m
left citculatly polarized
Jeft clliptically polarized
natural logarithm (base ¢}
common logarithm (base 10)
mega = 10° (prefix)
magnetization, A m*'
polarization state of wave
polarization state of antenna
meter
milli = 10~* (prefix}
minute
newton
ountber {imteger)
neper
nano = 107° (prefix)
unit vector normal to a surface
polarization of dielectric, C m=?
peta = 10"? (prefix) ]
polarization state = Ply. 8)
power, W
“nuunalized power pattern,
dimensionless
pico = 10 ‘*? (prefix)
charge, C
resistance, 2
‘tadiation resistance
right-circular polarization
Tight-elliptical polarization
revolution
radius,
direction |
unit vector in 7 direction
radian
square radian = steradian ~ gp
Iso coordinate
ge pag
“4
e
NNNS nek Mees age eect aa
Poynting vector, W m=?
flux density, W m~? Hz-*
distance, m; also surface area, m?
second (of time)
steradian = square radian = rad?
tesla = Wb m7?
tera = 10°? (prefix)
time, s
radiation intensity, W se!
volt
voltage (also emf), ¥
emf (electromotive force), V
velocity, m 3!
watt
weber
energy density, J m7?
reactance, 2
reactance/unit length, Q m=?
unil vector in x direction
coordinate direction
admittance, U
admittance/unit length, 0 m~?
unit vector in y direction
coordinate direction
impedance, @
impedance/unit length, 2 m=?
intrinsic impedance, conductor,
per square
intrinsic impedance, dielectric,
per square
load impedance, Q
tansvetse impedance, rectangular
waveguide, Q
transverse impedance, cylindrical
waveguide. 2
intrinsic impedance, space, 0 per
square
characteristic impedance,
transmission fine, Q
unit vector in z direction
coordinate direction, also red
shift
(alpha) angle, deg or rad
attenuation constant, nep m=!
(beta) angle, deg or tad; also
phase constant = 2n/i
(gamma) angle, deg ot rad
é
e
DANSE TEA Seager ey
(delta) angle, deg or rad
(epsilon) permittivity (dielectric
constant), F m7?
stray factor
relative permittivity
permittivity of vacuum, F m-'
(eta)
(theta) angle, deg or rad
(theta) unit vector in @ direction
(kappa) constant
(lambda) wavelength, m
Iree-space wavelength
(mu) permeability, H m=!
relative permeability
permeability of vacuum, H m=!
(nu)
&xi)
(pi) = 3.1416
(tho) electric charge density,
Cm *: also mass density,
kg m-
teflection coefficient,
dimensionless
surface charge density, C m-?
linear charge density, C m~
(sigma) conductivity, U m~!
radar cross section
(tau) tilt angle, polarization
ellipse, deg or rad
transmission coefficient
(phi) angle, deg or rad
(phi) unit vector in ¢ direction
(chi) susceptibility, dimensionless
(psi) angle, deg or rad
magnetic flux, Wb
(capital omega) ohm
(capital omega) solid angle, st or
deg?
beam area
main beam area
minor lobe area
(upsidedown capital omega} mho
@ = 1/25, siemens)
(omega) angular frequency
{= Inf), rad 57! To Heinrich Hertz, who invented
the first antennas...
. «and Guglielmo Marconi, who pioneered
in heir practical application.
ANTENNAS
. Second Edition
John D. Kraus
Director, Radio Observatory
Taine G. McDougal Professor Emeritus of
Electrical Engineering and Astronomy
The Ohio State University
with sections on
Frequency-Sensitive Surfaces by Benedikt A. Munk
Radar Scattering by Robert G. Kouyoumjian
aad
Moment Method by Edward H. Newman
all of the Ohio State University
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited
NEW DELHI
McGraw-Hill Offices
New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas
Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal
San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto Tata McGraw-Hill $2
A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
ANTENNAS
Copyright © 1988 by McGraw-Hill, Inc
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a data base or retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher:
Tata McGraw-Hil! edition 1997
Sixth reprint 2001
RCLYCRCLRACBB
Reprinted in India by arrangement with The McGraw-Hilt Companies, Inc.,
New York
For sale in india Only
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Pubjication Data
Kraus, John Daniel, (date).
Antennas.
(McGraw-Hill series in electrical engineering.
Electronics and electronic circuits)
Includes index,
4. Antennas (Electronics) I. Title.
TK7871.6.K74 1988 621.38'028'3 87-15913
{SBN 0-07-035422-7
When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07-463219-1
Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,
7 West Patel Nagar, New Dethi 110.008, and printed at
A P Offset, Shahdara, Delhi 110 032
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
John D. Kraus was bom in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1910 and received his Ph.D.
degree in physics from the University of Michigan in 1933. He then did research
in nuclear physics with Michigan's newly completed 100-ton cyclotron untit
World War II when he worked on the degaussing of ships for the U.S. Navy and
on radar countermeasures at Harvard University. After the War he came to the
Ohio State. University where he is now Director of the Radio Observatory and
McDougal Professor (Emeritus) of Electrical Engineering and Astronomy.
Dr. Kraus is the inventor of the helical antenna, the workhorse of space
communication, the corner reflector, used by the millions for television reception,
and many other types of antennas. He designed and built the giant Ohio radio
telescope known as “Big Ear.” He is the holder of many patents and has
published hundreds of scientific and technical articles, He is also the author of
the widely used classic textbooks Antennas (McGraw-Hil, 1950), considered to be
the “Antenna Bible,” Electromagnetics (McGraw-Hill, 1953, second edition 1973,
third edition, 1984), and Radio Astronomy (McGraw-Hill, 1966, second edition
Cygnus Quasar, 1986). In addition, Dr. Kraus has written two popular books Big
Ear (1976) and Our Cosmic Universe (1980).
Dr. Kraus received the U.S. Navy Meritorious Civilian Service Award in
1946. He was made a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engi-
neets (LEE) in 1954 and was elected to the National Academy of Enginecriug in
1972. He received the Sullivant Medal, Ohio State University's top award, in
1970; the Outstanding Achievement Award of the University of Michigan in
198k; the prestigious Edison Medal of the IEEE in £985; and the Distinguished
Achievement Award of the Antennas and Propagation Society of the IEEE in the
same year.
Currently, Dr. Kraus is serving as antenna consultant to government and
industry. CONTENTS
Symbols, Prefixes and Abbreviations
Constants and Conversions
Gradient, Divergence and Curl in
Rectangular, Cylindrical and
Inside front cover and
facing inside front cover
Facing inside back cover
Spherical Coordinates Inside back cover
Preface xxiii
1 Introduction 1
1-1 Introduction 1
1-2 The Origitis of Electromagnetic Theory and the First Antennas 1
1-3. Electromagnetic Spectrum * 8
1-4 Dimensions and Units MW
1-5 Fundamental and Secondary Units 12
1-6 How to Read the Symbols and Notation 3
17 Equation Numbering 14
1-8 Dimensional Analysis 15
References 15
2 Basic Antenna Concepts 17
2-1 Introduction 17
2.2 Definitions 17
2-3. Basic Antenna Parameters 19
24 Patterns 2
2-5 Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle) 2B
2-6 Radiation intensity 25
2-7 Beam Efficiency 25
28 Directivity 26
2.9 Examples of Directivity 6
210 Directivity and Gain 21 xii CONTENTS
2-11 Directivity and Resolution
2-12 Aperture Concept
2-13 Effective Aperture
2-14 Scattering Aperture
2-15 Loss Aperture
2-16 Collecting Aperture
2-17 Physical Aperture and Aperture Efficiency
2.18 Seattering by Large Apertures
2.19 Effective Height
2-20 Maximum Effective Aperture of a Short Dipole
2-21 Maximum Effective Aperture of a Linear 4/2 Antenna
2-22 Effective Aperture and Directivity
2-23 Beam Solid Angle as a Fraction of a Sphere
2-24 Table of Effective Aperture, Directivity, Effective Height and Other
Parameters for Dipoles and Loops
2-25 Friis Transmission Formula
2-26 Duality of Antennas
2-27 Sources of Radiation: Radiation Results from Accelerated Charges
2-28 Pulsed Opened-Out Twin-Line Antennas
2.29 Fields from Oscillating Dipole
2-30 Radiation from Pulsed Center-Fed Dipote Antennas
2-31 Antenna Field Zones
2-32, Shape-Impedance Considerations
2-33 Antennas and Transmission Lines Compared
2.34. Wave Polarization
2-35 Wave Polarization and the Poynting Vector
2-36 Wave Polarization and the Poincaré Sphere
2-37 Cross-field
2-38 Table Summarizing Important Relations of Chapter 2
Problems
3 Point Sources
3-L Introduction. Point Source Defined
3-2 Power Patterns
3-3_A Power Theorem and Its Application to an Isotropic Source
3-4 Radiation Intensity
3-5 Source with Hemispheric Power Pattern.
