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Terra

The document summarizes the terra package which provides methods for spatial data analysis with raster and vector data. It includes local, focal, global, zonal and geometric operations for raster data as well as geometric operations for vector data. It facilitates spatial prediction and processing of large files. The package replaces the raster package with more functionality and improved performance. It has dependencies on packages for spatial data formats and processing.

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Priscila Troncoso

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Terra

Uploaded by

Priscila Troncoso

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Package ‘terra’

April 22, 2023

Type Package
Title Spatial Data Analysis
Version 1.7-29
Date 2023-04-20
Depends R (>= 3.5.0)
Suggests parallel, tinytest, ncdf4, sf (>= 0.9-8), deldir, XML,
leaflet, htmlwidgets
LinkingTo Rcpp
Imports methods, Rcpp (>= 1.0-10)
SystemRequirements GDAL (>= 2.2.3), GEOS (>= 3.4.0), PROJ (>= 4.9.3),
sqlite3
Encoding UTF-8
Language en-US
Maintainer Robert J. Hijmans <[email protected]>
Description Methods for spatial data analysis with vector (points, lines, poly-
gons) and raster (grid) data. Methods for vector data include geometric operations such as inter-
sect and buffer. Raster methods include local, focal, global, zonal and geometric opera-
tions. The predict and interpolate methods facilitate the use of regression type (interpolation, ma-
chine learning) models for spatial prediction, including with satellite remote sensing data. Pro-
cessing of very large files is supported. See the manual and tutori-
als on <https://rspatial.org/terra/> to get started. 'terra' replaces the 'raster' pack-
age ('terra' can do more, and it is faster and easier to use).
License GPL (>= 3)
URL https://rspatial.org/
BugReports https://github.com/rspatial/terra/issues/
LazyLoad yes
NeedsCompilation yes
Author Robert J. Hijmans [cre, aut] (<https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5872-2872>),
Roger Bivand [ctb] (<https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2392-6140>),
Edzer Pebesma [ctb] (<https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8049-7069>),
Michael D. Sumner [ctb]

1
2 R topics documented:

Repository CRAN
Date/Publication 2023-04-22 00:50:02 UTC

R topics documented:
terra-package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
activeCat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
add . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
add_legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
adjacent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
all.equal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
animate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
app . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
approximate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Arith-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
as.character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
as.data.frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
as.list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
as.raster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
as.spatvector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
atan2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
barplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
boxplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
buffer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
cartogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
catalyze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
cellSize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
centroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
clamp_ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
classify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
click . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
coerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
combineGeoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Compare-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
compareGeom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
concats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
contour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
convHull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
costDist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
R topics documented: 3

cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
crds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
crop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
crosstab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
crs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
deepcopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
densify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
deprecated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
describe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
diff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
disagg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
draw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
elongate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
erase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
expanse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
ext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
extend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
extremes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
fillHoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
fillTime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
flip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
focal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
focal3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
focalCpp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
focalMat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
focalPairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
focalReg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
focalValues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
freq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
gdal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
geom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
geomtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
global . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
graticule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
gridDistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
halo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
headtail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
hist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
ifel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4 R topics documented:

image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
impose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
inplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
inset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
interpIDW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
interpNear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
intersect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
is.bool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
is.lonlat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
lapp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
layerCor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
linearUnits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
makeTiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
makeVRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
map.pal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Math-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
mem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
mergeTime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
meta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
modal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
mosaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
na.omit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
NAflag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
nearest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
normalize.longitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
north . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
not.na . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
patches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
perim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
persp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
plet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
plotRGB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
plot_extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
plot_graticule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
predict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
R topics documented: 5

quantile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
query . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
rangeFill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
rapp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
rast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
rasterize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
rasterizeGeom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
rasterizeWin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
rcl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
readwrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
rectify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
regress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
relate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
rep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
replace_dollar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
replace_layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
replace_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
resample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
rescale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
RGB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
rotate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
same.crs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
sapp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
sbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
scatterplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
scoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
sds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
segregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
sel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
selectHighest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
selectRange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
serialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
setValues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
shade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
sharedPaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
sieve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
simplifyGeom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
SpatExtent-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
SpatRaster-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
spatSample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
SpatVector-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
6 R topics documented:

sprc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
subset_dollar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
subset_double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
subset_single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
subst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
summarize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
svc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
symdif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
tapp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
tighten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
tmpFiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
valid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
vector_layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
viewshed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
voronoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
vrt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
weighted.mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
where . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
which.lyr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
wrap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
writeCDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
writeRaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
writeVector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
xmin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
xyRowColCell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
zonal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
zoom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

Index 302
terra-package 7

terra-package Description of the methods in the terra package

Description
terra provides methods to manipulate geographic (spatial) data in "raster" and "vector" form.
Raster data divide space into rectangular grid cells and they are commonly used to represent spa-
tially continuous phenomena, such as elevation or the weather. Satellite images also have this data
structure, and in that context grid cells are often referred to as pixels. In contrast, "vector" spatial
data (points, lines, polygons) are typically used to represent discrete spatial entities, such as a road,
country, or bus stop.
The package implements two main classes (data types): SpatRaster and SpatVector. SpatRaster
supports handling large raster files that cannot be loaded into memory; local, focal, zonal, and global
raster operations; polygon, line and point to raster conversion; integration with modeling methods
to make spatial predictions; and more. SpatVector supports all types of geometric operations such
as intersections.
Additional classes include SpatExtent, which is used to define a spatial extent (bounding box);
SpatRasterDataset, which represents a collection of sub-datasets for the same area. Each sub-
dataset is a SpatRaster with possibly many layers, and may, for example, represent different weather
variables; and SpatRasterCollection and SpatVectorCollection that are equivalent to lists of
SpatRaster or SpatVector objects. There is also a SpatGraticule class to assist in adding a
longitude/latitude lines and labels to a map with another coordinate reference system.
These classes hold a C++ pointer to the data "reference class" and that creates some limitations.
They cannot be recovered from a saved R session either or directly passed to nodes on a computer
cluster. Generally, you should use writeRaster to save SpatRaster objects to disk (and pass a
filename or cell values to cluster nodes). Also see wrap.
The terra package is conceived as a replacement of the raster package. terra has a very similar,
but simpler, interface, and it is faster than raster. At the bottom of this page there is a table that
shows differences in the methods between the two packages.
Below is a list of some of the most important methods grouped by theme.
———————————————————————————————————————

SpatRaster
———————————————————————————————————————

I. Creating, combining and sub-setting

rast Create a SpatRaster from scratch, file, or another object

c Combine SpatRasters (multiple layers)
add<- Add a SpatRaster to another one
subset or [[, or $ Select layers of a SpatRaster
selectRange Select cell values from different layers using an index layer
————————— ——————————————————————————————
8 terra-package

II. Changing the spatial extent or resolution

Also see the methods in section VIII

merge Combine SpatRasters with different extents (but same origin and resolution)
mosaic Combine SpatRasters with different extents using a function for overlapping cells
crop Select a geographic subset of a SpatRaster
extend Add rows and/or columns to a SpatRaster
trim Trim a SpatRaster by removing exterior rows and/or columns that only have NAs
aggregate Combine cells of a SpatRaster to create larger cells
disagg Subdivide cells
resample Resample (warp) values to a SpatRaster with a different origin and/or resolution
project Project (warp) values to a SpatRaster with a different coordinate reference system
shift Adjust the location of SpatRaster
flip Flip values horizontally or vertically
rotate Rotate values around the date-line (for lon/lat data)
t Transpose a SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————

III. Local (cell based) methods

Apply-like methods:

app Apply a function to all cells, across layers, typically to summarize (as in base::apply)
tapp Apply a function to groups of layers (as in base::tapply and stats::aggregate)
lapp Apply a function to using the layers of a SpatRaster as variables
sapp Apply a function to each layer
rapp Apply a function to a spatially variable range of layers
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Arithmetic, logical, and standard math methods:

Arith-methods Standard arithmetic methods (+, -, *, ^, %%, %/%, /)

Compare-methods Comparison methods for SpatRaster (==, !=, >, <, <=, >=m is.na, is.finite)
not.na a one-step equivalent to !is.na
Summary-methods mean, max, min, median, sum, range, prod,
any, all, stdev, which.min, which.max, anyNA, noNA, allNA
Logic-methods Boolean methods (!, &, |)
Math-methods abs, sign, sqrt, ceiling, floor, trunc, cummax, cummin, cumprod,
cumsum, log, log10, log2, log1p, acos, acosh, asin, asinh, atan, atanh,
exp, expm1, cos, cosh, sin, sinh, tan, tanh, round, signif
as.bool create a Boolean (logical) SpatRaster
as.int create an integer (whole numbers) SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————
terra-package 9

Other methods:

approximate Compute missing values for cells by interpolation across layers

roll Rolling functions such as the rolling mean
cellSize Compute the area of cells
classify (Re-)classify values
subst Substitute (replace) cell values
cover First layer covers second layer except where the first layer is NA
init Initialize cells with new values
mask Replace values in a SpatRaster based on values in another SpatRaster
which.lyr which is the first layer that is TRUE?
segregate Make a 0/1 layer for each unique value
rangeFill Make a 0/1 SpatRaster for a time series
regress Cell-based regression models
————————— ——————————————————————————————

IV. Zonal and global methods

expanse Compute the summed area of cells

crosstab Cross-tabulate two SpatRasters
freq Frequency table of SpatRaster cell values
global Summarize SpatRaster cell values with a function
quantile Quantiles
layerCor Correlation between layers
stretch Stretch values
scale Scale values
summary Summary of the values of a SpatRaster (quartiles and mean)
unique Get the unique values in a SpatRaster
zonal Summarize a SpatRaster by zones in another SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————

V. Situation (spatial context) based methods

adjacent Identify cells that are adjacent to a set of cells of a SpatRaster

boundaries Detection of boundaries (edges)
distance Shortest distance to a cell that is not NA or to or from a vector object
gridDist Shortest distance through adjacent grid cells
costDist Shortest distance considering cell-varying friction
direction Direction (azimuth) to or from cells that are not NA
focal Focal (neighborhood; moving window) functions
focal3D Three dimensional (row, col, lyr) focal functions
focalCpp Faster focal by using custom C++ functions
focalReg Regression between layers for focal areas
focalPairs Apply a function (e.g. a correlation coeffient) to focal values for pairs of layers
10 terra-package

patches Find patches (clumps)

sieve Sieve filter to remove small patches
terrain Compute slope, aspect and other terrain characteristics from elevation data
viewshed Compute vieshed (showing areas that are visible from a particular location
shade Compute hill shade from slope and aspect layers
autocor Compute global or local spatial autocorrelation
————————— ——————————————————————————————

VI. Model predictions

predict Predict a non-spatial model to a SpatRaster

interpolate Predict a spatial model to a SpatRaster
interpIDW Inverse-distance-weighted interpolation
interpNear Nearst neighbor interpolation
————————— ——————————————————————————————

VII. Accessing cell values

Apart from the function listed below, you can also use indexing with [ with cell numbers, and row
and/or column numbers

values cell values (fails with very large rasters)

values<- Set new values to the cells of a SpatRaster
setValues Set new values to the cells of a SpatRaster
as.matrix Get cell values as a matrix
as.array Get cell values as an array
extract Extract cell values from a SpatRaster (e.g., by cell, coordinates, polygon)
spatSample Regular or random sample
minmax Get the minimum and maximum value of the cells of a SpatRaster (if known)
setMinMax Compute the minimum and maximum value of a SpatRaster if these are not known
extract spatial queries of a SpatRaster with a SpatVector
————————— ——————————————————————————————

VIII. Getting and setting dimensions

Get or set basic parameters of SpatRasters. If there are values associated with a SpatRaster object
(either in memory or via a link to a file) these are lost when you change the number of columns or
rows or the resolution. This is not the case when the extent is changed (as the number of columns
and rows will not be affected). Similarly, with crs you can set the coordinate reference system, but
this does not transform the data (see project for that).
terra-package 11

ncol The number of columns

nrow The number of rows
ncell The number of cells (can not be set directly, only via ncol or nrow)
res The resolution (x and y)
nlyr Get or set the number of layers
names Get or set the layer names
xres The x resolution (can be set with res)
yres The y resolution (can be set with res)
xmin The minimum x coordinate (or longitude)
xmax The maximum x coordinate (or longitude)
ymin The minimum y coordinate (or latitude)
ymax The maximum y coordinate (or latitude)
ext Get or set the extent (minimum and maximum x and y coordinates ("bounding box")
origin The origin of a SpatRaster
crs The coordinate reference system (map projection)
is.lonlat Test if an object has (or may have) a longitude/latitude coordinate reference system
sources Get the filename(s) to which a SpatRaster is linked
inMemory Are the data sources in memory (or on disk)?
compareGeom Compare the geometry of SpatRasters
NAflag Set the NA value (for reading from a file with insufficient metadata)
————————— ——————————————————————————————

IX. Computing row, column, cell numbers and coordinates

Cell numbers start at 1 in the upper-left corner. They increase within rows, from left to right, and
then row by row from top to bottom. Likewise, row numbers start at 1 at the top of the raster, and
column numbers start at 1 at the left side of the raster.

xFromCol x-coordinates from column numbers

yFromRow y-coordinates from row numbers
xFromCell x-coordinates from row numbers
yFromCell y-coordinates from cell numbers
xyFromCell x and y coordinates from cell numbers
colFromX Column numbers from x-coordinates (or longitude)
rowFromY Row numbers from y-coordinates (or latitude)
rowColFromCell Row and column numbers from cell numbers
cellFromXY Cell numbers from x and y coordinates
cellFromRowCol Cell numbers from row and column numbers
cellFromRowColCombine Cell numbers from all combinations of row and column numbers
cells Cell numbers from an SpatVector or SpatExtent
————————— ——————————————————————————————

X. Time related methods

time Get or set time

fillTime can add empty layers in between existing layers to assure that the time step between layers is constan
mergeTime combine multiple rasters, perhaps partly overlapping in time, into a single time series
12 terra-package

————————— ——————————————————————————————

XI. Methods for categorical rasters

is.factor Are there categorical layers?

levels Get active categories, or set categories
activeCat Get or set the active category
cats Get categories (active and inactive)
set.cats Set categories in place
concats Combine SpatRasters with different categories
catalyze Create a layer for each category
as.numeric use the active category to create a non-categorical SpatRaster
as.factor Make the layers of a SpatRaster categorical
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XII. Writing SpatRaster files

Basic:

writeRaster Write all values of SpatRaster to disk. You can set the filetype, datatype, compression.
writeCDF Write SpatRaster data to a netCDF file
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Advanced:

readStart Open file connections for efficient multi-chunk reading

readStop Close file connections
writeStart Open a file for writing
writeValues Write some values
writeStop Close the file after writing
blocks Get blocksize for reading files (when not writing)
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XIII. Miscellaneous SpatRaster methods

terraOptions Show, set, or get session options, mostly to control memory use and to set write options
sources Show the data sources of a SpatRaster
tmpFiles Show or remove temporary files
terra-package 13

mem_info memory needs and availability

inMemory Are the cell values in memory?
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XIV. SpatRasterDataset
A SpatRasterDataset contains SpatRaster objects that are sub-datasets for the same area. They all
have the same extent and resolution.

sds Create a SpatRasterDataset from a file with subdatasets (ncdf or hdf) or from SpatRaster objects
[ or $ Extract a SpatRaster
names Get the names of the sub-datasets
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XV. SpatRasterCollections
A SpatRasterCollection is a vector of SpatRaster objects. Unlike for a SpatRasterDataset, there the
extent and resolution of the SpatRasters do not need to match each other.