3-6 Source with Unidirectional Cosine Power Pattern
3-7. Source with Bidirectional Cosine Power Pattern
3-8 Source with Sine (Doughnut) Power Pattern
3-9 Source with Sine-Squared (Doughnut) Power Pattern
3-10 Sourve with Unidirectional Cosine-Squared Power Pattern
3-14 Source with Unidirectional Cosine" Power Pattern
3-12 Source with Unidirectional Power Pattern That Is Not Symmetrical
3.13 Directivity
3-14 Source with Pattetn of Arbitrary Shape
3-15 Gain
3-16 Field Patterns
27
28
29
31
35
35
35
36
40
a2
46
47
48
48
50
50
$2
54
54
60
61
70
B
73
wn
81
82
86
87
89
90
91
92
93
93
94
74
9s
9%
oT
101
103
104
contents xiii
$17 Phase Patterns
3-18 General Equation for the Field of a Point Source
Problems
4
oo
43
44
45
46
4.7
48
4g
4.10
411
412
413
+14
415
+16
417
418
Arrays of Point Sources
Introduction
Arrays of Twa Isotropic Point Sourees
42a Case 1. Two Isotropic Point Sources of Same Amplitude and
Phase
4-2b Case 2. Two Isatropic Point Sources of Same Amplitude but
Opposite Phase
42c Case 3, Two Isotropic Point Sources of the Same Amplitude
and in Phase Quadrature
42d Case 4. General Case of Two Isotropic Point Sources of Equal
Amplitude and Any Phase Difference
A2e Case 5. Most General Case of Two Isotropic Point Sources
of Unequal Amplitude and Any Phase Difference
Nonisotropic but Similar Point Sources and the Principle of Pattern
Multiplication
Example of Pattern Synthesis by Pattern Muitiplication
Nonisottopic and Dissimilar Point Sources
Linear Arrays of » Isotropic Point Sources of Equal Amplitude and
Spacing
46a Introduction
4-60 Case 1. Broadside Array (Sources in Phase}
4-6¢ Case 2. Ordinary End-Fire Array
46d Case 3. End-Fire Array with Increased Directivity
46¢ Case 4. Array with Maximum Field in an Arbitrary Direction.
Scanning Array
Null Directions for Arrays of n Isotropic Point Sources of Equal
Amplitude and Spacing
Broadside versus End-Fire Arrays. Turns versus Dipoles and
3-Dimensional Arrays
Directions of Maxima for Arrays of 7 Isotropic Point Sources
of Equal Amplitude and Spacing
Linear Broadside Arrays with Nonuniform Amplitude Distributions.
General Considerations
Linear Arrays with Noniniform Amplitude Distributions.
The Dolph-Tehebyscheff Optimum Distribution
Example of Dotph-Tchebyscheff Distribution for an Array of 8 Sources
Comparison of Amplitude Distributions for Source Arrays
Continuous Arrays
Huygens’ Principle
Huygens’ Principle Applied to the Diffraction of a Plane Wave Incident
ona Flat Sheet. Physicat Optics
Rectangular-Area Broadside Arrays
Artays with Missing Sources and. Random Arrays
Problems
108,
15
116
118
118
118
118
1
122
125
126
127
130.
134
B7
37
140
441
ial
145
145
150
156
159
162
71
173
175
179
183
186
189
190 xiv CONTENTS:
5. The Electric Dipole and Thin Linear Antennas 200
5-1 ‘The Short Electric Dipole..
$2. The Fields of a Short Dipole
5-3 Radiation Resistance of Short Electric Dipole
5-4 The Fields of Short Dipole by the Hertz Vector Method
5-5 The Thin Linear Antenna
S-5Sa Case 1, 4/2 Antenna
5-5b Case 2. Full-Wave Antenna
$-5¢ Case 3, 34/2 Antenna
5-5d Field at Any Distance from Centes-Fed Dipole
5-6 Radiation Resistance of i/2 Antenna
5-7 Radiation Resistance at a Point Which Is Not a Current Maximum
5-8 Fields of a Thin Linear Antenna with a Uniform Traveling Wave
$-8a Case 1. Linear 4/2 Antenna
5-8 Case 2. Linear Antenna 54 Long
$-8¢ Case 3. Linear Antennas 1/2 to 252 Long
Problems
6 The Loop Antenna
61 The Small Loop
62 The Short Magnetic Dipole. Equivalence to 2 Loop
63. The Short Magnetic Dipole. Far Fields
6-4 Comparison of Far Fields of Small Loop and Short Dipole
&-5_ The Loop Antenna. General Case
66 Far-Field Patterns of Circular Loop Anteunas with Uniform Current
67 The Smalt Loop as a Special Case
68 Radiation Resistance of Loops
69 Directivity of Circular Loop Antennas with Uniform Custent
6-10 Table of Loop Formulas
61 Square Loops
6-12 Radiation Efficiency, Q, Bandwidth and Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Problems
7 The Helical Antenna
7-1, Introduction
7-2. Iclical Geometry
7-3 Transmission and Radiation Modes of Monofilar Helices
7-4 Practical Design Considerations for the Monofilar Axial-Mode
Helical Antenna
7-5 Axial-Mode Patterns and the Phase Velocity of Wave Propagation
on Monofilar Helices
7-6 Monofilar Axial-Mode Single-Turn Patterns
7-7 Complete Axial-Mode Patterns of Monofilar Helices
7-8 Axial Ratio and Conditions for Circular Polarization of Monofilar
Axial-Mode Helical Antennas
7.9 Wideband Characteristics of Monofilar Helical Antennas Radiating
in the Axial Mode
7-10 Table of Pattern, Beam Width, Gain, Impedance and Axial Ratio Formuias
200
201
213
217
2g
21
222
222
223
2a
227
28
233
234
234
235
238
238
241
242
244
244
247
249
250
253
284
284
256
263
265
265
at
274
276
287
295
300
301
307
309
CONTENTS XY
7-11 Radiation from Linear Periodic Structures with Traveling Waves
with Particular Reference to the Helix as a Periodic Structure Antenna
7-12 Arrays of Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antennas
7-12a Array of 4 Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antennas
7-12b Array of 96 Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antennas
7.13 The Monofilar Axial-Mode Helix as a Parasitic Element
Helix-Helix
Polyrod-Helix
Horn-Helix
‘Corner-Helix
The 2-Wire-Line-Helix
Helix-Helix
Helix Lens
7-14 The Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antenna as a
Phase and Frequency Shifter
7-15 Linear Polarization with Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antennas
7-16 Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antennas as Feeds
4-17 Tapered and Other Forms of Axial-Mode Helical Antennas
7-18 Multifilar Axial-Mode (Kilgus Coil and Patton Coil) Helical Antennas
7-19 Monofilat and Multifilar Normal-Mode Helical Antennas.
The Wheeler Coil
Problems
8 The Biconical Antenna and Its Impedance
81 Introduction
8-2 The Characteristic Impedance of the Infinite Biconical Antenna
8-3 Input Impedance of the Infinite Biconical Antenna
8.4 Input Impedance of the Finite Biconical Antenna
8&5 Pattern of Biconical Antenna
8-6 Input Impedance of Antennas of Arbitrary Shape
87 Measurements of Conical and Triangular Antennas.
The Brown-Woodward (Bow-Tie) Antenna
8-8 The Stacked Biconical Antenna and the Phantom Biconical Antenna
Problems
9. The Cylindrical Antenna. TH Moment Method (MM)
9-1 Introduction
9-2 Outline of the Integral-Equation Method
9:3 The Wave Equation in the Vector Potential A
9-4 Hallén’s Integral Equation
9-5 First-Order Solution of Hallén's Equation
9-6 Length-Thickness Parameter {¥
9.7 Equivalent Radius of Antennas with Noncircular Cross Section
9-8 Current Distributions
9-9 Input Impedance
9-10 Patterns of Cylindrical Antennas
9-11 The Thin Cylindrical Antenna
9-12 Cykindrical Antennas with Conical Input Sections
39
321
323
323
323
3233
323
324
324
328
325
325
326
327
329
3322
333
38
341
346
347
353
354.
356
358
359
359
360
361
363
365
368
3
376
317
379 xvi CONTENTS:
9-13 Antennas of Other Shapes. The Spheroida! Antenna
9.14 Current Distributions on Long Cylindrical Antennas
9-15 Integral Equations and the Moment Method (MM) ia Electrostatics
9-16 The Moment Mcthod (MM) and Its Application to a Wire Antenna
9-17 Scli-Impedance, Radar Cross Section and Mutual Impedance of
Short Dipoles by the Method of Moments by Edward H, Newman
Additional References for Chap. 9
Problems
10 Self and Mutual Impedances
10-1 Introduction
10-2. Reciprocity Theorem for Antennas
10-3 Self-Impedance of a Thin Linear Antenna
10-4 Mutual Impedance of Two Parallel Linear Antennas
10-5 Mutual Impedance of Parallel Antennas Side-by-Side
10-6 Mutual Impedance of Parallel Collinear Antennas
10-7 Mutual Impedance of Parallel Antennas in Echelon
10-8 Mutual Impedance of Other Gonligurations
10-9 Mutual Impedance in Terms of Directivity and Radiation Resistance
Additional References for Chap. 10
Problems
11 Arrays of Dipoles and of Apertures
Tatroduction
Asray of 2 Driven 4/2 Elements, Broadside Case
11.2a Field Patterns
11-2b Driving-Point Impedance
11-2c Gain in Field Intensity
H-3. Array of 2 Driven 2/2 Elements, End-Fire Case.
11-3a Field Patterns
11-36 Driving-Point Impedance
11-3e Gain in Field Intensity
M4 Array of2 Driven 2/2 Elements. Genergggbave with Equal Cursents
of Any Phase Retatiu
11-3 Closely Spaced Elements
11-52 “Intraduction
11-5b Closely Spaced Elements and Radiating Efficiency. The W8JK Artay
Amay of n Driven Elements
1-7 Horizontal Antennas above a Plane Ground
11-7a Horizontat 4/2 Antenna above Ground
11-76 WA3K Antenna above Ground
11-7e Stacked Horizontal 3/2 Antennas above Ground
11-8 Vertical Antennas above a Ground Plane
-9 Arrays with Parasitic Elements
11-94 Introduction
11-96 The Yagi-Uda Array
(1-9¢ Square-Corner—Yagi-Uda Hybrid
380
380
384
389
397
407
408
409
416
413
422
424
228
428
430
432
433
433
435
435
436
436
439
440
445
445
447
44g
449
453
453
454
459
461
46t
468
470
4nd
476
476
481
483
CONTENTS,
11-94 Circolar Polarization with a Yagi-Uda Antenna,
1-9 The Landsdorfer Shaped-Dipole Array
TL-10 Phased Arrays
11-10a Intreduetion
TE-L0b Phased Array Designs
11-10¢ Rotatable Helix Phased Array
U-11 Frequency-Scanning Arrays
Ll-Lta Frequency-Scanning Line-Fed Array
I-11 Frequeney-Seanning Backward Angle-Fire Grid and Chain Acrays
11-12. Retro-Arrays. The Van Atta Array
11-13 Adaptive Arrays and Smart Anteanas
11-132 Literature on Adaptive Arrays
1-{4 Microstrip Arrays
I1-18 Low-Sidelobe Arrays
11-16 Long-Wire Antennas
t1-16a_V Antennas
1|-16b Rhombie Antennas
Lf-I6e Beverage Anteanas
1-17 Curtain Arrays
Location and Method of Feeding Antennas
Folded Dipole Antennas
Modifications of Folded Dipoles
Continuous Aperture Distribution
Fourier Transform Relations between the Far-Field Pattern
and the Aperture Distnbution
11.23 Spatial Frequency Response and Pattern Smoothing
11-24 The Simple (Addirg) Interferometer
11-25 Aperture Synthesis and Mulli-aperture Arrays
11-26 Grating Lobes
Additional References
Problems
12 Reflector Antennas and Their Feed Systems
19-4 Introduction
12.2 Plane Sheet Reflectors and Diffraction
123 Comer Reflectors
12-34 Active (Kraus) Corner Reflector
12-3b Passive (Retro) Corner Reflector
12-4 The Parabola, General Properties
12-5 A Comparison between Parabolic and Comer Reflectors
12-6 The Paraboloidal Reflector
12-7 Patterns of Large Circular Apertutes with Uniform Iumination
12-8 The Cylindrical Parabolic Reflector
12-9 Aperture Distributions and Efficiencies
12-10 Surface Irregularities and Gain Loss
12-11 OA-Axis Operation of Parabolic Reflectors
12-12 Cassegrain Feed, Shaped Reflectors, Spherical Reflectors and Offset Feed
xvii
484
484
485
485
486
489
40
490
491
496
496
499
501
S501
502
502
503
508
509
510
Stl
514
S15
S17
520
522
533
535
536
337
543
543
S45
549
549
561
561
563
564
569
572
573
587
592
594 xviii
CONTENTS
12-13 Frequency-Sensitive (or Selective) Surfaces (FSS) by Benedikt A. Munk
Effect of Element Spacings d, and d,
Effect of Angle of Incidence 8
Control of Bandwidth
Cascading or Stacking More FSS
Element Types
12-14 Some Examples of Reflector Antennas
12-18
Bona
Arecibo
Bell Telephone Laboratories
Nobeyama
Ohio State University
Gorki
Five College Observatory
Offsat
Low-Sidelobe Considerations
References
Probl
13
43-1
13-2
13.3
34
13.5
13-6
13:7
18
13-9
13-10
13-11
13-12
13-13
13-14
13-15
lems
Stot, Horn and Complementary Antennas
Introduction
Slot Antennas
Patterns of Slot Antennas in Flat Sheets. Edge Diffraction
Babinet’s Principle and Complementary Antennas
‘The Impedance of Complementary Screens
‘The Impedance of Slot Antennas
Slotted Cylinder Antennas
Horn Antennas
‘The Rectangular Horn Antenna
‘Beam-Width Comparison
Conical Horn Antennas
Ridge Horns
Septum Horns
Corrugated Horns
Aperture-Matched Horn
References
Problems
14
141
14-2
14.3
144
145
14-6
14-7
14-8
Lens Antennas
Introduction
‘Nonmetallic Dielectric Lens Antennas, Fermat's Principle
Artificial Dielectric Lens Antennas
E-Plane Metal-Plate Lens Antennas
Tolerances on Lens Antennas
H-Plane Metal-Plate Lens Antennas
Reflector-Lens Antenna,
Polyrods
SeaRase8883
653
653
654
655
657
659
639
661
661
$63
670
673
683
685
CONTENTS xix
149 Multiple-Helix Lenses
14-10 Luneburg and Einstein Lenses
Additional Reference
Problems
15
15-1
15-2
15-3
15-4
15-5
15-6
Broadband and Frequency-Independent Antennas
Broadband Antennas
The Froquency-Independent Concept: Rumsey's Principle
‘The Frequency-Independent Planar Log-Spiral Antenna
“The Frequency-Independent Conical-Spiral Antenna
The Log-Periodic Antenna
The Yagi-Uda-Corner-Log-Periodic (YUCOLP} Array
Problems
16 Antennas for Special Applications: Feeding Considerations
16-1
Introduction
16-2 Electrically Smail Antennas
16-3 Physically Smell Antennas
16-4 Antenna Siting and the Effect of Typical (Imperfect) Ground
16-5 Ground-Plane Antennas
16-6 Sleeve Antennas
16-7 Turnstile Antenna
16-8 Superturnstile Antenna
16-9 Other Omnidirectional Antennas
16-10 Cireularly Polarized Antennas
{6-11 Matching Arrangements, Baluns and Traps
16-12 Patch or Microstrip Antennas
16-13 The High-Gain Omni
16-14 Submerged Antennas
16-15 Surface-Wave and Leaky-Wave Antennas
16-46 Antenna Design Considerations for Satellite Communication
16-17 Receiving versus Transmitting Considerations
16-18 Bandwidth Considerations
16-19 Gravity-Wave Antennas, Rotating Boom for Transmitting and Weber Bar
for Receiving
Problems
7
17-4
17-2
V3
17-4
17-5
Antenna Temperature, Remote Sensing, Radar and
Scattering,
Introduction
Antenna Temperature, Incremental and Total
System Temperature and Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Passive Remote Sensing
Radar, Scattering and Active Remote Sensing by Robert G. Kouyoumjian
Additional References
Problems
687
688
690
690,
692
692
696
697
Jor
703
708
710
7
mL
m1
4
NG
723
725
16
729
TA
732
734
745
749
9
754
762
166
167
768
710
714
74
74
782
‘787
THE
D7 xx
18
18-1
18-2
{8-3
18-4
18-5
18-6
187
18.8
18.9
conrEnis
Antenna Measurements
Introduction
Patterns
Patiern Measurement Arrangements
18-3a Distance Requirement for Uniform Phase
18-3b Uniform Field Amplitude Requirement
18-3¢ Absorbing Materials
18-3d The Anechoic Chamber Compact Range
18-3e Pattern and Squint Measurements Using Celestial and
Satellite Radio Sources
Phase Measurements
Dircetivity
Gain
18-6a Gain by Comparison
18-6b Absolute Gain of Identical Antennas
18-6¢ Absolute Gain of Single Antenna
18-6d Gain by Near-Field Measurements
18-6e Gain and Aperture Efficiency from Celestial Source
Measurements
‘Terminal Impedance Measurements
Current Distribution Measurements
Polarization Measurements
18-92 Polarization-Pattern Method
18-9b Linear-Component Method
18-9¢ Circular-Component Metiod
18-10 Antenna Rotation Experiments
18-11 Model Measurements
18-12 Measurement Error
Additional References
References on Radiation Hazards
Problems
Appendix A Tables for Reference
AL
A
AS
Ad
AS
AS
AT
AS
Ad
A-10
‘Table of Antenna and Antenna System Relations
Formulas for Input Impedance of Terminated Tranemission Lines
Reflection and Transmission Coefficients and VSWR
Characteristic Impedance of Coaxial, 2-Wire and Microstrip
Transmission Lines
Characteristic Impedance of Transmission Lines in Terms
of Distributed Parameters
Material Constants (Permittivity, Conductivity and Dielectric Strength}
Permittivity Relations
Celestial Radio Sources for Pattern, Squint, Gain and Aperture
Efficiency Measurements
Maxwell's Equations
Beam Width and Sidelobe Level for Rectangular and Circular
Aperture Distributions
305
805
807
809
Bul
8i4
B18.