sprc create a SpatRasterCollection from (a list of) SpatRaster objects

length how many SpatRasters does the SpatRasterCollection have?
crop crop a SpatRasterCollection
impose force the members of SpatRasterCollection to the same geometry
merge merge the members of a SpatRasterCollection
mosaic mosaic (merge with a function for overlapping areas) the members of a SpatRasterCollection
[ extract a SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————

SpatVector
———————————————————————————————————————

XVI. Create SpatVector objects

vect Create a SpatVector from a file (for example a "shapefile") or from another object
vector_layers list or delete layers in a vector database such as GPGK
rbind append SpatVectors of the same geometry type
unique remove duplicates
na.omit remove empty geometries and/or fields that are NA
project Project a SpatVector to a different coordinate reference system
writeVector Write SpatVector data to disk
centroids Get the centroids of a SpatVector
voronoi Voronoi diagram
14 terra-package

delaunay Delaunay triangles

convHull Compute the convex hull of a SpatVector
fillHoles Remove or extract holes from polygons
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XVII. Properties of SpatVector objects

geom returns the geometries as matrix or WKT

crds returns the coordinates as a matrix
linearUnits returns the linear units of the crs (in meter)
ncol The number of columns (of the attributes)
nrow The number of rows (of the geometries and attributes)
names Get or set the layer names
ext Get the extent (minimum and maximum x and y coordinates ("bounding box")
crs The coordinate reference system (map projection)
is.lonlat Test if an object has (or may have) a longitude/latitude coordinate reference system
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XVIII. Geometric queries

adjacent find adjacent polygons

expanse computes the area covered by polygons
nearby find nearby geometries
nearest find the nearest geometries
relate geometric relationships such as "intersects", "overlaps", and "touches"
perim computes the length of the perimeter of polygons, and the length of lines
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XIX. Geometric operations

erase or "-" erase (parts of) geometries

intersect or "*" intersect geometries
union or "+" Merge geometries
cover update polygons
symdif symmetrical difference of two polygons
aggregate dissolve smaller polygons into larger ones
buffer buffer geometries
terra-package 15

disagg split multi-geometries into separate geometries

crop clip geometries using a rectangle (SpatExtent) or SpatVector
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XX. SpatVector attributes

We use the term "attributes" for the tabular data (data.frame) associated with vector geometries.

extract spatial queries between SpatVector and SpatVector (e.g. point in polygons)
sel select - interactively select geometries
click identify attributes by clicking on a map
merge Join a table with a SpatVector
as.data.frame get attributes as a data.frame
as.list get attributes as a list
values Get the attributes of a SpatVector
values<- Set new attributes to the geometries of a SpatRaster
sort sort SpatVector by the values in a field
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXI. Change geometries (for display, experimentation)

shift change the position geometries by shifting their coordinates in horizontal and/or vertical direction
spin rotate geometries around an origin
rescale shrink (or expand) geometries, for example to make an inset map
flip flip geometries vertically or horizontally
t transpose geometries (switch x and y)
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXII. Geometry properties and topology

width the minimum diameter of the geometries

clearance the minimum clearance of the geometries
sharedPaths shared paths (arcs) between line or polygon geometries
simplifyGeom simplify geometries
gaps find gaps between polygon geometries
fillHoles get or remove the polygon holes
makeNodes create nodes on lines
mergeLines connect lines to form polygons
removeDupNodes remove duplicate nodes in geometries and optionally rounds the coordinates
is.valid check if geometries are valid
16 terra-package

makeValid attempt to repair invalid geometries

snap make boundaries of geometries identical if they are very close to each other
erase (single argument) remove parts of geometries that overlap
union (single argument) create new polygons such that there are no overlapping polygons
rotate rotate to (dis-) connect them across the date-line
normalize.longitude move geomtries that are outside of the -180 to 180 degrees range.
elongate make lines longer by extending both sides
combineGeoms combine geometries that overlap, share a border, or are within a minimum distance of each other
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXIII. SpatVectorCollections
A SpatVectorCollection is a vector of SpatVector objects.

svc create a SpatVectorCollection from (a list of) SpatVector objects

length how many SpatRasters does the SpatRasterCollection have?
[ extract a SpatVector
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Other classes
———————————————————————————————————————

XXIV. SpatExtent

ext Create a SpatExtent object. For example to crop a Spatial dataset

intersect Intersect two SpatExtent objects, same as -
union Combine two SpatExtent objects, same as +
Math-methods round/floor/ceiling of a SpatExtent
align Align a SpatExtent with a SpatRaster
draw Create a SpatExtent by drawing it on top of a map (plot)
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXV. SpatGraticule

graticule Create a graticule

crop crop a graticule
plot<SpatGraticule> plot a graticule
————————— ——————————————————————————————
terra-package 17

General methods
———————————————————————————————————————

XXVI. Conversion between spatial data objects from different packages

You can coerce SpatRasters to Raster* objects, after loading the raster package, with as(object,
"Raster"), or raster(object) or brick(object) or stack(object)

rast SpatRaster from matrix and other objects

vect SpatVector from sf or Spatial* vector data
sf::st_as_sf sf object from SpatVector
rasterize Rasterizing points, lines or polygons
rasterizeWin Rasterize points with a moving window
rasterizeGeom Rasterize attributes of geometries such as "count", "area", or "length"
as.points Create points from a SpatRaster or SpatVector
as.lines Create points from a SpatRaster or SpatVector
as.polygons Create polygons from a SpatRaster
as.contour Contour lines from a SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXVII. Plotting
Maps:

plot Plot a SpatRaster or SpatVector. The main method to create a map

panel Combine multiple plots
points Add points to a map
lines Add lines to a map
polys Add polygons to a map
text Add text (such as the values of a SpatRaster or SpatVector) to a map
halo Add text with a halo to a map
image Alternative to plot to make a map with a SpatRaster
plotRGB Combine three layers (red, green, blue channels) into a single "real color" plot
plot<SpatGraticule> plot a graticule
sbar Add a scale bar to a map
north Add a north arrow to a map
inset Add a small inset (overview) map
dots Make a dot-density map
cartogram Make a cartogram
persp Perspective plot of a SpatRaster
contour Contour plot or filled-contour plot of a SpatRaster
colorize Combine three layers (red, green, blue channels) into a single layer with a color-table
————————— ——————————————————————————————
18 terra-package

Interacting with a map:

zoom Zoom in to a part of a map by drawing a bounding box on it

click Query values of SpatRaster or SpatVector by clicking on a map
sel Select a spatial subset of a SpatRaster or SpatVector by drawing on a map
draw Create a SpatExtent or SpatVector by drawing on a map
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Other plots:

plot x-y scatter plot of the values of (a sample of) the layers of two SpatRaster objects
hist Histogram of SpatRaster values
barplot Bar plot of a SpatRaster
density Density plot of SpatRaster values
pairs Pairs plot for layers in a SpatRaster
boxplot Box plot of the values of a SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Comparison with the raster package

———————————————————————————————————————

XXVIII. New method names

terra has a single class SpatRaster for which raster has three (RasterLayer, RasterStack,
RasterBrick). Likewise there is a single class for vector data SpatVector that replaces six
Spatial* classes. Most method names are the same, but note the following important differences
in methods names with the raster package

raster package terra package

raster, brick, stack rast
rasterFromXYZ rast( , type="xyz")
stack, addLayer c
addLayer add<-
area cellSize or expanse
approxNA approximate
calc app
cellFromLine, cellFromPolygon, cells
cellsFromExtent cells
cellStats global
clump patches
compareRaster compareGeom
corLocal focalCor
coordinates crds
couldBeLonLat is.lonlat
disaggregate disagg
distanceFromPoints distance
terra-package 19

drawExtent, drawPoly, drawLine draw

dropLayer subset
extent ext
getValues values
isLonLat, isGlobalLonLat is.lonlat
layerize segregate
layerStats layerCor
movingFun roll
NAvalue NAflag
nlayers nlyr
overlay lapp
unstack as.list
projectRaster project
rasterToPoints as.points
rasterToPolygons as.polygons
reclassify, subs, cut classify
sampleRandom, sampleRegular spatSample
shapefile vect
stackApply tapp
stackSelect selectRange

XXIX. Changed behavior

Also note that even if function names are the same in terra and raster, their output can be dif-
ferent. In most cases this was done to get more consistency in the returned values (and thus fewer
errors in the downstream code that uses them). It other cases it simply seemed better. Here are some
examples:

as.polygons By default, terra returns dissolved polygons

quantile computes by cell, across layers instead of the other way around
extract By default, terra returns a matrix, with the first column the sequential ID of the vectors.
raster returns a list (for lines or polygons) or a matrix (for points, but without the ID
column. You can use list=TRUE to get the results as a list
values terra always returns a matrix. raster returns a vector for a RasterLayer
Summary-methods With raster, mean(x, y) and mean(stack(x, y) return the same result, a single
layer with the mean of all cell values. This is also what terra returns with
mean(c(x, y)), but with mean(x, y) the parallel mean is returned – that is, the
computation is done layer-wise, and the number of layers in the output is the same as
that of x and y (or the larger of the two if they are not the same). This affects
all summary functions (sum, mean, median, which.min, which.max, min, max,
prod, any, all, stdev), except range, which is not implemented for this case
(you can use min and max instead)
————————— ——————————————————————————————
20 activeCat

Authors
Except where indicated otherwise, the methods and functions in this package were written by Robert
Hijmans. The configuration scripts were written by Roger Bivand. Some of code using the GEOS
library was adapted from code by Edzer Pebesma for sf. Michael Sumner contributed various bits
and pieces.

Acknowledgments
This package is an attempt to climb on the shoulders of giants (GDAL, PROJ, GEOS, NCDF, Ge-
ographicLib, Rcpp, R). Many people have contributed by asking questions or raising issues. Feed-
back and suggestions by Márcia Barbosa, Kendon Bell, Andrew Gene Brown, Jean-Luc Dupouey,
Krzysztof Dyba, Alex Ilich, Gerald Nelson, Jakub Nowosad and Monika Tomaszewska have been
especially helpful.

activeCat Active category

Description
Get or set the active category of a multi-categorical SpatRaster layer

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
activeCat(x, layer=1)
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'
activeCat(x, layer=1)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster
layer positive integer, the layer number or name
value positive integer or character, indicating which column in the categories to use.
Note that when a number is used this index is zero based, and "1" refers to the
second column. This is because the first column of the categories has the cell
values, not categorical labels

Value
integer

add Add (in place) a SpatRaster to another SpatRaster object

Description
Add (in place) a SpatRaster to another SpatRaster object. Comparable with c, but without copying
the object.

Usage
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
add(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value SpatRaster

Value
SpatRaster

add_legend add a custom legend

Description

Wrapper around legend that allows adding a custom legend to a map using a keyword such as
"topleft" or "bottomright". This function will place the legend in the locations within the mapped
area as delineated by the axes.

Usage

add_legend(x, y, ...)

Arguments

x The keyword to be used to position the legend (or the x coordinate)

y The y coordinate to be used to position the legend (is x is also a coordinate)
... arguments passed to link{legend}

Examples
v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))
plot(v)
points(centroids(v), col="red")
legend("topleft", legend = "centroids", pch = 20, xpd=NA, bg="white", col="red")
add_legend("topright", legend = "centroids", pch = 20, col="red")

adjacent Adjacent cells

Description

Identify cells that are adjacent to a set of raster cells. Or identify adjacent polygons

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

adjacent(x, cells, directions="rook", pairs=FALSE, include=FALSE, symmetrical=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

adjacent(x, type="rook", pairs=TRUE, symmetrical=FALSE)
adjacent 23

Arguments
x SpatRaster
cells vector of cell numbers for which adjacent cells should be found. Cell numbers
start with 1 in the upper-left corner and increase from left to right and from top
to bottom
directions character or matrix to indicated the directions in which cells are considered con-
nected. The following character values are allowed: "rook" or "4" for the hor-
izontal and vertical neighbors; "bishop" to get the diagonal neighbors; "queen"
or "8" to get the vertical, horizontal and diagonal neighbors; or "16" for knight
and one-cell queen move neighbors. If directions is a matrix it should have
odd dimensions and have logical (or 0, 1) values
pairs logical. If TRUE, a two-column matrix of pairs of adjacent cells is returned. If x is
a SpatRaster and pairs is FALSE, an n*m matrix is returned where the number
of rows n is length(cells) and the number of columns m is the number of
neighbors requested with directions
include logical. Should the focal cells be included in the result?
type character. One of "rook", "queen", "touches", or "intersects". "queen" and
"touches" are synonyms. "rook" exclude polygons that touch at a single node
only. "intersects" includes polygons that touch or overlap
symmetrical logical. If TRUE and pairs=TRUE, an adjacent pair is only included once. For
example, if polygon 1 is adjacent to polygon 3, the implied adjacency between
3 and 1 is not reported

Value
matrix

## note that with global lat/lon data the E and W connect

r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")
adjacent(r, cells=11, directions="rook")

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
24 aggregate

a <- adjacent(v, symmetrical=TRUE)

head(a)

aggregate Aggregate raster or vector data

Description
Aggregate a SpatRaster to create a new SpatRaster with a lower resolution (larger cells). Aggre-
gation groups rectangular areas to create larger cells. The value for the resulting cells is computed
with a user-specified function.
You can also aggregate ("dissolve") a SpatVector. This either combines all geometries into one
geometry, or it combines the geometries that have the same value for the variable(s) specified with
argument by.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
aggregate(x, fact=2, fun="mean", ..., cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

aggregate(x, by=NULL, dissolve=TRUE, fun="mean", count=TRUE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
fact positive integer. Aggregation factor expressed as number of cells in each di-
rection (horizontally and vertically). Or two integers (horizontal and vertical
aggregation factor) or three integers (when also aggregating over layers)
fun function used to aggregate values. Either an actual function, or for the following,
their name: "mean", "max", "min", "median", "sum", "modal", "any", "all",
"prod", "which.min", "which.max", "sd" (sample standard deviation) and "std"
(population standard deviation)
... additional arguments passed to fun, such as na.rm=TRUE
cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created. Ignored for C++ level implemented functions that are lister under
fun
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster
by character. The variable(s) used to group the geometries
dissolve logical. Should borders between aggregated geometries be dissolved?
count logical. If TRUE and by is not NULL, a variable "agg_n" is included that shows
the number of input geometries for each output geometry
align 25

Details
Aggregation starts at the upper-left end of a SpatRaster. If a division of the number of columns or
rows with factor does not return an integer, the extent of the resulting SpatRaster will be somewhat
larger then that of the original SpatRaster. For example, if an input SpatRaster has 100 columns, and
fact=12, the output SpatRaster will have 9 columns and the maximum x coordinate of the output
SpatRaster is also adjusted.
The function fun should take multiple numbers, and return a single number. For example mean,
modal, min or max.
It should also accept a na.rm argument (or ignore it as one of the ’dots’ arguments).

Value
SpatRaster

values(r) <- runif(ncell(r))

# aggregated raster, max of the values
ra <- aggregate(r, fact=10, fun=max)

# multiple layers
s <- c(r, r*2)
x <- aggregate(s, 20)

## SpatVector
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
va <- aggregate(v, "ID_1")

plot(va, "NAME_1", lwd=5, plg=list(x="topright"), mar=rep(2,4))

lines(v, lwd=3, col="light gray")
lines(va)
text(v, "ID_1", halo=TRUE)

align Align a SpatExtent

26 align

Description

Align an SpatExtent with a SpatRaster This can be useful to create a new SpatRaster with the same
origin and resolution as an existing SpatRaster. Do not use this to force data to match that really
does not match (use e.g. resample or (dis)aggregate for this).
It is also possible to align a SpatExtent to a clean divisor.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,SpatRaster'

align(x, y, snap="near")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,numeric'

align(x, y)

Arguments

x SpatExtent
y SpatRaster or numeric
snap Character. One of "near", "in", or "out", to determine in which direction the
extent should be aligned. To the nearest border, inwards or outwards

Value

SpatExtent

See Also

ext, draw

Examples

r <- rast()
e <- ext(-10.1, 9.9, -20.1, 19.9)
ea <- align(e, r)
e
ext(r)
ea

align(e, 0.5)
all.equal 27

all.equal Compare two SpatRasters for equality

Description
Compare two SpatRasters for (near) equality.
First the attributes of the objects are compared. If these are the same, a (perhaps small) sample of
the raster cells is compared as well.
The sample size used can be increased with the maxcell argument. You can set it to Inf, but for
large rasters your computer may not have sufficient memory. See the examples for a safe way to
compare all values.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
all.equal(target, current, maxcell=10000, ...)