822
823
R24
824
824
826
828
829
830
832
834
835
836
838
838
a1
842
843
843
845
845
dR
849
849
350
351
852,
853
854
856
Appendix B Computer Programs (Codes)
Bel Additional Computer Program References
B-2 BASIC Phased-Array Antenna Pattern Programs
Appendix C Books and Video Tapes
CA Books
C2. Video Tapes
Appendix D Answers to Starred Problems
Appendix E Problem Supplement
Index
CONTENTS
xxi
857
858
859
863
863
865
870
873 PREFACE
Although there has been an explosion in antenna technology in the years since
“Antennas was published, the basic principles and theory remain unchanged. My
aim in this ‘new edition is to blend a central core of basics from the first edition
with a representative selection of important new developments and advances
resulting in a much enlarged, updated book. It is appropriate that it is appearing
just 100 years from the date on which the first antennas were invented by Hein-
rich Hertz to whom, along with Guglielmo Marconi, this new edition is dedi-
cated.
As with the first edition, physical concepts are emphasized which aid in the
visualization and understanding of the radiation phenomenon. More worked
examples are given to illustrate the steps and thought processes required in going
from a fundamental equation to a useful answer. The new edition stresses practi-
cal approaches to real-world situations and much information of value is made
available in the form of many simple drawings, graphs and equations.
As with the first edition my purpose is to give a unified treatment of
antennas from the electromagnetic theory point of view while paying attention to
important applications. Following a brief history of antennas in the first chapter
to set the stage, the next three chapters deal with basic concepts and the theory of
point sources. These are followed by chapters on the linear, loop, helical, bicon-
ical and cylindrical antennas.
‘Then come chapters on antenna arrays, reflectors, slot, horn, complemen-
tary and lens antennas. The last four chapters discuss broadband and frequency-
independent antennas, antennas for special applications including electrically
small and physically small antennas, temperature, remote sensing, radar, scat-
tering and measurements. ‘The Appendix has many useful tables and references.
‘The book has over 1000 drawings and illustrations, many of which are
unique, providing physica! insights into the process of radiation from antennas.
The book is an outgrowth of lectures for antenna courses J have given at
xxiii XxIT PREFACE
Ohio State University and at Ohio University. The material is suitable for use at
fate undergraduate or carly graduate tevel and is more than adequate for a. one-
semester course. The problem sets at the end of each chapter illustrate and extend
the material covered in the text. In many cases they indude important results on
topics listed in the index. There are over 500 problems and worked examples.
Antennas has been written to serve not only as a textbook but also as a
reference hook for the practicing cngineer and scientist. As an aid to those
secking additional information on a particular subject, the book is well docu-
mented with references both in footnotes and at the ends of chapters.
A few years ago it was customary to devote many pages of a textbook to
computer programs, some with hundreds of steps. Now with many conveniently
packaged programs and codes readily available this is no longer necessary.
Extensive listings of such programs and codes, particularly those using moment
methods, are given in Chapter 9 and in the Appendix. Nevertheless, some rela-
tively short programs are included with the problem sets and in the Appendix.
From my IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Centennial address
(1984) ¥ quote,
With mankind's activities expanding into space, the need for antennas will grow to
an unprecedented degree, Antennas will provide the vital links to and from every-
thing out there. The future of antennas reaches to the stars.
Robert G. Kouyoumjian, Benedikt A. Munk and Edward H. Newman of
the Ohio State University have contributed sections on scattering, frequency-
sensitive surfaces and moment method respectively. I have edited these contribu-
tions to make symbols and terminology consistent with the rest of the book and
any errors are my responsibility.
In addition, I gratefully acknowledge the assistance, comments and data
from many others on the topics listed:
Walter D. Burnside, Ohio State Universily, compact ranges
Robert S. Dixon, Ohio State University, phased-arrays
Von R. Eshleman, Stanford University, gravity lenses
Paul E. Mayes, University of Illinois, frequency-independent antennas
Robert E. Munson, Dall Aci uspave, microstrip antennas
Leon Peters, Jr, Ohio State University, dipole antennas
David M. Pozar, University of Massachusetts, moment method
Jack H. Richmond, Ohio State University, moment method
Helmut E. Schrank, Westinghouse, low-sidelobe antennas
Chen-To Tai, University of Michigan, dipole antennas
Throughout the preparation of this edition, I have had the expert editorial
assistance of Dr. Erich Pacht.
Ulustration and manuscript preparation have been handled by Robert
Davis, Kristine Hall and William Taylor. McGraw-Hill editors were Sanjeev
Rao, Alar Etken and John Morriss.
PREFACE XX¥
i jons in the
Although great care has been exercised, some errors OF omission i p the
text, tables, lists or figures will inevitably occur Anyone finding em will do me
° ” ts a
i iting to me so that they car
a great service by wr:
FOOTE co appreciate te very helpful comments of Ronald N. Bracowell, Stan-
ford University, who reviewed the manuscript for McGraw snd dete
Finally, | thank my wie, Alice, for her patience, enc
tion through all the years of work it has taken
John D. Kraus
Ohio State University CHAPTER
|
INTRODUCTION
1-1 INTRODUCTION. Since Hertz and Marconi, antennas have become
increasingly important to our society until now they are indispensable. They are
everywhere: at our homes and workplaces, on our cars and aircraft, while our
ships, satellites and spacecraft bristle with them. Even as pedestrians, we carry
them.
Although antennas may seem to have a bewildering, almost infinite variety.
they all operate according to the same basic principies of electromagnetics. The
aim of this book is to explain these principles in the simplest possible terms and
illustrate them with many practical examples. In some situations intuitive
approaches will suffice while in others complete rigor is needed. The book pro-
vides a blend of both with selected examples illustrating when to use one or the
other.
This chapter provides an historical background while Chap. 2 gives an
introduction to basic concepts. The chapters that follow develop the subject in
more detail.
1-2 THE ORIGINS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY AND
THE FIRST ANTENNAS.’ Six hundred years before Christ, a Greek mathe-
matician, astronomer and philosopher, Thales of Miletus, noted that when amber
is rubbed with silk it produces sparks and has a seemingly magical power to
1. D, Kraus, “Antenaas Since Hertz and Marconi,” JEEE Trans. Ants. Prop, AP-33, 131-137, 1985.
Sez also references at end of chapier. 2 3 INTRODUCTION
attract particles of fluff and straw, The Greek word for amber is elektron and
from this we get our words electricity, electron and electronics. Thales also noted
the attractive power between pieces of a natural magnetic rock called loadstone,
found at a place called Magnesia, from which is derived the words magnet and
magnetism. Thales was a pioneer in both electricity and magnetism but his inter-
est, like that of others of his time, was philosophical rather than practical, and it
was 22 centuries before these phenomena were investigated in a serious experi-
mental way.
It remained for William Gilbert of England in about A.D. 1600 to perform
the first systematic experiments of electric and magnetic phenomena, describing
his experiments in his celebrated book, De Magnete. Gilbert invented the electro-
scope for measuring clectrostatic effects, He was also the first to recognize that
the earth itself is a huge magnet, thus providing new insights into the principles
of the compass and dip needle.
In experiments with electricity made about 1750 that led to his invention of
the lightning rod, Benjamin Franklin, the American scientist-statesman, esiab-
lished the law of conservation of charge and determined that there are both posi-
tive and negative charges. Later, Charles Augustin de Coulomb of France
measured electric and magnetic forces with a delicate torsion balance he invent-
ed. During this period Karl Friedrich Gauss, a German mathematician and
astronomer, forroulated his famous divergence theorem relating a volume and its
surface,
By 1800 Alessandro Volta of Italy had invented the voltaic cell and, con-
necting several in series, the electric battery. With batteries, electric currents
could be produced, and in 1819 the Danish professor of physics Hans Christian
Oersted found that a current-carrying wire caused a nearby compass needle to
deflect, thus discovering that electricity could produce magnetism. Before Oersted,
electricity and magnetism were considered as entirely independent phenomena.