Arguments
target SpatRaster
current SpatRaster
maxcell positive integer. The size of the regular sample used to compare cell values
... additional arguments passed to all.equal.numeric to compare cell values

Value
Either TRUE or a character vector describing the differences between target and current.

# Compare all cell values for near equality

28 animate

# as floating point number imprecision can be a problem

m <- minmax(r1 - r2)
all(abs(m) < 1e-7)

# comparison of cell values to create new SpatRaster

e <- r1 == r2

animate Animate a SpatRaster

Description
Animate (sequentially plot) the layers of a SpatRaster to create a movie.
This does not work with R-Studio.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
animate(x, pause=0.25, main, range, maxcell=50000, n=1, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
pause numeric. How long should be the pause be between layers?
main title for each layer. If not supplied the z-value is used if available. Otherwise the
names are used.
range numeric vector of length 2. Range of values to plot
maxcell integer > 0. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot. If maxcell < ncell(x),
spatSample(type="regular") is used before plotting
n integer > 0. Number of loops
... Additional arguments passed to plot

Value
None

See Also
plot

Examples
s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
animate(s, n=1)
app 29

app Apply a function to the cells of a SpatRaster

Description
Apply a function to the values of each cell of a SpatRaster. Similar to apply – think of each layer
in a SpatRaster as a column (or row) in a matrix.
This is generally used to summarize the values of multiple layers into one layer; but this is not
required.
app calls function fun with the raster data as first argument. Depending on the function supplied, the
raster data is represented as either a matrix in which each layer is a column, or a vector representing
a cell. The function should return a vector or matrix that is divisible by ncell(x). Thus, both "sum"
and "rowSums" can be used, but "colSums" cannot be used.
You can also apply a function fun across datasets by layer of a SpatRasterDataset. In that case,
summarization is by layer across SpatRasters.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
app(x, fun, ..., cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

app(x, fun, ..., cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset
fun a function that operates on a vector or matrix. This can be a function that is de-
fined in base-R or in a package, or a function you write yourself (see examples).
Functions that return complex output (e.g. a list) may need to be wrapped in your
own function to simplify the output to a vector or matrix. The following func-
tions have been re-implemented in C++ for speed: "sum", "mean", "median",
"modal", "which", "which.min", "which.max", "min", "max", "prod", "any",
"all", "sd", "std", "first". To use the base-R function for say, "min", you could use
something like fun=function(i) min(i) or the equivalent fun = \(i) min(i)
... additional arguments for fun. These are typically numerical constants. They
should *never* be another SpatRaster
cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used. You can also supply a cluster object. Ignored for functions
that are implemented by terra in C++ (see under fun)
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster
30 app

Details
To speed things up, parallelization is supported, but this is often not helpful, and it may actually
be slower. There is only a speed gain if you have many cores (> 8) and/or a very complex (slow)
function fun. If you write fun yourself, consider supplying a cppFunction made with the Rcpp
package instead (or go have a cup of tea while the computer works for you).

Value
SpatRaster

## also works for a single layer

f <- function(i) (i+1) * 2 * i + sqrt(i)
s <- app(r, f)
# same as above, but that is not memory-safe
# and has no filename argument
s <- f(r)

## Not run:
#### multiple cores
test0 <- app(x, sqrt)
test1 <- app(x, sqrt, cores=2)

testfun <- function(i) { 2 * sqrt(i) }

test2 <- app(x, fun=testfun, cores =2)

## this fails because testfun is not exported to the nodes

# test3 <- app(x, fun=function(i) testfun(i), cores=2)
approximate 31

## to export it, add it as argument to fun

test3 <- app(x, fun=function(i, ff) ff(i), cores =3, ff=testfun)

## End(Not run)

approximate Estimate values for cell values that are NA by interpolating between
layers

Description
approximate uses the stats function approx to estimate values for cells that are NA by interpolation
across layers. Layers are considered equidistant, unless argument z is used, or time(x) returns
values that are not NA, in which case these values are used to determine distance between layers.
For estimation based on neighboring cells see focal

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
approximate(x, method="linear", yleft, yright,
rule=1, f=0, ties=mean, z=NULL, NArule=1,filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
method specifies the interpolation method to be used. Choices are "linear" or "constant"
(step function; see the example in approx
yleft the value to be returned before a non-NA value is encountered. The default is
defined by the value of rule given below
yright the value to be returned after the last non-NA value is encountered. The default
is defined by the value of rule given below
rule an integer (of length 1 or 2) describing how interpolation is to take place at for
the first and last cells (before or after any non-NA values are encountered). If
rule is 1 then NAs are returned for such points and if it is 2, the value at the
closest data extreme is used. Use, e.g., rule = 2:1, if the left and right side
extrapolation should differ
f for method = "constant" a number between 0 and 1 inclusive, indicating a com-
promise between left- and right-continuous step functions. If y0 and y1 are the
values to the left and right of the point then the value is y0*(1-f)+y1*f so that
f = 0) is right-continuous and f = 1 is left-continuous
ties Handling of tied ’z’ values. Either a function with a single vector argument
returning a single number result or the string "ordered"
z numeric vector to indicate the distance between layers (e.g., depth). The default
is time(x) if these are not NA or else 1:nlys(x)
32 Arith-methods

NArule single integer used to determine what to do when only a single layer with a non-
NA value is encountered (and linear interpolation is not possible). The default
value of 1 indicates that all layers will get this value for that cell; all other values
do not change the cell values
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

b <- c(r1, r2, r3)

b2 <- b * 10

### SpatExtent methods

x <- ext(0.1, 2.2, 0, 3)
y <- ext(-2, 1, -2,2)
# union
x + y
# intersection
x * y

e <- x
e
e * 2
e / 2
e + 1
e - 1

as.character Create a text representation of (the skeleton of) an object

Description
Create a text representation of (the skeleton of) an object
34 as.data.frame

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'
as.character(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

as.character(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster

Value
character

Examples
r <- rast()
ext(r)
ext(c(0, 20, 0, 20))

as.data.frame SpatRaster or SpatVector to data.frame

Description
Coerce a SpatRaster or SpatVector to a data.frame

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
as.data.frame(x, row.names=NULL, optional=FALSE, geom=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

as.data.frame(x, row.names=NULL, optional=FALSE, xy=FALSE, cells=FALSE, na.rm=NA, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
geom character or NULL. If not NULL, either "WKT" or "HEX", to get the geometry
included in Well-Known-Text or hexadecimal notation. If x has point geometry,
it can also be "XY" to add the coordinates of each point
xy logical. If TRUE, the coordinates of each raster cell are included
cells logical. If TRUE, the cell numbers of each raster cell are included
na.rm logical. If TRUE, cells that have a NA value in at least one layer are removed. If
the argument is set to NA only cells that have NA values in all layers are removed
as.list 35

... Additional arguments passed to the data.frame

row.names This argument is ignored
optional This argument is ignored

Value
data.frame

See Also
as.list, as.matrix. See geom to only extract the geometry of a SpatVector

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
as.data.frame(v)

as.list Coerce a Spat* object to a list

Description
Coerce a SpatRaster, SpatRasterCollection, SpatRasterDataset, SpatVector or SpatVectorCollection
to a list. With a SpatRaster, each layer becomes a list element. With a SpatRasterCollection or Spa-
tRasterDataset, each SpatRaster becomes a list element. With a SpatVector, each variable (attribute)
becomes a list element. With a SpatVectorCollection, each SpatVector becomes a list element.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
as.list(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection'

as.list(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

as.list(x, geom=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorCollection'

as.list(x, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatRasterDataset, SpatRasterCollection, or SpatVector
geom character or NULL. If not NULL, either "WKT" or "HEX", to get the geometry
included in Well-Known-Text or hexadecimal notation. If x has point geometry,
it can also bey "XY" to add the coordinates of each point
... Additional arguments. These are ignored
36 as.raster

Value
list

See Also
see coerce for as.data.frame with a SpatRaster; and geom to only extract the geometry of a
SpatVector

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
as.list(v)

s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra")) + 1

as.list(s)

as.raster Coerce to a "raster" object

Description
Implementation of the generic as.raster function to create a "raster" (small r) object. Such objects
can be used for plotting with the rasterImage function. NOT TO BE CONFUSED with the Raster*
(big R) objects defined by the ’raster’ package!

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
as.raster(x, maxcell=500000, col)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
col vector of colors. Default is col=rev(terrain.colors(255)))

Value
’raster’ object

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=3, nrows=3)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
as.raster(r)
as.spatvector 37

as.spatvector Conversion to a SpatVector, or to another SpatVector type

Description
Conversion of a SpatRaster or SpatExtent to a SpatVector of points, lines, or polygons;
And conversion of a SpatVector to another SpatVector type.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
as.polygons(x, trunc=TRUE, dissolve=TRUE, values=TRUE,
na.rm=TRUE, na.all=FALSE, extent=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

as.lines(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

as.points(x, values=TRUE, na.rm=TRUE, na.all=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

as.polygons(x, extent=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

as.lines(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

as.points(x, multi=FALSE, skiplast=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

as.polygons(x, crs="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

as.lines(x, crs="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

as.points(x, crs="")

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
trunc logical; truncate values to integers. Cells with the same value are merged.
Therefore, if trunc=FALSE the object returned can have many cells and can
be very large
dissolve logical; combine cells with the same values? If TRUE only the first layer in x is
processed
38 atan2

values logical; include cell values as attributes?

multi logical. If TRUE a multi-point geometry is returned
skiplast logical. If TRUE the last point of a polygon (which is the same as the first point)
is not included
extent logical. if TRUE, a polygon for the extent of the SpatRaster or SpatVector is re-
turned. If x is a SpatRaster, the polygon has vertices for each row and column,
not just the four corners of the raster. This can be useful for more precise pro-
jection. If that is not required, it is more efficient to get the extent represented
by only the four corners with as.polygons(ext(x), crs=crs(x))
na.rm logical. If TRUE cells that are NA are ignored
na.all logical. If TRUE cells are only ignored if na.rm=TRUE and their value is NA for
all layers instead of for any layer
crs character. The coordinate reference system (see crs)

Value

SpatVector

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=2, nrows=2)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)

as.points(r)
as.lines(ext(r), crs=crs(r))

if (gdal() >= "3.0.0") {

p <- as.polygons(r)
p
as.lines(p)
as.points(p)
}

atan2 Two argument arc-tangent

Description

For SpatRasters x and y, atan2(y, x) returns the angle in radians for the tangent y/x, handling the
case when x is zero. See Trig
See Math-methods for other trigonometric and mathematical functions that can be used with Spa-
tRasters.
autocorrelation 39

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

atan2(y, x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

atan_2(y, x, filename, ...)

Arguments

y SpatRaster
x SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

See Also

Math-methods

Examples
r1 <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
r2 <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
values(r1) <- (runif(ncell(r1))-0.5) * 10
values(r2) <- (runif(ncell(r1))-0.5) * 10
atan2(r1, r2)

autocorrelation Spatial autocorrelation

Description

Compute spatial autocorrelation for a numeric vector or a SpatRaster. You can compute standard
(global) Moran’s I or Geary’s C, or local indicators of spatial autocorrelation (Anselin, 1995).

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'numeric'

autocor(x, w, method="moran")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

autocor(x, w=matrix(c(1,1,1,1,0,1,1,1,1),3), method="moran", global=TRUE)
40 autocorrelation

Arguments
x numeric or SpatRaster
w Spatial weights defined by or a rectangular matrix. For a SpatRaster this matrix
must the sides must have an odd length (3, 5, ...)
global logical. If TRUE global autocorrelation is computed instead of local autocorrela-
tion
method character. If x is numeric or SpatRaster: "moran" for Moran’s I and "geary" for
Geary’s C. If x is numeric also: "Gi", "Gi*" (the Getis-Ord statistics), locmor
(local Moran’s I) and "mean" (local mean)

Details
The default setting uses a 3x3 neighborhood to compute "Queen’s case" indices. You can use a filter
(weights matrix) to do other things, such as "Rook’s case", or different lags.

Value
numeric or SpatRaster

References
Moran, P.A.P., 1950. Notes on continuous stochastic phenomena. Biometrika 37:17-23
Geary, R.C., 1954. The contiguity ratio and statistical mapping. The Incorporated Statistician 5:
115-145
Anselin, L., 1995. Local indicators of spatial association-LISA. Geographical Analysis 27:93-115
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicators_of_spatial_association

See Also
The spdep package for additional and more general approaches for computing spatial autocorrela-
tion

Examples
### raster
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, xmin=0)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)

autocor(r)

# rook's case neighbors

f <- matrix(c(0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0), nrow=3)
autocor(r, f)

# local
rc <- autocor(r, w=f, global=FALSE)

### numeric (for vector data)

barplot 41

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
w <- relate(v, relation="touches")

# global
autocor(v$AREA, w)

# local
v$Gi <- autocor(v$AREA, w, "Gi")
plot(v, "Gi")

barplot Bar plot of a SpatRaster

Description

Create a barplot of the values of a the first layer of a SpatRaster. For large datasets a regular sample
with a size of approximately maxcells is used.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

barplot(height, maxcell=1000000, digits=0, breaks=NULL, col, ...)