The following year, André Marie Ampére, a French physicist, extended
Oersted’s observations. He invented the solenoidal coil for producing magnetic
fields and theorized correctly that the atoms in a magnet are magnetized by tiny
electric currents circulating in them. About this time Georg Simon Ohm of
Germany published his now-famous law relating current, voltage and resistance.
However, it initially met with ridicule and a decade passed before scientists began
to recognize its truth and importance.
Then in 1832, Michael Faraday of London demonstrated that a changing
magnetic field could produce an electric current. Whereas Ocrsted found that
electricity could produce magnetism, Faraday discovered that magnetism could
produce electricity. At about the same time, Joseph Henry of Albany, New York,
observed the effect independently. Henry also invented the electric telegraph and
telay.
Faraday’s extensive experimental investigations enabled James Clerk
Maxwell, a professor at Cambridge University, England, to establish in a pro-
found and elegant manner the interdependence of electricity and magnetism. In
his classic treatise of 1873, he published the first unified theory of electricity and
1.2. THE ORIGINS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY AND THE FIRST ANTENNAS 3
magnetism and founded the science of electromagnetics. He postulated that light
was electromagnetic in nature and that electromagnetic radiation of other wave-
+ Jengths should be possible.
Maxwell unified electromagnetics in the same way that Isaac Newton
unified mechanics two centuries earlier with his famous Law of Universal Gravi-
tation governing the motion of all bodies both terrestrial and celestial.
Although Maxwell’s equations are of great importance and, with boundary,
continuity and other auxiliary relations, form the basic tenets of modern electro-
magnetics, many scientists of Maxwell's time were skeptical of his theories. It was
more than a decade before his theories were vindicated by Heinrich Rudolph
Hertz.
Early in the 1880s the Berlin Academy of Science had offered a prize for
rescarch on the relation betwecn clectromagnetic forces and diclectric potariz~
ation. Heinrich Hertz considered whether the problem could be solved with oscil-
lations using Leyden jars or open induction coils. Although he did not pursue
this problem, his interest in oscillations had been kindled and in 1886 as pro-
fessor at the Technical Institute in Karlsruhe he assembled apparatus we would
now describe as a complete radio system with an end-loaded dipole as transmit-
ting antenna and a resonant square loop antenna as receiver. When sparks were
produced at a gap al the center of the dipole, sparking also occurred at a gap in
the nearby loop. During the next 2 years, Hertz extended his experiments and
demonstrated reflection, refraction and polarization, showing that except for their
much greater length, radio waves were one with light. Hertz turned the tide
round.
sal experiments were conducted at wavelengths of about 8 meters
while his later work was at shorter wavelengths, around. 30 centimeters. Figure
1-1 shows Hertz’s earliest 8-meter system and Fig. 1-2 a display of his apparatus,
including thc cylindrical parabolic reflector he used at 30 centimeters.
Although Hertz was the father of radio, his invention remained a labora-
tory curiosity for nearly a decade until 20-year-old Guglielmo Marconi, on a
summer vacation in the Alps, chanced upon a magazine which described Hertz’s
experiments. Young Guglielmo wondered if these Hertzian waves could be used
to send messages. He became obsessed with the idea, cut short his vacation and
Tushed home to test it.
In spacious rooms on an upper floor of the Marconi mansion in Bologna,
Matconi repeated Hertz’s experiments. His first success late one night so elated
him he could not wait until morning to break the news, so he woke his mother
and demonstrated his radio systm to her.
Marconi quickly went on to add tuning, big antenna and ground systems
for longer wavelengths and was able to signal over large distances. In mid-
December 1901, he startled the world by announcing that he had received radio
> His dipole was called a Hertzian dipole and the radio waves Hertzian waves. 45 INTRERECTION
_. |
e »
Figure f-1 Heinrich Hertz's complete radio system of 1886 with end-louded dipole transmitting
antenna (CC’| and resonant loop receiving antenna tabed) for 4 ~ 8 m. With induction ceil (4) tumed
on, sparks at yap B induced sparks at M in the loop receiving antenna (From Heinrich Hertz's book
Elecivie Waves, Macmillan, 1893: redrawn with dimensions added.)
BE
4
Figure 1-2. Hertz’s sphere-loaded i/2 dipole and spark gap (resting on floor in foreground) and
tical parabolic refiector for 30 centimeters (standing at left) Dipole with spark gap is on the
parabola focal axis. (Photograph hy Edward C. Jordan)
1-2. THE ORIGINS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY AND THE FIRST ANTENNAS 5
signals at St. John’s, Newfoundland, which had been sent across the Adantic
from a station he had built at Poidhu in Cornwall, England. The scientific estab-
lishment did not believe his claim because in its view radio waves, like light,
should travel in straight lines and could not bend around the earth from England
to Newfoundland. However, the Cable Company believed Marconi and served
him with a writ to cease and desist because it had a monopoly on transatlantic
communication. The Cable Company's stock had plummeted following
Marconi’s announcement and it threatened to sue him for any loss of revenue if
he persisted. However, persist he did, and a legal battle developed that continued
for 27 years until finally the cable and wireless groups merged.
One month after Marconi’s announcement, the American Institute of Elec-
trical Engineers (AEE) hetd a banquet at New York's Waldorf-Astoria to cele-
brate the event. Charles Protius Steinmetz, President of the AIEE, was there, as
was Alexander Graham Bell, but many prominent scientists boycotted the
banquet. Their theories had been challenged and they wanted no part of it.
Not long after the banquet, Marconi provided irrefutable evidence that
radio waves could bend around the earth. He recorded Morse signals, inked
automatically on tape, as received from England across almost all of the Atlantic
while steaming aboard the SS Philadelphia from Cherbourg to New York. The
ship's captain, the first officer and many passengers were witnesses.
A year later, in 1903, Marconi began a regular transatlantic message service
between Poldhu, England, and stations he built near Glace Bay, Nova Scotia,
and South Wellfleet on Cape Cod,
In 1901, the Poldhu station had a fan aerial supported by two 60-meter
guyed wooden poles and as receiving antenna for his first transatlantic signals at
St. John’s, Marconi pulled up a 200-meter wire with a kite, working it against an
array of wires on the ground. A later antenna at Poldhv, typicat of antennas at
other Marconi stations, consisted of a conical wire cage. This was held up by four
massive self-supporting 70-meter wooden towers (Fig. 1-3). With inputs of 50
kilowatts, antenna wires crackled and glowed with corona at night. Local
Tesidents were sure that such fireworks in the sky would alter the weather.
Rarely has an invention captured the public imagination like Masconi's
wireless did at the turn of the century. We now call it radio but then it was
wireless: Marconi’s wireless. After its value a sea bad been dramatized by the 3S
Republic and SS Titanic disasters, Marconi was regarded with a universal awe
and admiration seldom matched. Before wireless, complete isolation enshrouded
4 ship at sea. Disaster could strike without anyone on the shore or nearby ships
being aware that anything had happened. Marconi changed all that. Marconi
became the Wizard of Wireless.
Although Hertz had used 30-centimeter wavelengths and Jagadis Chandra
Bose and others even shorter wavelengths involving horns and hollow wave-
Guides, the distance these waves could be detected was limited by the technology
of the period so these centimeter waves found little use until much later. Radio
developed at long wavelengths with very long waves favored for long distances. A
, Popular “rule-of-thumb” of the period was that the range which could be 6 1 iwrropucTION
We
RAS
-atewdaza ye
Figare 1-3. Squarc-cone antenna at Marconi’s Poldhu, England, station in 1905. The 70-meter
wooden towers support a network of wires which converge to a point just above the transmitting and
receiving buildings between the towers.
achieved with adequate power was equal to 500 times the wavelength. Thus, for a
range of 5000 kilometers, one required 2 wavelength of 10000 meters.
At typical wavelengths of 2000 to 20000 meters, the antennas were a small
fraction of a wavelength in height and their radiation resistances only an ohm or
less. Losses in heat and corona reduced efficiencies but with the brute power of
many kilowatts, significant amounts were radiated. Although many authoritics
favored very tong wavelengths, Marconi may have appreciated the importance of
radiation resistance and was in the vanguard of those advocating shorter wave-
lengths, such as 600 meters. At this wavelength an antenna could have 100 times
its radiation resistance at 6000 meters.
In 1912 the Wireless Institute and the Society of Radio Enginccrs merged to
form the Institute of Radio Engincers.' In the first issue of the Institute's Pro-
ceedings, which appeared in January 1913, it is interesting that the first article
was on antennas and in particular on radiation resistance. Another Proceedings
article noted the youthfulness of commercial wireless operators. Most were in
their late teens with practically none over the age of 25. Wireless was definitely a
young man’s profession.
The cra before World War I was one of long waves, of spark, arc and
alternators for transmission; and of coherers, Fleming valves and De Forest
"In 1963, the Institute of Radio Engineers and the American Institute of Flectrical Engineers merged
to form the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (EEE).
12 THE ORIGINS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY AND THE FIRST ANTENNAS 7
audions for reception. Following the war, vacuum tubes became available for
transmission; continuous waves replaced spark and radio broadcasting began in
the 200 to 600-meter range.
Wavelengths less than 200 meters were considered of tittle value and were
relegated to the amateurs. In 1921, the American Radio Relay League sent Paul
Godley to Europe to try and receive a Greenwich, Connecticut, amateur station
operating on 200 meters. Major Edwin H. Armstrong, inventor of the super-
heterodyne receiver and later of FM, constructed the transmitter with the help of
several other amateurs. Godley set up his receiving station near the Firth of
Clyde in Scotland, He had two receivers, one a 10-tube superheterodyne, and a
Beverage antenna, On December 12, 1921, just 20 years to the day after Marconi
received his first transatlantic signals on a very long wavelength, Godley received
messages from the Connecticut station and went on to log over 30 other US.
amateurs. It was a breakthrough, and in the years that followed, wavelengths
from 200 meters down began to be used for long-distance communication.
Atmospherics were the bane of the long waves, especially in the summer.
They were tess on the short waves but still enough of a problem in 1930 for the
Bell Telephone Laboratories to have Karl G. Jansky study whether they came
from certain predominant directions. Antennas for telephone service with Europe
might then be designed with nulls in these directions.
Jansky constructed a rotating 8-element Bruce curtain with a reflector oper-
ating at t4 meters (Fig. t-4). Although he obtained the desired data on atmo-
spheries from thunderstorms, he noted that in the absence of all such static there
was always prescnt a very faint hisslike noise or static which moved completely
around the compass in 24 hours. After many months of observations, Jansky
Figure 1-4. Karl Guthe Jansky und his rotating Bruce curlain antenna with which he discovered
Jadio emission from our galaxy. (Courtesy Bell Telephone Laboratories: Jansky inset courtesy Mary
Jansky Surfer} BL istRoaecTION
concluded that it was coming from beyond the earth and beyond the sun. It was
a cosmic static coming from our galaxy with the maximum from the galactic
center. Jansky’s serendipitous discovery of extraterrestrial radio waves opened 2
new window on the universe. Fansky became the father of radio astronomy.
Jansky recognized that this cosmic noise from our galaxy set a limit to the
sensitivity that could be achieved with a short-wave receiving system. At 14
meters this sky noise has an equivalent temperature of 20000 kelvins, At centi-
meter wavelengths it is less, but never less than 3 kelvins. This is the residual sky
background level of the primordial fireball that created the universe as measured
four decades later by radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson of the
Bell Telephone Laboratories at a site not far from the one used by Jansky.
For many years, or until after World War II, only onc person, Grote Reber,
followed up Jansky’s discovery in a significant way. Reber constructed a 9-meter
parabolic reflector antenna (Fig. 1-5) operating at a wavelength of about 2 meters
which is the prototype of the modern parabolic dish antenna. With it he made
the first radio maps of the sky. Reber also recognized that his untenna-receiver
constituted a radiometer, ie. a temperature-measuring device in which his recei-
ver response was related to the temperature of distant regions of space coupled to
his antenna via its radiation resistance.
With the advent of radar during World War II, centimeter waves, which
had been abandoned at the turn of the century, finally came into their own and
the entire radio spectrum opened up to wide usage. Hundreds of stationary com-
munication sateltites operating at centimeter wavelengths now ring the earth as
though mounted on towers 36000 kilometers high. Our probes are exploring the
solar system to Uranus and beyond, responding to our commands and sending
back pictures and data at centimeter wavelengths even though it takes more than
an hour for the radio waves to travel the distance onc way. Our radio telescopes
operating-at millimeter to kilometer wavelengths receive signals from objects so
distant that’ the waves have been traveling for more than [0 billion years.
With mankind’s activities expanding into space, the need for antennas will
grow to an unprecedented degree. Antennas wilt provide the vital links to and
from cverything out there. The future of antennas reaches to the stars.
1-3. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM. Continuous wave energy radi-
ated by antennas oscillates at radio frequencies. The associated free-space waves
range in length from thousands of meters at the long-wave extreme to fractions of
a millimeter at the short-wave extreme. The relation of radio waves to the entire
electromagnetic spectrum is presented in Fig. 1-6. Short radio waves and long
infrared waves overlap into a twilight zone that may be regarded as belonging to
both.
The wavelength A of a wave is related to the frequency f and velocity v of
the wave by
A=G (
1-3 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRM 9
Figure 1-8 Grote Reber and fis parabolic refiecior antenna with which he made he first radio maps
of the sky. This antenna, which he
inset courtesy Arthur C. Clarke.)
in 1938, is the prototype of the modem dish antenna. (Reber 40 1 intRonucTION
Infea-rod Radio
Opticat window pyrene window
Atmosphere opaque
a ‘ I
lonosphere opaque
‘beoron by fntersslar gas y B Moveeizcioael, TTI [Ma angtaace
» &8 © Acar*At ¥
sot | mume 8B pum SE Naas Snortwave
Gfterent sizef ume = BES : : tioronen Reauocg
Pt tue § in i vee
Gamma raye xraye_ poles}, inra-rodd Radio’
oh whe ‘Wavelength
Cee TY
4 101001 191901 101001 101001 10100 1 101001 101001 10100
attometers picometers micrometers meters
10°" temtometers 10 '*" nanometers: 0°'m milimeters kilometers:
10° mn 19-8 19-4m 108m
Figare 1-6 The electromagnetic spectrum with wavelength on a logarithmic scale from the shortest
gamma rays to the tongest radio waves. The atmospheric-ionospherie opacity is shown at the top
with the optical and radio windows in evidence,
Thus, the wavelength depends on the velocity v which depends on the medium. In
this sense, frequency is a more fundamental quantity since it is independent of the
medium. When the medium is free space (vacuum)
vac=3x10®ms"! Q
Figure 1-7 shows the relation of wavelength to frequency for r = c (free
space). Many of the uses of the spectrum are indicated along the right-hand edge
of the figure. A more detailed frequency use listing is given in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1 Radio-frequency band designations
Frequency ‘Wavelength Band designation
30-300 Hz 1041 Mm ELF (extremely fow frequency)
300-3000 Hz 1 Mm-—100 kn
3.30 kHz 100-16 km VLF (very low frequency)
30-300 kHz 1041 km LF (low frequency}
300-3000 kHz 1 km-100 m MF (medium frequency)
3-30 MHz 100-10 m HF (high frequency)
30-300 MHz 101m VHF (very high frequency)
300-3000 MHz | m-I0' em THF (ultra high frequency)
130 GHz 10-1 em SHF (super high frequency)
30-300 GHz tom-1 mm EHF (extremely high frequency)
300-3000 GHz 1 mm-=100 yan
Frequency Warelength IEEE Radar Band designation
1-2 GHz 30-15 cm L
2-4 GHz 15-7.5 em 3
4-8 GHz 753.15 em c
8-12 GHz 375-250 cm x
12-18 GHz 2.50-1.67 cm Ku
18-27 GHz 167-111 om K
27-40 GHz 1.11 gm-7.5 om Ka
40-300 GHz 7.5-1.0 mm mm
4 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS 11
Band
10 designations
THe 3| ;
Submitlimeter
1 or infra red
200]
100] ee a
30 «ka
10 sue Exes
GHz 3| s
so uHF ET
= 300)
2 100 HE
E39]
Miz'9 HF
3|
1 Me
300}
190) iF
20)
1 VLE
ate
1 rivivi aan
30 300 3° 30 300° 3 «30 300 3 30 300
100 10 10:«-109 110100110 100
arm mmm 1 km
Wavelength (for v=c)
Figure 1-7 Wavelength versus frequency for v = ¢.
Example of wavelength for a given frequency. For a frequency of 300 MHz the cor-
responding wavelength is given by
4-5 -im @
In a lossiess nonmagnetic dielectric medium with relative permittivity ¢, = 2, the
same wave has a velocity
10"
2810" 212 x 10% ms! 4
and = 0.707 m = 707 mm oy
300 x 10
14 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS. Lord Kelvin is reported to have said:
When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers you
know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot
‘express it in numbers your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind; it may 123 tyrronuction
be the beginning of knawledge but you have scarcely progressed in your thoughts to
the stage of science whatever the matter may be.
To this it might be added that before we can measure something, we must define
its dimensions and provide some standard, or referenge unit, in terms of which
the quantity car be expressed numerically.