Arguments

height SpatRaster
maxcell integer. To regularly subsample very large datasets
digits integer used to determine how to round the values before tabulating. Set to NULL
or to a large number if you do not want any rounding
breaks breaks used to group the data as in cut
col a color generating function such as rainbow (the default), or a vector of colors
... additional arguments for plotting as in barplot

Value

A numeric vector (or matrix, when beside = TRUE) of the coordinates of the bar midpoints, useful
for adding to the graph. See barplot

See Also

hist, boxplot
42 boundaries

Examples

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
barplot(r, digits=-1, las=2, ylab="Frequency")

op <- par(no.readonly = TRUE)

par(mai = c(1, 2, .5, .5))
barplot(r, breaks=10, col=c("red", "blue"), horiz=TRUE, digits=NULL, las=1)
par(op)

boundaries Detect boundaries (edges)

Description
Detect boundaries (edges). Boundaries are cells that have more than one class in the 4 or 8 cells
surrounding it, or, if classes=FALSE, cells with values and cells with NA.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
boundaries(x, classes=FALSE, inner=TRUE,
directions=8, falseval=0, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
inner logical. If TRUE, "inner" boundaries are returned, else "outer" boundaries are
returned
classes character. Logical. If TRUE all different values are (after rounding) distinguished,
as well as NA. If FALSE (the default) only edges between NA and non-NA cells are
considered
directions integer. Which cells are considered adjacent? Should be 8 (Queen’s case) or 4
(Rook’s case)
falseval numeric. The value to use for cells that are not a boundary and not NA
filename character. Output filename
... options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster. Cell values are either 1 (a border) or 0 (not a border), or NA

boxplot Box plot of SpatRaster data

Description
Box plot of layers in a SpatRaster

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
boxplot(x, y=NULL, maxcell=100000, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y NULL or a SpatRaster. If x is a SpatRaster it used to group the values of x by
"zone"
maxcell Integer. Number of cells to sample from datasets
... additional arguments passed to graphics::boxplot

Value
boxplot returns a list (invisibly) that can be used with bxp

boxplot(s, notch=TRUE, col=c("red", "blue", "orange"), main="Box plot", ylab="random", las=1)

44 buffer

op <- par(no.readonly = TRUE)

par(mar=c(4,6,2,2))
boxplot(s, horizontal=TRUE, col="lightskyblue", axes=FALSE)
axis(1)
axis(2, at=0:3, labels=c("", names(s)), las=1, cex.axis=.9, lty=0)
par(op)

## boxplot with 2 layers

v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))
r <- rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))
y <- rasterize(v, r, "NAME_2")
b <- boxplot(r, y)
bxp(b)

buffer Create a buffer around vector geometries or raster patches

Description
Calculate a buffer around all cells that are not NA in a SpatRaster, or around the geometries of a
SpatVector)
SpatRaster cells inside the buffer distance get a value of 1.
Note that the distance unit of the buffer width parameter is meters if the CRS is (+proj=longlat),
and in map units (typically also meters) if not.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
buffer(x, width, background=0, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

buffer(x, width, quadsegs=10, capstyle="round",
joinstyle="round", mitrelimit=NA, singlesided=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
width numeric. Unit is meter if x has a longitude/latitude CRS, or in the units of the
coordinate reference system in other cases (typically also meter). The value
should be > 0 if x is a SpatRaster. If x is a SpatVector, this argument is vector-
ized, meaning that you can provide a different value for each geometry in x; and
you can also use the name of a variable in x that has the widths
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
background numeric. value to assign to cells outside the buffer. If this value is zero or
FALSE, a boolean SpatRaster is returned
c 45

quadsegs positive integer. Number of line segments to use to draw a quart circle
capstyle character. One of "round", "square" or "flat". Ignored if is.lonlat(x)
joinstyle character. One of "round", "mitre" or "bevel". Ignored if is.lonlat(x)
mitrelimit numeric. Place an upper bound on a mitre join to avoid it from extending very
far from acute angles in the input geometry. Ignored if is.lonlat(x)
singlesided logical. If TRUE a buffer is constructed on only one side of each input line.
Ignored if is.lonlat(x)

Value
Same as x

v <- vect(rbind(c(10,10), c(0,60)), crs="+proj=merc")

b <- buffer(v, 20)
plot(b)
points(v)

crs(v) <- "+proj=longlat"

b <- buffer(v, 1500000)
plot(b)
points(v)

c Combine SpatRaster or SpatVector objects

Description
With c you can:
– Combine SpatRaster objects. They must have the same extent and resolution. However, if x is
empty (has no cell values), its geometry is ignored with a warning. Two empty SpatRasters with
the same geometry can also be combined (to get a summed number of layers). Also see add<-
– Add a SpatRaster to a SpatRasterDataset
– Add SpatVector objects to a new or existing SpatVectorCollection
To append SpatVectors, use rbind.
46 cartogram

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
c(x, ..., warn=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

c(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

c(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorCollection'

c(x, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector, SpatRasterDataset or SpatVectorCollection
warn logical. If TRUE, a warning is emitted if x is an empty SpatRaster
... as for x (you can only combine raster with raster data and vector with vector
data)

Value
Same class as x

catalyze Factors to numeric

Description
Change a categorical layer into one or more numerical layers. With as.numeric you can transfer
the active category values to cell values in a non-categorical SpatRaster. catalyze creates new
layers for each category.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
as.numeric(x, index=NULL, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

catalyze(x, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
index positive integer or category indicating the category to use. If NULL the active
category is used
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
48 cells

Value
SpatRaster

cells Get cell numbers

Description
Get the cell numbers covered by a SpatVector or SpatExtent. Or that match values in a vector; or
all non NA values.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,missing'
cells(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

cells(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'

cells(x, y, method="simple", weights=FALSE, exact=FALSE, touches=is.lines(y))

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatExtent'

cells(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatVector, SpatExtent, 2-column matrix representing points, numeric repre-
senting values to match, or missing
cellSize 49

method character. Method for getting cell numbers for points. The default is "simple",
the alternative is "bilinear". If it is "bilinear", the four nearest cells and their
weights are returned
weights logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the approximate fraction of each cell that is
covered is returned as well
exact logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the exact fraction of each cell that is covered
is returned as well
touches logical. If TRUE, values for all cells touched by lines or polygons are extracted,
not just those on the line render path, or whose center point is within the poly-
gon. Not relevant for points

Value

numeric vector or matrix

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
r[c(1:25, 31:100)] <- NA
r <- ifel(r > 28, r + 10, r)

# all cell numbers of cells that are not NA

cells(r)

# cell numbers that match values

x <- cells(r, c(28,38))
x$lyr.1

# cells for points

m <- cbind(x=c(0,10,-30), y=c(40,-10,20))
cellFromXY(r, m)

v <- vect(m)
cells(r, v)
cells(r, v, method="bilinear")

# cells for polygons

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
r <- rast(v)
cv <- cells(r, v)

cellSize Area covered by each raster cell

50 cellSize

Description
Compute the area covered by individual raster cells.
Computing the surface area of raster cells is especially relevant for longitude/latitude rasters.
But note that for both angular (longitude/latitude) and for planar (projected) coordinate reference
systems raster cells sizes are generally not constant, unless you are using an equal-area coordinate
reference system.
For planar CRSs, the area is therefore not computed based on the linear units of the coordinate
reference system, but on the *actual* area by transforming cells to longitude/latitude. If you do not
want that correction, you can use transform=FALSE or init(x, prod(res(x)))

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
cellSize(x, mask=FALSE, lyrs=FALSE, unit="m", transform=TRUE, rcx=100, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
mask logical. If TRUE, cells that are NA in x are also NA in the output
lyrs logical. If TRUE and mask=TRUE, the output has the same number of layers as x.
That is only useful if cases where the layers of x have different cells that are NA
unit character. One of "m", "km", or "ha"
transform logical. If TRUE, planar CRS data are transformed to lon/lat for accuracy
rcx positive integer. The maximum number of rows and columns to be used to
compute area of planar data if transform=TRUE. If x has more rows and/or
columns, the raster is aggregated to match this limit, and values for the original
cells are estimated by bilinear interpolation (see resample). This can save a lot
of time
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

# size of each raster cell

a <- cellSize(r)

# illustration of distortion
r <- rast(ncols=90, nrows=45, ymin=-80, ymax=80)
m <- project(r, "+proj=merc")

bad <- init(m, prod(res(m)) / 1000000, names="naive")

good <- cellSize(m, unit="km", names="corrected")
plot(c(good, bad), nc=1, mar=c(2,2,1,6))

centroids Centroids

Description
Get the centroids of polygons or lines, or centroid-like points that are guaranteed to be inside the
polygons or on the lines.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
centroids(x, inside=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatVector
inside logical. If TRUE the points returned are guaranteed to be inside the polygons or
on the lines, but they are not the true centroids. True centroids may be outside
a polygon, for example when a polygon is "bean shaped", and they are unlikely
to be on their line

Value
SpatVector of points

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
x <- centroids(v)
y <- centroids(v, TRUE)
52 clamp

clamp Clamp values

Description
Clamp values to a minimum and maximum value. That is, all values below a lower threshold value
and above the upper threshold value become either NA, or, if values=TRUE, become the threshold
value

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
clamp(x, lower=-Inf, upper=Inf, values=TRUE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'numeric'

clamp(x, lower=-Inf, upper=Inf, values=TRUE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
lower numeric with the lowest acceptable value (you can specify a different value for
each layer). Or a SpatRaster that has a single layer or the same number of layers
as x
upper numeric with the highest acceptable value (you can specify a different value for
each layer). Or a SpatRaster that has a single layer or the same number of layers
as x
values logical. If FALSE values outside the clamping range become NA, if TRUE, they get
the extreme values
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

clamp_ts clamp time series data

Description
clamp time-series datat that are S shaped. The value in layers before the minimum value in a cell
can be set to that minimum value, and the value in layers after the maximum value for a cell can be
set to that maximum value.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
clamp_ts(x, min=FALSE, max=TRUE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
min logical. If TRUE the time-series is clamped to the minimum value
max logical. If TRUE the time-series is clamped to the maximum value
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

x <- clamp_ts(r, TRUE, TRUE)

plot(unlist(r[4]))
lines(unlist(x[4]))
54 classify

classify Classify (or reclassify) cell values

Description
Classify values of a SpatRaster. The function (re-)classifies groups of values to other values.
The classification is done based on the argument rcl. You can classify ranges by specifying a
three-column matrix "from-to-becomes" or change specific values by using a two-column matrix
"is-becomes". You can also supply a vector with "cuts" or the "number of cuts".
With "from-to-becomes" or "is-becomes" classification is done in the row order of the matrix. Thus,
if there are overlapping ranges or values, the first time a number is within a range determines the
reclassification value.
With "cuts" the values are sorted, so that the order in which they are provided does not matter.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
classify(x, rcl, include.lowest=FALSE, right=TRUE,
others=NULL, brackets=TRUE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
rcl matrix for classification. This matrix must have 1, 2 or 3 columns. If there are
three columns, the first two columns are "from" "to" of the input values, and the
third column "becomes" has the new value for that range.
The two column matrix ("is", "becomes") can be useful for classifying integer
values. In that case, the arguments right and include.lowest are ignored.
A single column matrix (or a vector) is interpreted as a set of cuts if there is more
than one value. In that case the values are classified based on their location in-
between the cut-values.
If a single number is provided, that is used to make that number of cuts, at equal
intervals between the lowest and highest values of the SpatRaster.
include.lowest logical, indicating if a value equal to the lowest value in rcl (or highest value in
the second column, for right=FALSE) should be included.
right logical. If TRUE, the intervals are closed on the right (and open on the left). If
FALSE they are open at the right and closed at the left. "open" means that the
extreme value is *not* included in the interval. Thus, right-closed and left open
is (0,1] = {x | 0 < x <= 1}. You can also close both sides with right=NA, that
is only meaningful if you "from-to-becomes" classification with integers. For
example to classify 1-5 -> 1, 6-10 -> 2, 11-15 -> 3. That may be easier to read
and write than the equivalent 1-5 -> 1, 5-10 -> 2, 10-15 -> 3 with right=TRUE
and include.lowest=TRUE
others numeric. If not NULL all values that are not matched are set to this value. Other-
wise they retain their original value.
classify 55

brackets logical. If TRUE, intervals are have parenthesis or brackets around them to indi-
cate whether they are open or closed. Only applies if rcl is a vector (or single
column matrix)
filename character. Output filename
... Additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

Note
classify works with the "raw" values of categorical rasters, ignoring the levels (labels, categories).
To change the labels of categorical rasters, use subst instead.
For model-based classification see predict

See Also
subst for simpler from-to replacement

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- (0:99)/99

## from-to-becomes
# classify the values into three groups
# all values >= 0 and <= 0.25 become 1, etc.
m <- c(0, 0.25, 1,
0.25, 0.5, 2,
0.5, 1, 3)
rclmat <- matrix(m, ncol=3, byrow=TRUE)
rc1 <- classify(r, rclmat, include.lowest=TRUE)

## cuts
# equivalent to the above, but now a categorical SpatRaster is returned
rc2 <- classify(r, c(0, 0.25, 0.5, 1), include.lowest=TRUE, brackets=TRUE)
freq(rc2)

## is-becomes
x <- round(r*3)
unique(x)
# replace 0 with NA
y <- classify(x, cbind(0, NA))
unique(y)

# multiple replacements
m <- rbind(c(2, 200), c(3, 300))
m

rcx1 <- classify(x, m)

56 click

unique(rcx1)

rcx2 <- classify(x, m, others=NA)

unique(rcx2)

click Query by clicking on a map

Description
Click on a map (plot) to get the coordinates or the values of a SpatRaster or SpatVector at that
location. For a SpatRaster you can also get the coordinates and cell number of the location.
This does to work well on the default RStudio plotting device. To work around that, you can first run
dev.new(noRStudioGD = TRUE) which will create a separate window for plotting, then use plot()
followed by click() and click on the map .

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
click(x, n=10, id=FALSE, xy=FALSE, cell=FALSE, type="p", show=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

click(x, n=10, id=FALSE, xy=FALSE, type="p", show=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'missing'

click(x, n=10, id=FALSE, type="p", show=TRUE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector, or missing
n number of clicks on the plot (map)
id logical. If TRUE, a numeric ID is shown on the map that corresponds to the row
number of the output
xy logical. If TRUE, xy coordinates are included in the output
cell logical. If TRUE, cell numbers are included in the output
type one of "n", "p", "l" or "o". If "p" or "o" the points are plotted; if "l" or "o" they
are joined by lines. See ?locator
show logical. Print the values after each click?
... additional graphics parameters used if type != "n" for plotting the locations. See
?locator

Value
The value(s) of x at the point(s) clicked on (or touched by the box drawn). A data.frame with
the value(s) of all layers of SpatRaster x for the cell(s) clicked on; or with the attributes of the
geometries of SpatVector x that intersect with the box drawn).
coerce 57

Note
The plot only provides the coordinates for a spatial query, the values are read from the SpatRaster
or SpatVector that is passed as an argument. Thus you can extract values from an object that has
not been plotted, as long as it spatially overlaps with with the extent of the plot.
Unless the process is terminated prematurely values at at most n positions are determined. The
identification process can be terminated, depending on how you interact with R, by hitting Esc, or
by clicking the right mouse button and selecting "Stop" from the menu, or from the "Stop" menu on
the graphics window.

coerce Coercion of a SpatRaster to a vector, matrix or array

Description
Coercion to other object types

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
as.vector(x, mode='any')

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

as.matrix(x, wide=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

as.array(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
wide logical. If FALSE each layer in the SpatRaster becomes a column in the matrix
and each cell in the SpatRaster becomes a row. If TRUE each row in the Spa-
tRaster becomes a row in the matrix and each column in the SpatRaster becomes
a column in the matrix
58 colors

mode this argument is ignored

... additional arguments (none implemented)

Value
vector, matrix, or array

colors Color table

Description
Get or set color table(s) associated with a SpatRaster. Color tables are used for associating colors
with values, for use in mapping (plot).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
coltab(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

coltab(x, layer=1)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

has.colors(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
layer positive integer, the layer number or name
value a two-column data.frame (first column the cell value, the second column the
color); a vector of colors (the first one is the color for value 0 and so on); or
a three (red,green,blue) or four (alpha) column data.frame also from 0 to n; or
NULL to remove the color table
combineGeoms 59

Value
data.frame

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=3, nrows=2, vals=1:6)
coltb <- data.frame(value=1:6, col=rainbow(6, end=.9))
coltb

plot(r)

has.colors(r)
coltab(r) <- coltb
plot(r)
has.colors(r)

tb <- coltab(r)
class(tb)
dim(tb[[1]])

combineGeoms Combine geometries

Description
Combine the geometries of one SpatVector with those of another. Geometries can be combined
based on overlap, shared boundaries and distance (in that order of operation).
The typical use-case of this method is when you are editing geometries and you have a number of
small polygons in one SpatVector that should be part of the geometries of the another SpatVector;
perhaps because they were small holes inbetween the borders of two SpatVectors.
To append SpatVectors use ‘rbind‘ and see methods like intersect and union for "normal" poly-
gons combinations.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'
combineGeoms(x, y, overlap=TRUE, boundary=TRUE, distance=TRUE,
append=TRUE, minover=0.1, maxdist=Inf, dissolve=TRUE, erase=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatVector of polygons
y SpatVector of polygons geometries that are to be combined with x
overlap logical. If TRUE, a geometry is combined with the geometry it has most overlap
with, if the overlap is above minover
boundary logical. If TRUE, a geometry is combined with the geometry it has most shared
border with
60 combineGeoms

distance logical. If TRUE, a geometry is combined with the geometry it is nearest to

append logical. Should remaining geometries be appended to the output? Not relevant
if distance=TRUE
minover numericThe fraction of the geometry in codey that overlaps with a geometry in
x. Below this threshold, geometries are not considered overlapping
maxdist numeric. Geometries further away from each other than this distance (in meters)
will not be combined
dissolve logical. Should internal boundaries be dissolved?
erase logical. If TRUE no new overlapping areas are created