A dimension defines some physical characteristic. For example, length, mass,
time, velocity and force are dimensions. The dimensions of length, mass, time,
electric current, temperature and himninous intensity are considered as the funda-
mental dimensions since other dimensions can be defined in terms of these six.
This choice is arbitrary but convenient. Let the leiters L, M, T, 1, 7 and #
Tepresent the dimensions of length, mass, time, clectric current, temperature and
luminous intensity. Other dimensions are then secondary dimensions. For
example, area is a secondary dimension which can be expressed in terms of the
fundamental dimension of length squared (12). As other examples, the fundamen-
tal dimensions of velocity are L/T and of force are ML/T?.
A unit is a standard or reference by which a dimension can be expressed
numerically. Thus, the mezer is a unit in terms of which the dimension of length
can be expressed and the kilogram is a unit in terms of which the dimension of
mass can be expressed. For example, the tength (dimension) of a stecl rod might
be 2 meters and its mass (dimension) 5 kilograms.
1-59 FUNDAMENTAL AND SECONDARY UNITS. The units for the
fundamentat dimensions are called the fundamental or base units. In this book the
International System of Units, abbreviated SI, is used.’ In this system the meter.
Kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin and candela are the base units for the six funda-
mental dimensions of length, mass, time, electric current, temperature and Jumin-
ous intensity. The definitions for these fundamental units are:
Meter (m). Length equal to 1 650763.73 wavelengths in vacuum corresponding to
the 2p,o-5d, traasition of krypton-86.
Kilogram (kg Equal to mass of international prototype kilogram, a platinum.
iridium mass preserved at Sévres, France. This standard kilogram is the only artifact
among the SI base units.
Second (3). Equal to time duration of 9 192631 770 periods of radiation correspond-
ing to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of cesivm-133.
The second was formerly defined as 1/86400 part of a mean solar day. The earth's
fotation rate is gradually stowing down, but the atomic (cesium-133) transition is
2 ‘The International System of Units is the modemized version of the metric system. The abbreviation
Sis from the French name Systéme Internationale d'Unités, For the complete official description of
the system see US. Nail. Bur. Stand. Spec. Pub. 330, 1971
16 HOW TO READ THE SYMBOLS AND NOTATION 13
much more constant and is now the standard. The two standards differ by about |
second per year.
Ampere (A). Electric current which if Sowing in two infinitely long parallel wires in
vacuum separated by | meter produces a force of 200 nanonewtons per meter of
length (200 nN m7! = 2x 1077 Nm™).
Kelvin (K), Temperature equat to 1/273.6 of the triple point of water (or triple
point of water equals 273.16 kelvins).’
‘Candela (cd). Luminous mtensity equal to that of 1/600000 square meter of a perfect
radiator at the temperature of freezing platinum.
The units for other dimensions are called secondary or derived units and are
‘pased on these fundamental units.
The material in this book deals principally with the four fundamental
dimensions length, mass, time and electric current (dimensional symbols L, M, T
and J). The four fundamental units for these dimensions are the basis of what was
formerly called the meter-kilogram-second-ampere {mksa) system, now a sub-
system of the SI. The book also includes discussions of temperature but no refer-
ences to luminous intensity.
The complete $1 involves not only units but also other recommendations,
one of which is that multiples and submultiples of the SI units be stated in steps
of 10° or 1073. Thus, the kilometer (1 km = 10? m) and the millimeter (1
mm = 1073 m) are preferred units of length, but the centimeter {= 107 * m) is not.
For example, the proper S! designation for the width of motion-picture film is
38 mm, not 3.5 cm.
In this book rationalized SI units are used. The rationalized system has the
advantage that the factor 4x does not appear in Maxwell's equations (App. A),
although it does appear in certain other relations. A complete table of units in
this system is given in the Appendix of Electromagnetics, 3rd ed., by J. D. Kraus
(McGraw-Hill, 1984).
1-6 HOW TO READ THE SYMBOLS AND NOTATION. In this
book quantities, or dimensions, which are scalars, like charge Q, mass M or resis-
lance K, are always in italics. Quantities which may be vectors or scalars are
boldface as vectors and italics as scalars, e.g., electric field E (vector) or E (scalar).
Unit vectors are always boldface with a hat {circumflex) over the letter, e.g. %
ore?
' Note that the symbol for degrees is not used with kelvins. Thus, the boiling temperature of water
(100°C) is 373 kelvins (373 K), nor 373°K. However, the degree sign is retained with degrees Celsius.
"In longhand notation a vector may be indicated by a bar over the letter and hat {“) over the unit
vector. 141 iwtropuction
Units are in roman type, i.e, not italic; for example, H for henry, s for
second, or A for ampere.! The abbreviation for a unit is capitalized if the unit is
derived from a proper name; otherwise it is lowercase (small letter), Thus, we
have C for coulomb but m for meter. Note that when the unit is written out, it is
always lawercase even though derived from a proper name. Prefixes for units are
also roman, like n in nC for nanocoulomb or M in MW for megawatt.
Example 1. D=% 200pC m?*
means that the electric Aux density D is a vector in the positive x direction with a
magnitude of 200 picocoulombs per square meter (=2 x 107! coulomb per square
meter).
Example 2. v=l0¥
means that the voltage V equals 10 volts, Distinguish carefully between F (italics)
for voltage, V (roman) for volts, v (lowercase, boldface} for velocity and v (lowercase,
italics) for volume,
Example 3. S=4Wm* Hz?
means that the flux density S (a scalar) equals 4 watts per square meter per heriz
This can also be writien S = 4 W/m?/Hz or 4 W/m? Hz), but the form W m-*
Hz~' is more direct and less ambiguous.
Note that for conciseness, prefixes are used where appropriate instead of
exponents. Thus, a velocity would be expressed in prefix form as v— 215 Mms74!
(215 megameters per second) not in the exponential form 2.15 x 10° m 37 J
However, in solving a problem the exponential would be used although the finall
answer might be put in the prefix form (215 Mm s~*}
The modernized metric (SI) units and the conventions used herein combin
to give a concise, exuct and unambiguous notation, and if one is attentive to the
details, it will be seen to possess both clegance and beauty.
1-7 EQUATION NUMBERING. Important equations and those referred,
to in the text are numbered consecutively beginning with each section. When|
reference is made to an cquation in a different section, its number is prevcded by!
the chapter and section number. Thus, {14-15-3) refers to Chap. 14, Sec. 15,
Eq, (3). A reference to this same equation within Sec. 15 of Chap. 14 would read|
simply (3). Note that chapter and section numbers are printed at the top of cacl
page.
* Tn longhand nolation no distinction is usually made between quantities (italics! and units (roman)
However, it can be done by placing a bar under the letter ta indicate italics or writing the letter with
distinet slant
REFERENCES 15
1-8 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS. It is a necessary condition for correct-
ness that every equation be balanced dimensionally. For example, consider the
hypothetical formula
M
—=DA
L
where M = mass
L=length
D = density (mass per unit volume}
A= area
The dimensional symbols for the left side are M/L, the same as those used. The
dimensional symbols for the right side are
Therefore, both sides of this equation have the dimensions of mass per length,
and the equation is balanced dimensionally. This is not a guarantee that the
equation is correct; ic., it is not a sufficient condition for correctness. It is,
however, a necessary condition for correctness, and it is frequently helpful to
analyze equations in this way to determine whether or not they are dimensionally
balanced,
Such dimensional analysis is also useful for determining what the dimensions
of a quantity are. For example, to find the dimensions of force, we make use of
‘Newton's second law that
Force = mass x acceleration
Since acceleration has the dimensions of length per time squared, the dimensions
of force are
Mass length
Time”
ot in dimensional symbols
ME
Force = >
REFERENCES
Hose, Jagadis Chandra: Collected Physical Papers, Longmans, Green, 1927
Bose, Jagadis Chandra: “On a Complete Apparatus for the Study of the Properties of Electrie
Waves,” Elect. Engr. (Lond,, October 1896.
Brown, George H.:“ Marconi,” Cosmic Search, 2, $-8, Spring 1986.
Dunlap, Orrin E.: Marconi—The Man and His Wireless, Macmillan, 1937
Faraday, Michael: Experimental Researches in Eleciricity, B. Quaritch, London, 1855
Gundlach, Friedrich Wilheim: “ Die Technik der kirzesten elecktromagnetischen Wellen seit Hein-
nich Hertz,” Elektrotech, Zeit. (kTZ), 7, 246, 1957.
. 16 INTRODUCTION
Hertz, Heinrich Rudolph: * Uber Strahlen elecktrischer Kraft,” Wiedemaans Ann. Phys., 36, 769-783,
1889,
Hertz, Heinrich Rudolph: Electric Waves, Macmillan, London, 1893; Dover, 1962.