Value
SpatVector

See Also
union, erase, intersect
sharedPaths, erase, intersect

Examples
x1 <- vect("POLYGON ((0 0, 8 0, 8 9, 0 9, 0 0))")
x2 <- vect("POLYGON ((10 4, 12 4, 12 7, 11 7, 11 6, 10 6, 10 4))")

y1 <- vect("POLYGON ((5 6, 15 6, 15 15, 5 15, 5 6))")

y2 <- vect("POLYGON ((8 2, 9 2, 9 3, 8 3, 8 2))")
y3 <- vect("POLYGON ((2 6, 3 6, 3 8, 2 8, 2 6))")
y4 <- vect("POLYGON ((2 12, 3 12, 3 13, 2 13, 2 12))")

x <- rbind(x1, x2)

values(x) <- data.frame(xid=1:2)
crs(x) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1"

y <- rbind(y1, y2, y3, y4)

values(y) <- data.frame(yid=letters[1:4])
crs(y) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1"

plot(rbind(x, y), border=c(rep("red",2), rep("blue", 4)), lwd=2)

text(x, "xid")
text(y, "yid")

v <- combineGeoms(x, y)
plot(v, col=c("red", "blue"))

v <- combineGeoms(x, y, boundary=FALSE, maxdist=1, minover=.05)

plot(v, col=rainbow(4))
Compare-methods 61

Compare-methods Compare and logical methods

Description
Standard comparison and logical operators for computations with SpatRasters. Computations are
local (applied on a cell by cell basis). If multiple SpatRaster objects are used, these must have the
same geometry (extent and resolution). These operators have been implemented:
Logical: !, &, |, isTRUE, isFALSE
Compare: ==, !=, >, <, <=, >=, is.na, is.nan, is.finite, is.infinite
See not.na for the inverse of is.na, and noNA to detect cells with missing value across layers.
The compare and logic methods implement these operators in a method that can return NA istead
of FALSE and allows for setting an output filename.
The terra package does not distinguish between NA (not available) and NaN (not a number). In most
cases this state is represented by NaN.
If you use a SpatRaster with a vector of multiple numbers, each element in the vector is considered
a layer (with a constant value). If you use a SpatRaster with a matrix, the number of columns of the
matrix must match the number of layers of the SpatRaster. The rows are used to match the cells.
That is, if there are two rows, these match cells 1 and 2, and they are recycled to 3 and 4, etc.
The following method has been implemented for (SpatExtent, SpatExtent): ==

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
compare(x, y, oper, falseNA=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

logic(x, oper, falseNA=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatRaster or numeric
oper character. Operator name. For compare this can be one of "==", "!=", ">",
"<", ">=", "<=" and for logic it can be one of "!", "is.na", "allNA", "noNA",
"is.infinite", "is.finite", "iSTRUE", "isFALSE"
falseNA logical. Should the result be TRUE, NA instead of TRUE, FALSE?
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster or SpatExtent
62 compareGeom

See Also
all.equal, Arith-methods. See ifel to conveniently combine operations and Math-methods or
app to apply any R function to a SpatRaster.

Examples
r1 <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r1) <- runif(ncell(r1))
r1[10:20] <- NA
r2 <- rast(r1)
values(r2) <- 1:ncell(r2) / ncell(r2)

x <- is.na(r1)
!x
r1 == r2
compare(r1, r2, "==")
compare(r1, r2, "==", TRUE)

compareGeom Compare geometries of SpatRasters

Description
Evaluate whether two SpatRasters have the same extent, number of rows and columns, projection,
resolution, and origin (or a subset of these comparisons). Or whether two SpatVectors have the
same geometries, or whether a SpatVector has duplicated geometries.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
compareGeom(x, y, ..., lyrs=FALSE, crs=TRUE, warncrs=FALSE, ext=TRUE,
rowcol=TRUE, res=FALSE, stopOnError=TRUE, messages=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

compareGeom(x, y, tolerance=0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,missing'

compareGeom(x, y, tolerance=0)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatRaster
... Additional SpatRasters
lyrs logical. If TRUE, the number of layers is compared
crs logical. If TRUE, coordinate reference systems are compared
concats 63

warncrs logical. If TRUE, a warning is given if the crs is different (instead of an error)
ext logical. If TRUE, bounding boxes are compared
rowcol logical. If TRUE, number of rows and columns of the objects are compared
res logical. If TRUE, resolutions are compared (redundant when checking extent and
rowcol)
stopOnError logical. If TRUE, code execution stops if raster do not match
messages logical. If TRUE, warning/error messages are printed even if stopOnError=FALSE
tolerance numeric

Value
logical (SpatRaster) or matrix of logical (SpatVector)

Examples
r1 <- rast()
r2 <- rast()
r3 <- rast()
compareGeom(r1, r2, r3)
nrow(r3) <- 10

## Not run:
compareGeom(r1, r3)

## End(Not run)

concats Concatenate categorical rasters

Description
Combine two categorical rasters by concatenating their levels.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
concats(x, y, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster (with a single, categorical, layer)
y SpatRaster (with a single, categorical, layer)
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
64 contour

Value
SpatRaster

x <- concats(r, rr)

x
levels(x)[[1]]

contour Contour plot

Description
Contour lines of a SpatRaster. Use add=TRUE to add the lines to the current plot. See contour for
details.
if filled=TRUE, a new filled contour plot is made. See filled.contour for details.
as.contour returns the contour lines as a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
contour(x, maxcells=100000, filled=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

as.contour(x, maxcells=100000, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster. Only the first layer is used
maxcells maximum number of pixels used to create the contours
filled logical. If TRUE, a filled.contour plot is made
... any argument that can be passed to contour or filled.contour (graphics
package)
convHull 65

See Also
plot

Examples
r <- rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))
plot(r)
contour(r, add=TRUE)

v <- as.contour(r)
plot(r)
lines(v)

contour(r, filled=TRUE, nlevels=5)

## if you want a SpatVector with contour lines

template <- disagg(rast(r), 10)
rr <- resample(r, template)
rr <- floor(rr/100) * 100
v <- as.polygons(rr)
plot(v, 1, col=terrain.colors(7))

convHull Convex hull and minimal rotated rectangle

Description
Get the convex hull or the minimal rotated rectangle of a SpatVector

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
convHull(x, by="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

minRect(x, by="")

Arguments
x SpatVector
by character (variable name), to make convex hulls by group

Value
SpatVector
66 costDist

Examples
p <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))
h <- convHull(p)

hh <- convHull(p, "NAME_1")

rr <- minRect(p, "NAME_1")

plot(rr, lwd=5, border="gray")

plot(hh, "NAME_1", col=rainbow(10, alpha=.5), lwd=3, add=TRUE, plg=list(x="topright"))
lines(aggregate(p, "NAME_1"), col="blue", lty=2, lwd=2)

costDist Cost distance

Description
Use a friction (cost) surface to compute the cost-distance from any cell to the border of one or more
target cells.
Distances are computed by summing local distances between cells, which are connected with their
neighbors in 8 directions, and assuming that the path has to go through the centers of one of the
neighboring raster cells.
Distances are multiplied with the friction, thus to get the cost-distance, the friction surface must
express the cost per unit distance (speed) of travel.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
costDist(x, target=0, scale=1, maxiter=50, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
target numeric. value of the target cells (where to compute cost-distance to)
scale numeric. Scale factor. The cost distance is divided by this number
maxiter numeric. The maximum number of iterations. Increase this number if you get
the warning that costDistance did not converge
filename character. output filename (optional)
... additional arguments as for writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, xmin=0, xmax=10, ymin=0, ymax=10,

vals=10, crs="+proj=utm +zone=1 +datum=WGS84")
r[5, 1] <- -10
r[2:3, 1] <- r[1, 2:4] <- r[2, 5] <- 0
r[3, 6] <- r[2, 7] <- r[1, 8:9] <- 0
r[6, 6:10] <- NA
r[6:9, 6] <- NA

d <- costDist(r, -10)

plot(d)
text(d, digits=1, cex=.8)

cover Replace values with values from another object

Description
Replace NA or other values in SpatRaster x with the values of SpatRaster y
For polygons: areas of x that overlap with y are replaced by y or, if identity=TRUE intersected
with y.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
cover(x, y, values=NA, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

cover(x, y, identity=FALSE, expand=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
y Same as x
values numeric. The cell values in x to be replaced by the values in y
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
identity logical. If TRUE overlapping areas are intersected rather than replaced
expand logical. Should parts of y that are outside of x be included?
68 crds

Value
SpatRaster

Examples
r1 <- r2 <- rast(ncols=36, nrows=18)
values(r1) <- 1:ncell(r1)
values(r2) <- runif(ncell(r2))
r2 <- classify(r2, cbind(-Inf, 0.5, NA))
r3 <- cover(r2, r1)

p <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))

e <- as.polygons(ext(6, 6.4, 49.75, 50))
values(e) <- data.frame(y=10)

cv <- cover(p, e)
plot(cv, col=rainbow(12))
ci <- cover(p, e, identity=TRUE)
lines(e, lwd=3)

plot(ci, col=rainbow(12))
lines(e, lwd=3)

crds Get the coordinates of SpatVector geometries or SpatRaster cells

Description
Get the coordinates of a SpatVector or SpatRaster cells. A matrix or data.frame of the x (longitude)
and y (latitude) coordinates is returned.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
crds(x, df=FALSE, list=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

crds(x, df=FALSE, na.rm=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
df logical. If TRUE a data.frame is returned instead of a matrix
list logical. If TRUE a list is returned instead of a matrix
na.rm logical. If TRUE cells that are NA are excluded
crop 69

Value

matrix or data.frame

See Also

geom returns the complete structure of SpatVector geometries. For SpatRaster see xyFromCell

Examples
x1 <- rbind(c(-175,-20), c(-140,55), c(10, 0), c(-140,-60))
x2 <- rbind(c(-125,0), c(0,60), c(40,5), c(15,-45))
x3 <- rbind(c(-10,0), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55))
x4 <- rbind(c(80,0), c(105,13), c(120,2), c(105,-13))
z <- rbind(cbind(object=1, part=1, x1), cbind(object=2, part=1, x2),
cbind(object=3, part=1, x3), cbind(object=3, part=2, x4))
colnames(z)[3:4] <- c('x', 'y')
z <- cbind(z, hole=0)
z[(z[, "object"]==3 & z[,"part"]==2), "hole"] <- 1

p <- vect(z, "polygons")

crds(p)

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
g <- crds(v)
head(g)

crop Cut out a geographic subset

Description

Cut out a part of a SpatRaster with a SpatExtent, or another object from which an extent can be
obtained.
You can only crop rectangular areas, but see mask for setting cell values within SpatRaster to NA.
Also note that the SpatRaster returned may not have the exactly the same extent as the SpatExtent
supplied because you can only select entire cells (rows and columns), and you cannot add new
areas. See methods like resample and disagg to force SpatRasters to align and extend to add
rows and/or columns.
You can crop a SpatVector with another SpatVector. If these are not polygons, the minimum convex
hull is used). Unlike with intersect the geometries and attributes of y are not transferred to the
output. You can also crop a SpatVector with a rectangle (SpatRaster, SpatExtent).
70 crop

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
crop(x, y, snap="near", mask=FALSE, touches=TRUE, extend=FALSE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

crop(x, y, snap="near", extend=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection'

crop(x, y, snap="near", extend=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

crop(x, y, ext=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatGraticule'

crop(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
y SpatRaster, SpatVector, SpatExtent, or any other object that has a SpatExtent
(ext returns a SpatExtent)
snap character. One of "near", "in", or "out". Used to align y to the geometry of x
mask logical. Should y be used to mask? Only used if y is a SpatVector, SpatRaster
or sf
touches logical. If TRUE and mask=TRUE, all cells touched by lines or polygons will be
masked, not just those on the line render path, or whose center point is within
the polygon
extend logical. Should rows and/or columns be added if y is beyond the extent of x?
Also see extend
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
ext logical. Use the extent of y instead of y. This also changes the behavior when y
is an extent in two ways: (1) points that are on the extent boundary are removed
and (2) lon/lat extents that go beyond -180 or 180 degrees longitude are wrapped
around the earth to include areas at the other end of the dateline

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
intersect, extend
See window for a virtual and sometimes more efficient way to crop a dataset.
crosstab 71

Examples
r <- rast(xmin=0, xmax=10, ymin=0, ymax=10, nrows=25, ncols=25)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
e <- ext(-5, 5, -5, 5)
rc <- crop(r, e)

# crop and mask

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
cm <- crop(r, v[9:12,], mask=TRUE)
plot(cm)
lines(v)

# crop vector
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
e <- ext(6.15, 6.3, 49.7, 49.8)
x <- crop(v, e)
plot(x, "NAME_1")

crosstab Cross-tabulate

Description
Cross-tabulate the layers of a SpatRaster to create a contingency table.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,missing'
crosstab(x, digits=0, long=FALSE, useNA=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
digits integer. The number of digits for rounding the values before cross-tabulation
long logical. If TRUE the results are returned in ’long’ format data.frame instead of a
table
useNA logical, indicting if the table should includes counts of NA values

Value
A table or data.frame

crs Get or set a coordinate reference system

Description
Get or set the coordinate reference system (CRS), also referred to as a "projection", of a SpatRaster
or SpatVector.
Setting a new CRS does not change the data itself, it just changes the label. So you should only set
the CRS of a dataset (if it does not come with one) to what it *is*, not to what you would *like it to
be*. See project to *transform* an object from one CRS to another.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
crs(x, proj=FALSE, describe=FALSE, parse=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

crs(x, proj=FALSE, describe=FALSE, parse=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'character'

crs(x, proj=FALSE, describe=FALSE, parse=FALSE)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

crs(x, warn=FALSE)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector'

crs(x, warn=FALSE)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
proj logical. If TRUE the crs is returned in PROJ-string notation
crs 73

describe logical. If TRUE the name, EPSG code, and the name and extent of the area of
use are returned if known
warn logical. If TRUE, a message is printed when the object already has a non-empty
crs
value character string describing a coordinate reference system. This can be in a WKT
format, as a <authority:number> code such as "EPSG:4326", or a PROJ-string
format such as "+proj=utm +zone=12" (see Note)
parse logical. If TRUE, wkt parts are parsed into a vector (each line becomes an ele-
ment)

Value
character or modified SpatRaster/Vector

Note
Projections are handled by the PROJ/GDAL libraries. Recent changes in the PROJ library to im-
prove transformations between datums have degraded the library’s usability. The PROJ developers
suggest to no longer use the proj-string notation to define a CRS, but use the WKT2 or <author-
ity>:<code> notation instead. These alternative systems work for formally described CRSs that are
in databases, but they do not cover the infinite number of CRSs that exist. It is not practical to
define one’s own custom CRS with WKT2. Moreover, unlike the proj-notation, these newer sys-
tems are hard to read and that leads to code that cannot be easily understood and, therefore, is more
error-prone.
It is still possible to use the PROJ-string notation with one major caveat: the datum should be
WGS84 (or the equivalent NAD83) – if you want to transform your data to a coordinate reference
system with a different datum. Thus as long as you use WGS84, or an ellipsoid instead of a datum,
you can safely use PROJ-strings to represent your CRS; including to define your own custom CRS.
You can also set the crs to "local" to get an informal coordinate system on an arbitrary Euclidean
(Cartesian) plane with units in meter.

Examples

r <- rast()
crs(r)
crs(r, describe=TRUE, proj=TRUE)

crs(r) <- "+proj=lcc +lat_1=48 +lat_2=33 +lon_0=-100 +ellps=WGS84"

crs(r)

# You can use epsg codes

crs(r) <- "epsg:25831"
crs(r, describe=TRUE)$area

crs("epsg:25831", describe=TRUE)
74 deepcopy

deepcopy Deep copy

Description
Make a deep copy of a SpatRaster or SpatVector. This is occasionally useful when wanting to use a
replacement function in a shallow copy. That is a copy that was created like this: x <- y. If you use
a replacement function to change an object, its shallow copies also change.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
deepcopy(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

deepcopy(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector

Value
Same as x

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, nl=3)
tm <- as.Date("2001-05-03") + 1:3
time(r) <- tm
time(r)
x <- r
time(x) <- tm + 365
time(x)
time(r)

y <- deepcopy(r)
time(y) <- tm - 365
time(y)
time(r)

# or make a new object like this

z <- rast(r)
time(z) <- tm
time(z)
time(r)
densify 75

densify Add additional nodes to lines or polygons

Description
Add additional nodes to lines or polygons. This can be useful to do prior to using project such
that the path does not change too much.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
densify(x, interval, equalize=TRUE, flat=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatVector
interval positive number, specifying the desired minimum distance between nodes. The
unit is meter for lonlat data, and in the linear unit of the crs for planar data
equalize logical. If TRUE, new nodes are spread at equal intervals between old nodes
flat logical. If TRUE, the earth’s curvature is ignored for lonlat data, and the distance
unit is degrees, not meter

Value
SpatVector

Examples
v <- vect(rbind(c(-120,-20), c(-80,5), c(-40,-60), c(-120,-20)),
type="polygons", crs="+proj=longlat")
vd <- densify(v, 200000)

p <- project(v, "+proj=robin")

pd <- project(vd, "+proj=robin")

# good
plot(pd, col="gray", border="red", lwd=10)
points(pd, col="gray")

# bad
lines(p, col="blue", lwd=3)
points(p, col="blue", cex=2)
plot(p, col="blue", alpha=.1, add=TRUE)
legend("topright", c("good", "bad"), col=c("red", "blue"), lty=1, lwd=3)

## the other way around does not work

## unless the original data was truly planar (e.g. derived from a map)
x <- densify(p, 250000)
76 density

y <- project(x, "+proj=longlat")

# bad
plot(y)
# good
lines(vd, col="red")

density Density plot

Description

Create density plots of the cell values of a SpatRaster

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

density(x, maxcells=100000, plot=TRUE, main, ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
maxcells the maximum number of (randomly sampled) cells to be used for creating the
plot
plot if TRUE produce a plot, else return a density object
main character. Caption of plot(s)
... additional arguments passed to plot

Value

density plot (and a density object, returned invisibly if plot=TRUE)

Examples

logo <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))

density(logo)
deprecated 77

deprecated deprecated methods

Description
These methods are deprecated and will be removed in future versions

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
setCats(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

area(x, ...)

Arguments
x object
... additional arguments

depth depth of SpatRaster layers

Description
Get or set the depth of the layers of a SpatRaster. Experimental.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
depth(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

depth(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value numeric vector

Value
numeric
78 describe

depth(s) <- 1:3

depth(s)

describe describe

Description
Describe the properties of spatial data in a file as generated with the "GDALinfo" tool.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'character'
describe(x, sds=FALSE, meta=FALSE, parse=FALSE, options="", print=FALSE, open_opt="")

Arguments
x character. The name of a file with spatial data. Or a fully specified subdataset
within a file such as "NETCDF:\"AVHRR.nc\":NDVI"
sds logical. If TRUE the description or metadata of the subdatasets is returned (if
available)
meta logical. Get the file level metadata instead
parse logical. If TRUE, metadata for subdatasets is parsed into components (if meta=TRUE)
options character. A vector of valid options (if meta=FALSE) including "json", "mm",
"stats", "hist", "nogcp", "nomd", "norat", "noct", "nofl", "checksum", "proj4",
"listmdd", "mdd <value>" where <value> specifies a domain or ’all’, "wkt_format
<value>" where value is one of ’WKT1’, ’WKT2’, ’WKT2_2015’, or ’WKT2_2018’,
"sd <subdataset>" where <subdataset> is the name or identifier of a sub-dataset.
See https://gdal.org/programs/gdalinfo.html. Ignored if sds=TRUE
print logical. If TRUE, print the results
open_opt character. Driver specific open options

Value
character (invisibly, if print=FALSE)
diff 79

Examples

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")

describe(f)
describe(f, meta=TRUE)
#g <- describe(f, options=c("json", "nomd", "proj4"))
#head(g)

diff Lagged differences

Description

Compute the difference between consecutive layers in a SpatRaster.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

diff(x, lag=1, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
lag positive integer indicating which lag to use
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

Examples

s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))

d <- diff(s)
80 dimensions

dimensions Dimensions of a SpatRaster or SpatVector and related objects

Description
Get the number of rows (nrow), columns (ncol), cells (ncell), layers (nlyr), sources (nsrc), the
size size (nlyr(x)*ncell(x)), or spatial resolution of a SpatRaster.
length returns the number of sub-datasets in a SpatRasterDataset or SpatVectorCollection.
For a SpatVector length(x) is the same as nrow(x).
You can also set the number of rows or columns or layers. When setting dimensions, all cell values
are dropped.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
ncol(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

nrow(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

nlyr(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

ncell(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

nsrc(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

ncol(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

nrow(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

nlyr(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

res(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

res(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

xres(x)
dimensions 81

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

yres(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

ncol(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

nrow(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

length(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector or related objects
value For ncol and nrow: positive integer. For res: one or two positive numbers

Value
integer

res(r) <- 1/120

# different xres and yres
res(r) <- c(1/120, 1/60)

direction Direction

Description
The direction (azimuth) to or from the nearest cell that is not NA. The direction is expressed in
radians, unless you use argument degrees=TRUE.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
direction(x, from=FALSE, degrees=FALSE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
filename Character. Output filename (optional)
degrees Logical. If FALSE (the default) the unit of direction is radians.
from Logical. Default is FALSE. If TRUE, the direction from (instead of to) the nearest
cell that is not NA is returned
... Additional arguments as for writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

crs(r) <- "+proj=longlat"

b <- direction(r)
plot(b)
disagg 83

disagg Disaggregate raster cells or vector geometries

Description
SpatRaster: Create a SpatRaster with a higher resolution (smaller cells). The values in the new
SpatRaster are the same as in the larger original cells.
SpatVector: Separate multi-objects (points, lines, polygons) into single objects; or further into
segments (for lines or polygons).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
disagg(x, fact, method="near", filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

disagg(x, segments=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
fact positive integer. Aggregation factor expressed as number of cells in each di-
rection (horizontally and vertically). Or two integers (horizontal and vertical
aggregation factor) or three integers (when also aggregating over layers)
method character. Either "near" for nearest or "bilinear" for bilinear interpolation
segments logical. Should (poly-)lines or polygons be disaggregated into their line-segments?
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

distance Geographic distance

Description
If x is a SpatRaster:
If y is missing this method computes the distance, for all cells that are NA in SpatRaster x to the
nearest cell that is not NA (or other values, see arguments "target" and "exclude".
If y is a numeric value, the cells with that value are ignored. That is, distance to or from these cells
is not computed (only if grid=FALSE).
If y is a SpatVector, the distance to that SpatVector is computed for all cells. For lines and polygons
this is done after rasterization; and only the overlapping areas of the vector and raster are considered
(for now).
The distance is always expressed in meter if the coordinate reference system is longitude/latitude,
and in map units otherwise. Map units are typically meter, but inspect crs(x) if in doubt.
Results are more precise, sometimes much more precise, when using longitude/latitude rather than
a planar coordinate reference system, as these distort distance.
If x is a SpatVector:
If y is missing, a distance matrix between all object in x is computed. An distance matrix object of
class "dist" is returned.
If y is a SpatVector the geographic distance between all objects is computed (and a matrix is re-
turned). If both sets have the same number of points, and pairwise=TRUE, the distance between
each pair of objects is computed, and a vector is returned.
The distance is always expressed in meter, except when the coordinate reference system is longi-
tude/latitude AND one of the SpatVector(s) consists of lines or polygons. In that case the distance
is in degrees, and thus not very useful (this will be fixed soon). Otherwise, results are more pre-
cise, sometimes much more precise, when using longitude/latitude rather than a planar coordinate
reference system, as these distort distance.
If x is a matrix:
x should consist of two columns, the first with "x" (or longitude) and the second with "y" coordinates
(or latitude). If y is a also a matrix, the distance between each points in x and all points in y is
computed, unless pairwise=TRUE
If y is missing, the distance between each points in x with all other points in x is computed, unless
sequential=TRUE

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,missing'
distance(x, y, target=NA, exclude=NULL, unit="m", haversine=TRUE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'

distance(x, y, unit="m", rasterize=FALSE, haversine=TRUE, filename="", ...)
distance 85

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,ANY'

distance(x, y, sequential=FALSE, pairs=FALSE, symmetrical=TRUE, unit="m")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

distance(x, y, pairwise=FALSE, unit="m")

## S4 method for signature 'matrix,matrix'

distance(x, y, lonlat, pairwise=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'matrix,missing'

distance(x, y, lonlat, sequential=FALSE, pairs=FALSE, symmetrical=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector, or two-column matrix with coordinates (x,y) or (lon,lat)
y missing, numeric, SpatVector, or two-column matrix
target numeric. The value of the cells for which distances to cells that are not NA should
be computed
exclude numeric. The value of the cells that should not be considered for computing
distances
unit character. Can be either "m" or "km"
haversine logical. Use the haversine formula for lon/lat data use the haversine formula? If
FALSE, the more precise but slower method of Karney (2003) is used
rasterize logical. If TRUE distance is computed from the cells covered by the geometries
after rasterization. This can be much faster in some cases
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
sequential logical. If TRUE, the distance between sequential geometries is returned
pairwise logical. If TRUE and if x and y have the same size (number of rows), the pairwise
distances are returned instead of the distances between all elements
lonlat logical. If TRUE the coordinates are interpreted as angular (longitude/latitude).
If FALSE they are interpreted as planar
pairs logical. If TRUE a "from", "to", "distance" matrix is returned
symmetrical logical. If TRUE and pairs=TRUE, the distance between a pair is only included
once. The distance between geometry 1 and 3 is included, but the (same) dis-
tance between 3 and 1 is not

Value
SpatRaster or numeric or matrix or distance matrix (object of class "dist")

Note
The distance unit is in meters.
A distance matrix can be coerced into a matrix with as.matrix
86 distance

References
Karney, C.F.F., 2013. Algorithms for geodesics, J. Geodesy 87: 43-55. doi:10.1007/s00190-012-
0578-z.

Examples
#lonlat
r <- rast(ncols=36, nrows=18, crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")
r[500] <- 1
d <- distance(r)
plot(d / 100000)

#planar
rr <- rast(ncols=36, nrows=18, crs="+proj=utm +zone=1 +datum=WGS84")
rr[500] <- 1
d <- distance(rr)

rr[3:10, 3:10] <- 99

e <- distance(rr, exclude=99)

p1 <- vect(rbind(c(0,0), c(90,30), c(-90,-30)), crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")

dp <- distance(r, p1)

d <- distance(p1)
d
as.matrix(d)

p2 <- vect(rbind(c(30,-30), c(25,40), c(-9,-3)), crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")

dd <- distance(p1, p2)
dd
pd <- distance(p1, p2, pairwise=TRUE)
pd
pd == diag(dd)

# polygons, lines
crs <- "+proj=utm +zone=1"
p1 <- vect("POLYGON ((0 0, 8 0, 8 9, 0 9, 0 0))", crs=crs)
p2 <- vect("POLYGON ((5 6, 15 6, 15 15, 5 15, 5 6))", crs=crs)
p3 <- vect("POLYGON ((2 12, 3 12, 3 13, 2 13, 2 12))", crs=crs)
p <- rbind(p1, p2, p3)
L1 <- vect("LINESTRING(1 11, 4 6, 10 6)", crs=crs)
L2 <- vect("LINESTRING(8 14, 12 10)", crs=crs)
L3 <- vect("LINESTRING(1 8, 12 14)", crs=crs)
lns <- rbind(L1, L2, L3)
pts <- vect(cbind(c(7,10,10), c(3,5,6)), crs=crs)

distance(p1,p3)
distance(p)
distance(p,pts)
distance(p,lns)
distance(pts,lns)
dots 87

dots Make a dot-density map

Description

Create the dots for a dot-density map and add these to the current map. Dot-density maps are made
to display count data. For example of population counts, where each dot represents n persons. The
dots are returned as a SpatVector. It there is an active graphics device, the dots are added to it with
points.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

dots(x, field, size, ...)

Arguments

x SpatVector
field character of numeric indicating field name. Or numeric vector of the same length
as x
size positive number indicating the number of cases associated with each dot
... graphical arguments passed to points

Value

SpatVector (invisibly)

See Also

plot, cartogram, points

Examples

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
v$population <- 1000*(1:12)^2
plot(v, lwd=3, col="light gray", border="white")
d <- dots(v, "population", 1000, col="red", cex=.75)
lines(v)
d
88 draw

draw Draw a polygon, line, extent, or points

Description

Draw on a plot (map) to get a SpatVector or SpatExtent object for later use. After calling the
function, start clicking on the map. When you are done, press ESC. You can also preset the maximum
number of clicks.
This does to work well on the default RStudio plotting device. To work around that, you can first run
dev.new(noRStudioGD = TRUE) which will create a separate window for plotting, then use plot()
followed by click() and click on the map .

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'character'

draw(x="extent", col="red", lwd=2, id=FALSE, n=1000, xpd=TRUE, ...)

Arguments

x character. The type of object to draw. One of "extent", "polygon", "line", or

"points"
col the color to be used
lwd the width of the lines to be drawn
id logical. If TRUE, a numeric ID is shown on the map
n the maximum number of clicks (does not apply when x=="extent" in which
case n is always 2
xpd logical. If TRUE, you can draw outside the current plotting area
... additional graphics arguments for drawing

Value

SpatVector or SpatExtent

See Also

click
elongate 89

elongate elongate lines

Description

Elongate SpatVector lines

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

elongate(x, length=1, flat=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatVector
length positive number indicating how much the lines should be elongated at each end.
The unit is meter is the crs is lonlat and it is the same as the linear unit of the crs
on other cases (also meter in most cases)
flat logical. If TRUE, the earth’s curvature is ignored for lonlat data, and the distance
unit is degrees, not meter

Value

SpatVector

See Also

buffer, crop and erase

Examples

v <- vect(cbind(c(0,1,2), c(0,0,2)), "lines", crs="lonlat")

e <- elongate(v, 100000)
plot(e)
points(e)
geom(e)
90 erase

erase Erase parts of a SpatVector object

Description

Erase parts of a SpatVector with another SpatVector or with a SpatExtent. You can also erase (parts
of) polygons with the other polygons of the same SpatVector.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

erase(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,missing'

erase(x, sequential=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatExtent'

erase(x, y)

Arguments

x SpatVector
y SpatVector or SpatExtent
sequential logical. Should areas be erased sequentially? See Details

Details

If polygons are erased sequentially, everything that is covered by the first polygon is removed from
all other polygons, then everything that is covered by (what is remaining of) the second polygon is
removed, etc.
If polygons are not erased sequentially, all overlapping areas are erased and only the areas covered
by a single geometry are returned.

Value

SpatVector or SpatExtent

See Also

crop and intersect for the inverse.