Hertz, Heinrich Rudolph: Collected Works, Barth Verlag, 1895,
Hertz, Heinrich Rudolph: “The Work of Hertz and His Svccessors—Signalling through Space
without Wires,” Electrician Publications, 1894, 1808, 1900, 1908.
Hertz, Johanna: Heinrich Hertz, San Francisco Press, (977 (memoirs, letters and diaries of Herz).
Kraus, John D- Big Ear, Cygnus-Quasar, 1976,
Kraus, John D.: "Karl Jansky and His Discovery of Radio Waves from Our Galaxy,” Cosmtic Search,
3, no. 4, 8-12, 1981.
Kraus, John. D.: “Grote Reber and the First Radio Maps of the Sky,” Cosmie Search, 4, no. 1, 14-18,
1982
Kraus, John D.: “Karl Guthe Jansky's Serendipity, Its Impact on Astronomy and His Lessons for the
Future.” in K. Kellerman and B, Sheets (eds), Serendipitous Discoveries in Radio Astronomy,
National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 1983.
Kraus, John D. Electromagnetics, rd ed., MeGraw-Hill, 1984.
Kraus, John D.: “Antennas Since Hertz and Marconi,” IEEE Trans. Ants. Prop, AP-33, 131-132,
February 1985 (Centennial Plenary Session Paper).
Kraus, John D.: Radio Astronomy, Ind ed., Cygnus-Quasar, 1986; Sec. 1-2 on Jansky, Reber and
early history.
Kraus, John D.: “Heinrich Hertz—Theorist and Experimenter,” [EEE Trans. Microwave Theory
Tech. Hertz Centennial Issue, MTT-36, May 1988.
Lodge, Oliver J.:* Signalling through Space without Wires,” Etectrician Publications, 1898.
Marconi, Degna: My Father Marconi, McGraw-Hill, 1962.
Maxwell, James Clerk: A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, Oxford, 1873, 1904,
Newton, isaac: Principia, Cambridge, 1687.
Poincaré, Henri, and F. K. Vreeland: Maxwell's Theory and Wireless Telegraphy, Constable,
London, 1905,
Ramsey, John F.: “Microwave Antenna and Waveguide Techniques before 1900," Proc. IRE, 46,
ADS—415, February 1958,
Rayleigh, Lord: “On the Passage of Electric Waves through Tubes or the Vibrations of Dielectric
Cylinders,” Phil, Mag. 43, 125-132, February 1897.
Righi, A.“ L'Ottica della Osciltazioni Elettriche,” Zanichelli, Bologna, 1897,
Rothe, Horst: “Heinrich Hertz. der Entdecker der elektromagnetischen Wellen,” Elektrotech. Zeit.
(ET2), 7, 247-251, 1957.
Wolf. Franz: Heinrich Hertz, Leben and Werk,” Elektrotech. Zeit (EZ), 7, 242-246, 1957.
CHAPTER
BASIC
ANTENNA
CONCEPTS
2-1 INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this chapter is to provide intro-
ductory insights into antennas and their characteristics. Following a section on
definitions, the basic parameters of radiation resistance, temperature, pattern,
directivity, gain, beam area and aperture are introduced. From the aperture
concept it is only a few steps to the important Friis transmission formula. This is
followed by a discussion of sources of radiation, field zones around an antenna
and the effect of shape on impedance. The sources of radiation are illustrated for
both transient (pulse) and continuous waves. The chapter concludes with a dis-
cussion of polarization and cross-field.
2-2. DEFINITIONS. A radio antenna! may be defined as the structure
associated with the region of transition between a guided wave and a free-space
wave, ar vice versa
In connection with this definition it is also useful to cousider what is meant
by the terms ¢ransmission line and resonator.
A transmission line is a device for transmitting or guiding radio-frequency
energy from one point to another. Usually it is desirable to transmit the energy
' In its zoological sense, an antenna is the feeler, or organ of touch, of an insect. According 19 usage
in the United States the plural of “insect antenna” is “antennae.” but the plural of “radio antenna"
is “amennas.”
17 po
18 2 Basic ANTENNA CONCEPTS
with a minimum of attenuation, heat and radiation losses being as small as pos-
sible, This means that while the energy is being conveyed from one point to
another it is confined to the transmission line or is bound closely to it. Thus, the
wave transmitted along the line is !-dimensional in that it does not spread out
into space but follows along the line. From this general point of view one may
extend the term transmission line (or transmission system) to include not only
coaxial and 2-wire transmission lines but also hollow pipes, or waveguides.
A generator connected to an infinite, lossless transmission line produces a
uniform traveling wave along the line. If the line is short-circuited, the outgoing
traveling waye is reflected, producing a standing wave on the line due to the
interference between the outgoing and reflected waves. A standing wave has
associated with it local concentrations of energy. If the reflected wave is equal to
the outgoing wave, we have a pure standing wave. The energy concentrations in
such 6 wave oscillate from catirely electric to entirely magnetic and back twice
per cycle. Such energy behavior is characteristic of a resonant circuit, or reson-
alor. Although the term resonator, in its most general sense, may be applied to
any device with standing waves, the term is usually reserved for devices with
stored energy concentrations that are large compared with the net flow of energy
per cycle! Where there is only an guter conductor, as in a short-circuited section
of waveguide, the device is called a cavity resonator,
‘Thus. antennas radiate (or receive) energy, transmission lines guide energy,
while resonators store energy.
A guided wave traveling along a transmission line which opens out, as in
Fig. 2-1, will radiate as a free-space wave, The guided wave is a plane wave while
the free-space wave is a spherically expanding wave. Along the uniform part of
the line, energy is guided as a plane wave with little loss, provided the spacing
between the wires is a smail fraction of-a wavelength. At the right, as the trans-
mission jine separation approaches a wavelength or more, the wave tends to be
radiated so that the opened-out linc acts like an antenna which launches a free-
space wave. The currents on the transmission Jine flow out on the transmission
line and end there, but the fields associated with them keep on going. To be more
explicit. the region of transition between the guided wave and the free-space wave
may be defined as an antenna.
We have described the antenna as a transmitting device. As a receiving
device the delinition is turned around, and an antenna 1s the region of transition
between a free-space wave and a guided wave. Thus, an antenna is a transition
device, or transducer, between a guided wave and a free-space wave, or vice versa?
While transmission lines (or waveguides) are usually made so as to mini-
"The ratio of the energy stored to that fost per cycle is proportional to the Q, or sharpness of
resonance of the resonator (see Sec. 6-12)
? We note that antenna parameters, such as impedance or gain, require that the antenna terminals be
specified
23 BASIC ANTENNA PARAMETERS 19
Generator
transmitter
Guided {TEM} wave
Ghe dimensional wave | ~—————7
Transition region Free space wave
: radiating i
or antenna three dimensions
Figure 2-1. The antenna is a region of transition between a wave guided by a transnision ine and «
free-space wave. The transmission line conductor separation is a small fraction of « wavelength while
the separation a1 the open end of the transition region or antenna may be many wavelengihs. More
generally, an antenna interfaces between electrons on conductors and photons in space. The eye is
another such device.
mize radiation, antennas are designed to radiate (or receive) energy as effectively
* po tenna, like the eye, is a transformation device converting electromag-
netic photons into circuit currents; but, unlike the eye, the antenna can also
convert cnergy from a circuit into photons radiated into space. In simplest terms
a antenna Converts photons iv currents or vice versa,
Consider a transmission line connected to a dipole? antenna as in Fig. 22.
The dipole acts as an antenna because it }aunches a free-space wave. However
may also be regarded as a section of an open-ended transmission line. In addi-
tion, it exhibits many of the characteristics of a resonator, since energy reflected
from the ends of the dipole gives rise to a standing wave and energy storage near
the antenna. Thus, a single device, in this case the dipole, exhibits simultancously
properties characteristic of an antenna, a transmission line and a resonator.
2.3 BASIC ANTENNA PARAMETERS. Referring to Fig. 2-2, the
antenna appears from the transmissinn line as a 2-terminal circuit element having
an impedance Z with a resistive component called the radiation resistance R,.
“A photon is the quantum unit of electromagnetic energy equal to Af, where h = Planck's constant
(863 » 10794 J shand f= frequency (Hz),
positive electric charge q separated a distance from an equal but negative charge consutures an
electric dipole. 1 the separation is f, then ql is the dipole moment. A linear conductor which, a1 a given
instant, hasa postive charget one end and an equal but negative charge atthe oxher end may eet a»
4 dipole anvenna. (A loop may be considered ta be a magnetic dipole antenna of moment £4, wher
1 = loop current and A= loop area) 2002 Baste ANTENNA CONCEPTS
Generator |
Transmission ling
Surgoing and a |
reficcted waves
on antenna
Figure 22 The antenna launches a free-space wave but appears us a circuit impedance to the trans-
mission line,
antenna
A Free space wave
t ‘pole