The equivalent for SpatRaster is mask
expanse 91

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)

# polygons with polygons or extent

e <- ext(5.6, 6, 49.55, 49.7)

x <- erase(v, e)

p <- vect("POLYGON ((5.8 49.8, 6 49.9, 6.15 49.8, 6 49.6, 5.8 49.8))")
y <- erase(v, p)

# lines with polygons

lns <- as.lines(rast(v, ncol=10, nrow=10))[12:22]
eln <- erase(lns, v)
plot(v)
lines(lns, col='blue', lwd=4, lty=3)
lines(eln, col='red', lwd=2)

## self-erase
h <- convHull(v[-12], "NAME_1")
he <- erase(h)
plot(h, lwd=2, border="red", lty=2)
lines(he, col="gray", lwd=3)

expanse Get the expanse (area) of individual polygons or for all (summed)
raster cells

Description
Compute the area covered by polygons or for all raster cells that are not NA.
This method computes areas for longitude/latitude rasters, as the size of the cells is constant in
degrees, but not in square meters. But it can also be important if the coordinate reference system is
planar, but not equal-area.
For vector data, the best way to compute area is to use the longitude/latitude CRS. This is contrary
to (erroneous) popular belief that suggest that you should use a planar coordinate reference system.
This is done automatically, if transform=TRUE.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
expanse(x, unit="m", transform=TRUE, byValue=FALSE, zones=NULL, wide=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

expanse(x, unit="m", transform=TRUE)
92 expanse

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
unit character. Output unit of area. One of "m", "km", or "ha"
transform logical. If TRUE, planar CRS are transformed to lon/lat for accuracy
byValue logical. If TRUE, the area for each unique cell value is returned
zones NULL or SpatRaster with the same geometry identifying zones in x
wide logical. Should the results be in "wide" rather than "long" format?

Value
SpatRaster: data.frame with at least two columns ("layer" and "area") and possibly also "value"
(if byValue is TRUE, and "zone" (if zones is TRUE). If x has no values, the total area of all cells is
returned. Otherwise, the area of all cells that are not NA is returned.
SpatVector: numeric (one value for each (multi-) polygon geometry.

See Also
cellSize for a the size of individual cells of a raster, that can be summed with global or with
zonal to get the area for different zones.

Examples

### SpatRaster
r <- rast(nrows=18, ncols=36)
v <- 1:ncell(r)
v[200:400] <- NA
values(r) <- v

# summed area in km2

expanse(r, unit="km")

# all cells
expanse(rast(r), unit="km")

r <- rast(ncols=90, nrows=45, ymin=-80, ymax=80)

m <- project(r, "+proj=merc")

expanse(m, unit="km")
expanse(m, unit="km", transform=FALSE)

m2 <- c(m, m)
values(m2) <- cbind(c(1,2,NA,NA), c(11:14))
expanse(m2, unit="km", byValue=TRUE, wide=TRUE)

v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))

r <- rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))
r <- round((r-50)/100)
ext 93

levels(r) <- data.frame(id=1:5, name=c("forest", "water", "urban", "crops", "grass"))

expanse(r, byValue=TRUE)

g <- rasterize(v, r, "NAME_1")

expanse(r, byValue=TRUE, zones=g, wide=TRUE)

### SpatVector
v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))

a <- expanse(v)
a
sum(a)

ext Create, get or set a SpatExtent

Description
Get a SpatExtent of a SpatRaster, SpatVector, or other spatial objects. Or create a SpatExtent from
a vector (length=4; order=xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax)
You can set the extent of a SpatRaster, but you cannot set the extent of a SpatVector (see rescale
for that). See set.ext to set the extent in place.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
ext(x, cells=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

ext(x)

## S4 method for signature 'numeric'

ext(x, ..., xy=FALSE)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatExtent'

ext(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

ext(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster
cells positive integer (cell) numbers to subset the extent to area covered by these cells
value SpatExtent, or numeric vector of length four (xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax)
94 extend

... if x is a single numeric value, additional numeric values for xmax, ymin, and
ymax
xy logical. Set this to TRUE to indicate that coordinates are in (xmin, ymin, xmax,
ymax) order, instead of in the terra standard order of (xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax)

Value

A SpatExtent object.

Examples
r <- rast()
e <- ext(r)
as.vector(e)
as.character(e)

ext(r) <- c(0, 2.5, 0, 1.5)

r
er <- ext(r)

round(er)
# go "in"
floor(er)
# go "out"
ceiling(er)

ext(r) <- e

extend Extend

Description

Enlarge the spatial extent of a SpatRaster. See crop if you (also) want to remove rows or columns.
You can also enlarge a SpatExtent with this method, or with algebraic notation (see examples)

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

extend(x, y, snap="near", fill=NA, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

extend(x, y)
extract 95

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatExtent
y If x is a SpatRaster, y should be a SpatExtent, or an object from which it can be
extracted (such as SpatRaster and SpatVector objects). Alternatively, you can
provide two positive integers indicating the number of rows and columns that
need to be added at each side (or a single positive integer when the number of
rows and columns is equal)
If x is a SpatExtent, y should be a numeric vector of 1, 2, or 4 elements
snap character. One of "near", "in", or "out". Used to align y to the geometry of x
fill numeric. The value used to for the new raster cells
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster or SpatExtent

See Also

crop, merge, ext

Examples
r <- rast(xmin=-150, xmax=-120, ymin=30, ymax=60, ncols=36, nrows=18)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
e <- ext(-180, -100, 40, 70)
re <- extend(r, e)

# extend with a number of rows and columns (at each side)

re2 <- extend(r, c(2,10))

# SpatExtent
e <- ext(r)
e
extend(e, 10)
extend(e, c(10, -10, 0, 20))

extract Extract values from a SpatRaster

96 extract

Description
Extract values from a SpatRaster for a set of locations. The locations can be a SpatVector (points,
lines, polygons), a matrix with (x, y) or (longitude, latitude – in that order!) coordinates, or a vector
with cell numbers.
When argument y is a SpatVector the first column has the ID (record number) of the SpatVector
used (unless you set ID=FALSE).
Alternatively, you can use zonal after using rasterize with a SpatVector (this may be more
efficient in some cases).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'
extract(x, y, fun=NULL, method="simple", cells=FALSE, xy=FALSE,
ID=TRUE, weights=FALSE, exact=FALSE, touches=is.lines(y),
layer=NULL, bind=FALSE, raw=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatExtent'

extract(x, y, cells=FALSE, xy=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,matrix'

extract(x, y, cells=FALSE, method="simple")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

extract(x, y, xy=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

extract(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector of polygons
y SpatVector (points, lines, or polygons). Alternatively, for points, a 2-column
matrix or data.frame (x, y) or (lon, lat). Or a vector with cell numbers
fun function to summarize the extracted data by line or polygon geometry. You
can use fun=table to tabulate raster values for each line or polygon geome-
try. If weights=TRUE or exact=TRUE only mean, sum, min, max and table are
accepted). Ignored if y has point geometry
method character. method for extracting values with points ("simple" or "bilinear").
With "simple" values for the cell a point falls in are returned. With "bilinear"
the returned values are interpolated from the values of the four nearest raster
cells
cells logical. If TRUE the cell numbers are also returned, unless fun is not NULL. Also
see cells
xy logical. If TRUE the coordinates of the cells are also returned, unless fun is not
NULL. Also see xyFromCell
extract 97

ID logical. Should an ID column be added? If so, the first column returned has the
IDs (record numbers) of input SpatVector y
weights logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the approximate fraction of each cell that is
covered is returned as well, for example to compute a weighted mean
exact logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the exact fraction of each cell that is covered
is returned as well, for example to compute a weighted mean
touches logical. If TRUE, values for all cells touched by lines or polygons are extracted,
not just those on the line render path, or whose center point is within the poly-
gon. Not relevant for points; and always considered TRUE when weights=TRUE
or exact=TRUE
layer character or numeric to select the layer to extract from for each geometry. If
layer is a character it can be a name in y or a vector of layer names. If it is
numeric, it must be integer values between 1 and nlyr(x)
bind logical. If TRUE, a SpatVector is returned consisting of the input SpatVector y
and the cbind-ed extracted values
raw logical. If TRUE, a matrix is returned with the "raw" numeric cell values. If
FALSE, a data.frame is returned and the cell values are transformed to factor,
logical, or integer values, where appropriate
... additional arguments to fun if y is a SpatVector. For example na.rm=TRUE. Or
arguments passed to the SpatRaster,SpatVector method if y is a matrix (such
as the method and cells arguments)

Value
data.frame, matrix or SpatVector

f <- system.file("ex/meuse.tif", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
98 extremes

xy <- cbind(179000, 330000)

xy <- rbind(xy-100, xy, xy+1000)
extract(r, xy)

p <- vect(xy)
g <- geom(p)
g

extract(r, p)

x <- r + 10
extract(x, p)

i <- cellFromXY(r, xy)

x[i]
r[i]

y <- c(x,x*2,x*3)
y[i]

## extract with a polygon

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
v <- v[1:2,]
z <- rast(v, resolution=.1, names="test")
values(z) <- 1:ncell(z)

rf <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")

x <- rast(rf)
extract(x, v, mean, na.rm=TRUE)

e <- extract(z, v, ID=TRUE)

e
tapply(e[,2], e[,1], mean, na.rm=TRUE)

x <- c(z, z*2, z/3)

names(x) <- letters[1:3]

e <- extract(x, v, ID=TRUE)

de <- data.frame(e)
aggregate(de[,2:4], de[,1,drop=FALSE], mean)

extremes Get or compute the minimum and maximum cell values

Description
The minimum and maximum value of a SpatRaster are returned or computed (from a file on disk if
necessary) and stored in the object.
factors 99

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
minmax(x, compute=FALSE)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
hasMinMax(x)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
setMinMax(x, force=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
compute logical. If TRUE min and max values are computed if they are not available
force logical. If TRUE min and max values are recomputed even if already available

Value
minmax: numeric matrix of minimum and maximum cell values by layer
hasMinMax: logical indicating whether the min and max values are available.
setMinMax: nothing. Used for the side-effect of computing the minimum and maximum values of
a SpatRaster

Examples

r <- rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))

minmax(r)

factors Categorical rasters

Description
A SpatRaster layer can represent a categorical variable (factor). Like factors, SpatRaster cate-
gories are stored as integers that have an associated label.
The categories can be inspected with levels and cats. They are represented by a data.frame
that must have two or more columns, the first one identifying the (integer) cell values and the other
column(s) providing the category labels.
If there are multiple columns with categories, you can set the "active" category to choose the one
you want to use.
cats returns the entire data.frame, whereas levels only return two columns: the index and the
active category.
To set categories for the first layer of a SpatRaster, you can provide levels<- with a data.frame or
a list with a data.frame. To set categories for multiple layers you can provide levels<- with a list
with one element (that either has a data.frame or is NULL) for each layer. Use categories to set
the categories for a specific layer or specific layers.
100 factors

droplevels removes categories that are not used (declared but not present as values in the raster)
if levels=NULL.
addCats adds additional categories to a layer that already is categorical. It adds new variables, not
new levels of an existing categorical variable.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
levels(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

levels(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

cats(x, layer)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

categories(x, layer=1, value, active=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

droplevels(x, level=NULL, layer=1)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

addCats(x, value, merge=FALSE, layer=1)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
layer the layer name or number (positive integer); or 0 for all layers
value a data.frame (ID, category) that define the categories. Or NULL to remove them
active positive integer, indicating the column in value to be used as the active category
(zero based to skip the first column with the cell values; that is 1 is the second
column in value)
level the categories to remove for the layer specified with layer
merge logical. If TRUE, the categories are combined with merge using the first column
of value as ID. If FALSE the categories are combined with cbind
... additional arguments (none)

Value
list of data.frames (levels, cats) or logical (is.factor)

See Also
activeCat, catalyze, set.cats, as.factor, is.factor
fillHoles 101

Examples
set.seed(0)
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
values(r) <- sample(3, ncell(r), replace=TRUE)
is.factor(r)

cls <- data.frame(id=1:3, cover=c("forest", "water", "urban"))

levels(r) <- cls
is.factor(r)
r

plot(r, col=c("green", "blue", "light gray"))

text(r, digits=3, cex=.75, halo=TRUE)

# raster starts at 3
x <- r + 2
is.factor(x)

# Multiple categories
d <- data.frame(id=3:5, cover=cls[,2], letters=letters[1:3], value=10:12)
levels(x) <- d
x

# get current index

activeCat(x)
# set index
activeCat(x) <- 3
activeCat(x)
activeCat(x) <- "letters"
plot(x, col=c("green", "blue", "light gray"))
text(x, digits=3, cex=.75, halo=TRUE)

r <- as.numeric(x)
r

p <- as.polygons(x)
plot(p, "letters", col=c("green", "blue", "light gray"))

fillHoles Remove holes from polygons

Description
Remove the holes in SpatVector polygons. If inverse=TRUE the holes are returned (as polygons).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
fillHoles(x, inverse=FALSE)
102 fillTime

Arguments
x SpatVector
inverse logical. If TRUE the holes are returned as polygons

Value
SpatVector

Examples
x <- rbind(c(-10,0), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55))
hole <- rbind(c(80,0), c(105,13), c(120,2), c(105,-13))

z <- rbind(cbind(object=1, part=1, x, hole=0),

cbind(object=1, part=1, hole, hole=1))
colnames(z)[3:4] <- c('x', 'y')
p <- vect(z, "polygons", atts=data.frame(id=1))
p

f <- fillHoles(p)
g <- fillHoles(p, inverse=TRUE)

plot(p, lwd=16, border="gray", col="light yellow")

polys(f, border="blue", lwd=3, density=4, col="orange")
polys(g, col="white", lwd=3)

fillTime Fill time gaps in a SpatRaster

Description
Add empty layers in between existing layers such that the time step between each layer is the same.
See approximate to estimate values for these layer (and other missing values)

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
fillTime(x, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename
... list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster
flip 103

flip Flip or reverse a raster

Description
Flip the values of a SpatRaster by inverting the order of the rows (vertical=TRUE) or the columns
(vertical=FALSE).
rev is the same as a horizontal *and* a vertical flip.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
flip(x, direction="vertical", filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

flip(x, direction="vertical")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

rev(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
direction character. Should (partially) match "vertical" to flip by rows, or "horizontal" to
flip by columns
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster
104 focal

values(r) <- as.vector(m)

ry <- flip(r, direction="v")

v <- rev(r)

focal Focal values

Description
Calculate focal ("moving window") values for each cell.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
focal(x, w=3, fun="sum", ..., na.policy="all", fillvalue=NA,
expand=FALSE, silent=TRUE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
w window. The window can be defined as one (for a square) or two numbers (row,
col); or with an odd-sized weights matrix. See Details.
fun function that takes multiple numbers, and returns a numeric vector (one or mul-
tiple numbers). For example mean, modal, min or max
... additional arguments passed to fun such as na.rm
na.policy character. Can be used to determine the cells of x for which focal values should
be computed. Must be one of "all" (compute for all cells), "only" (only for
cells that are NA) or "omit" (skip cells that are NA). Note that the value of this
argument does not affect which cells around each focal cell are included in the
computations (use na.rm=TRUE to ignore cells that are NA for that)
fillvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside of the
raster
expand logical. If TRUE The value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside
of the raster are set to be the same as the value on the border. Only available for
"build-in" funs such as mean, sum, min and max
focal 105

silent logical. If TRUE error messages are printed that may occur when trying fun to
determine the length of the returned value. This can be useful in debugging a
fun that does not work
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Details
focal The window used must have odd dimensions. If you need even sides, you can use a matrix
and add a column or row with weights of zero.
Window values are typically 0 or 1, or a value between 0 and 1 if you are using a rectangular area
and/or the "sum" function. They can also be NA; these are ignored in the computation. That can be
useful to compute, for example, the minimum or maximum value for a non-rectangular area.
The "mean" function is a special case, as zero weights are ignored automatically.
The "sum" function returns NA if all focal cells are NA and na.rm=TRUE. R would normally return a
zero in these cases. See the difference between focal(x, fun=sum, na.rm=TRUE) and focal(x,
fun=\(i) sum(i, na.rm=TRUE))
Example weight matrices
Laplacian filter: filter=matrix(c(0,1,0,1,-4,1,0,1,0), nrow=3)
Sobel filters (for edge detection):
fx=matrix(c(-1,-2,-1,0,0,0,1,2,1), nrow=3)
fy=matrix(c(1,0,-1,2,0,-2,1,0,-1), nrow=3)

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
focalMat, focalValues, focal3D, focalCor, focalReg, focalCpp

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, ext(0, 10, 0, 10))
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)

f <- focal(r, w=3, fun=function(x, ...) quantile(x, c(.25, .5, .75), ...), na.rm=TRUE)

f <- focal(r, w=3, fun="mean")

# the following two statements are equivalent:

a <- focal(r, w=matrix(1/9, nc=3, nr=3))
b <- focal(r, w=3, fun=mean, na.rm=FALSE)

# but this is different

d <- focal(r, w=3, fun=mean, na.rm=TRUE)
106 focal3D

## illustrating the effect of different

## combinations of na.rm and na.policy
v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))
r <- rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))
r[45:50, 45:50] <- NA

# also try "mean" or "min"

f <- "sum"
# na.rm=FALSE
plot(focal(r, 5, f) , fun=lines(v))

# na.rm=TRUE
plot(focal(r, 5, f, na.rm=TRUE), fun=lines(v))

# only change cells that are NA

plot(focal(r, 5, f, na.policy="only", na.rm=TRUE), fun=lines(v))

# do not change cells that are NA

plot(focal(r, 5, f, na.policy="omit", na.rm=TRUE), fun=lines(v))

# does not do anything

# focal(r, 5, f, na.policy="only", na.rm=FALSE)

focal3D Three-dimensional focal values

Description
Calculate focal ("moving window") values for the three-dimensional neighborhood (window) of
focal cells. See focal for two-dimensional focal computation.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
focal3D(x, w=3, fun=mean, ..., na.policy="all", fillvalue=NA, pad=FALSE,
padvalue=fillvalue, expand=FALSE, silent=TRUE,
filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
w window. A rectangular prism (cuboid) defined by three numbers or by a three-
dimensional array. The values are used as weights, and are usually zero, one,
NA, or fractions. The window used must have odd dimensions. If you desire
to use even sides, you can use an array, and pad the values with rows and/or
columns that contain only NAs.
fun function that takes multiple numbers, and returns one or multiple numbers for
each focal area. For example mean, modal, min or max
focalCpp 107

... additional arguments passed to fun such as na.rm

na.policy character. Can be used to determine the cells of x, in the central layer, for which
focal values should be computed. Must be one of "all" (compute for all cells),
"only" (only for cells that are NA) or "omit" (skip cells that are NA). Note that
the value of this argument does not affect which cells around each focal cell are
included in the computations (use na.rm=TRUE to ignore cells that are NA in the
computation of the focal value)
fillvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside of the
raster
pad logical. Add virtual layers before the first and after the last layer
padvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual layers
expand logical. Add virtual layers before the first or after the last layer that are the same
as the first or last layers. If TRUE, arguments pad and padvalue are ignored
silent logical. If TRUE error messages are printed that may occur when trying fun to
determine the length of the returned value. This can be useful in debugging a
function passed to fun that does not work
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

a <- array(c(0,1,0,1,1,1,0,1,0, rep(1,9), 0,1,0,1,1,1,0,1,0), c(3,3,3))

a[a==0] <- NA
z <- focal3D(r, a, na.rm=TRUE)

focalCpp Compute focal values with an iterating C++ function

Description
Calculate focal values with a C++ function that iterates over cells to speed up computations by
avoiding an R loop (with apply).
See focal for an easier to use method.
108 focalCpp

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
focalCpp(x, w=3, fun, ..., fillvalue=NA,
silent=TRUE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
w window. The window can be defined as one (for a square) or two numbers (row,
col); or with an odd-sized weights matrix. See the Details section in focal
fun cppFunction that iterates over cells. For C++ functions that operate on a single
focal window, or for R functions use focal instead. The function must have at
least three arguments. The first argument can have any name, but it must be a
Rcpp::NumericVector, Rcpp::IntegerVector or a std::vector<double>.
This is the container that receives the focal values. The other two arguments
ni and wi must be of type size_t. ni represents the number of cells and nw
represents the size of (number of elements in) the window
... additional arguments to fun
fillvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside of the
raster
silent logical. If TRUE error messages are printed that may occur when trying fun to
determine the length of the returned value. This can be useful in debugging a
fun that does not work
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

raw <- focalCpp(r, w=3, fun=sum_and_multiply, fillvalue=0, m=10)

# same as
f1 <- focal(r, w=3, fun=sum, fillvalue=0) *10
all(values(f1) == values(raw))

# and as
ffun <- function(x, m) { sum(x) * m }
f2 <- focal(r, w=3, fun=ffun, fillvalue=0, m=10)

# You can also use an R function with focalCpp but this

# is not recommended

R_sm_iter <- function(x, m, ni, nw) {

out <- NULL
for (i in 1:ni) {
start <- (i-1) * nw + 1
out[i] <- sum(x[start:(start+nw-1)]) * m
}
out
}

fr <- focalCpp(r, w=3, fun=R_sm_iter, fillvalue=0, m=10)

## End(Not run)

focalMat Focal weights matrix

Description
Make a focal ("moving window") weight matrix for use in the focal function. The sum of the
values adds up to one.
110 focalPairs

Usage

focalMat(x, d, type=c('circle', 'Gauss', 'rectangle'), fillNA=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
d numeric. If type=circle, the radius of the circle (in units of the crs). If
type=rectangle the dimension of the rectangle (one or two numbers). If type=Gauss
the size of sigma, and optionally another number to determine the size of the
matrix returned (default is 3*sigma)
type character indicating the type of filter to be returned
fillNA logical. If TRUE, zeros are set to NA such that they are ignored in the computa-
tions. Only applies to type="circle"

Value

matrix that can be used with focal

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=180, nrows=180, xmin=0)
focalMat(r, 2, "circle")

focalMat(r, c(2,3), "rect")

# Gaussian filter for square cells

gf <- focalMat(r, 1, "Gauss")

focalPairs Focal function across two layers

Description

Calculate values such as a correlation coefficient for focal regions in two neighboring layers. A
function is applied to the first and second layer, then to the second and third layer, etc.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

focalPairs(x, w=3, fun, ..., fillvalue=NA,
filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())
focalPairs 111

Arguments

x SpatRaster with at least two layers

w numeric or matrix to define the focal window. The window an be defined as one
(for a square) or two numbers (row, col); or with an odd-sized weights matrix.
See the Details section in focal. Note that if a matrix with numbers other than
zero or one are used, the values are used as weights. For this to work, fun must
have an argument weights
fun a function with at least two arguments (one for each layer). There is a built-in
function "pearson" (for both the weighted and the unweighted Pearson correla-
tion coefficient. This function has an additional argument na.rm=FALSE
... additional arguments for fun
fillvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside of the
raster
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

layerCor, focalReg, focal, focal3D

Examples

r <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))

set.seed(0)
r[[1]] <- flip(r[[1]], "horizontal")
r[[2]] <- flip(r[[2]], "vertical") + init(rast(r,1), runif)
r[[3]] <- init(rast(r,1), runif)

x <- focalPairs(r, w=5, "pearson", na.rm=TRUE)

plot(x)

# suppress warning "the standard deviation is zero"

suppressWarnings(x <- focalPairs(r, w=5, "pearson", use="complete.obs"))

z <- focalPairs(r, w=9, function(x, y) mean(x) + mean(y))

112 focalReg

focalReg Focal regression

Description
Calculate values for a moving-window by comparing the value in one layers with the values in
one to many other layers. A typical case is the computation of the coefficients for a focal linear
regression model.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
focalReg(x, w=3, fun="ols", ..., fillvalue=NA, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster with at least two layers. The first is the "Y" (dependent) variable and
the remainder are the "X" (independent) variables
w numeric or matrix to define the focal window. The window an be defined as one
(for a square) or two numbers (row, col); or with an odd-sized weights matrix.
See the Details section in focal. Note that if a matrix with numbers other than
zero or one are used, the values are used as weights. For this to work, fun must
have an argument weights
fun a function with at least two arguments (one for each layer). There is a built-in
function "ols" for both the weighted and unweighted Ordinary Least Square re-
gression. This function has an additionals argument na.rm=FALSE and intercept=TRUE
... additional arguments for fun
fillvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside of the
raster
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

focalValues Get focal values

Description
Get a matrix in which each row had the focal values of a cell. These are the values of a cell and a
rectangular window around it.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
focalValues(x, w=3, row=1, nrows=nrow(x), fill=NA)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
w window. The window can be defined as one (for a square) or two odd numbers
(row, col); or with an odd sized matrix
row positive integer. Row number to start from, should be between 1 and nrow(x)
nrows positive integer. How many rows?
fill numeric used as values for imaginary cells outside the raster

Value
matrix

Examples
r <- rast(ncol=4, nrow=4, crs="+proj=utm +zone=1 +datum=WGS84")
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
focalValues(r)

freq Frequency table

Description
Frequency table of the values of a SpatRaster. NAs are not counted unless value=NA.
You can provide a SpatVector or additional SpatRaster to define zones for which to do tabulations.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
freq(x, digits=0, value=NULL, bylayer=TRUE, usenames=FALSE, zones=NULL, wide=FALSE)
114 gaps

Arguments
x SpatRaster
digits integer. Used for rounding the values before tabulation. Ignored if NA
value numeric. An optional single value to only count the number of cells with that
value. This value can be NA
bylayer logical. If TRUE tabulation is done by layer
usenames logical. If TRUE layers are identified by their names instead of their numbers.
Only relevant if bylayer is TRUE
zones SpatRaster or SpatVector to define zones for which the tabulation should be done
wide logical. Should the results by "wide" instead of "long"?

Value
A data.frame with 3 columns (layer, value, count) unless bylayer=FALSE in which case adata.frame
with two columns is returned (value, count).

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
set.seed(2)
values(r) <- sample(5, ncell(r), replace=TRUE)

freq(r)

x <- c(r, r/3)

freq(x, bylayer=FALSE)
freq(x)

freq(x, digits=1)
freq(x, digits=-1)

freq(x, value=5)

gaps Find gaps between polygons

Description
Get the gaps between polygons of a SpatVector

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
gaps(x)
gdal 115

Arguments
x SpatVector

Value
SpatVector

See Also
sharedPaths, topology, and fillHoles to get or remove polygon holes

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
h <- convHull(v[-12], "NAME_1")
g <- gaps(h)

gdal GDAL version, supported file formats, and cache size

Description
Set the GDAL warning level or get a data.frame with the available GDAL drivers (file formats), or,
if warn=NA and drivers=FALSE, you get the version numbers of one or all of the GDAL, PROJ and
GEOS libraries.
GDAL is the software library that terra builds on to read and write spatial data and for some raster
data processing. PROJ is used for transformation of coordinates ("projection") and GEOS is used for
geometric operations with vector data.

Usage
gdal(warn=NA, drivers=FALSE, lib="gdal")
gdalCache(size=NA)
setGDALconfig(option, value="")
getGDALconfig(option)

Arguments
warn If NA and drivers=FALSE, the version of the library specified by lib is returned.
Otherwise, the value should be an integer between 1 and 4 representing the level
of GDAL warnings and errors that are passed to R. 1 = warnings and errors; 2 =
errors only (recoverable errors as a warning); 3 = irrecoverable errors only; 4 =
ignore all errors and warnings. The default setting is 3
drivers logical. If TRUE a data.frame with the raster and vector data formats that are
available.
116 geom

lib character. "gdal", "proj", or "geos", or any other value to get the versions num-
bers of all three
size numeric. The new cache size in MB
option character. GDAL configuration option name, or a "name=value" string (in which
case the value argument is ignored
value character. value for GDAL configuration option. Use "" to reset it to its default
value

Value
character

See Also
describe for file-level metadata "GDALinfo"

Examples
gdal()
gdal(2)
head(gdal(drivers=TRUE))

geom Get the geometry (coordinates) of a SpatVector

Description
Get the geometry of a SpatVector. If wkt=FALSE, this is a five-column matrix or data.frame: the
vector object ID, the IDs for the parts of each object (e.g. five polygons that together are one spatial
object), the x (longitude) and y (latitude) coordinates, and a flag indicating whether the part is a
"hole" (only relevant for polygons).
If wkt=TRUE, the "well-known text" representation is returned as a character vector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
geom(x, wkt=FALSE, hex=FALSE, df=FALSE, list=FALSE, xnm="x", ynm="y")

Arguments
x SpatVector
wkt logical. If TRUE the WKT geometry is returned (unless hex is also TRUE)
hex logical. If TRUE the hexadecimal geometry is returned
df logical. If TRUE a data.frame is returned instead of a matrix (only if wkt=FALSE,
hex=FALSE, and list=FALSE)
list logical. If TRUE a nested list is returned with data.frames of coordinates
xnm character. If list=TRUE the "x" column name for the coordinates data.frame
ynm character. If list=TRUE the "y" column name for the coordinates data.frame
geomtype 117

Value
matrix, vector, data.frame, or list

p <- vect(z, "polygons")

geom(p)

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
g <- geom(v)
head(g)

w <- geom(v, wkt=TRUE)

substr(w, 1, 60)

geomtype Geometry type of a SpatVector

Description
Get the geometry type (points, lines, or polygons) of a SpatVector or the data types of the fields
(attributes, variables) of a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
geomtype(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

datatype(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

is.points(x)
118 global

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

is.lines(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

is.polygons(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

datatype(x, bylyr=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatVector or SpatRaster
bylyr logical. If TRUE a value is returned for each layer. Otherwise, a value is returned
for each data source (such as a file)

Value
character

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)

geomtype(v)
is.polygons(v)
is.lines(v)
is.points(v)

names(v)
datatype(v)

global global statistics

Description
Compute global statistics, that is summarized values of an entire SpatRaster.
If x is very large global will fail, except when fun is one of "mean", "min", "max", "sum", "prod",
"range" (min and max), "rms" (root mean square), "sd" (sample standard deviation), "std" (popula-
tion standard deviation), "isNA" (number of cells that are NA), "notNA" (number of cells that are
not NA).
You can compute a weighted mean or sum by providing a SpatRaster with weights.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
global(x, fun="mean", weights=NULL, ...)
graticule 119

Arguments

x SpatRaster
fun function to be applied to summarize the values by zone. Either as one or more of
these character values: "max", "min", "mean", "sum", "range", "rms" (root mean
square), "sd", "std" (population sd, using n rather than n-1), "isNA", "notNA";
or a proper R function (but these may fail for very large SpatRasters)
... additional arguments passed on to fun
weights NULL or SpatRaster

Value

A data.frame with a row for each layer

See Also

zonal for "zonal" statistics, and app or Summary-methods for "local" statistics, and extract for
summarizing values for polygons. Also see focal for "focal" or "moving window" operations.

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
global(r, "sum")
global(r, "mean", na.rm=TRUE)
x <- c(r, r/10)
global(x, c("sum", "mean", "sd"), na.rm=TRUE)

global(x, function(i) min(i) / max(i))

graticule Create a graticule

Description

Create a graticule. That is, a grid of lon/lat lines that can be used to on a projected map.
The object returned, a SpatGraticule, can be plotted with plot and lines. There is also a crop
method.

Usage

graticule(lon=30, lat=30, crs="")

120 gridDistance

Arguments
lon numeric. Either a single number (the interval between longitudes), or a vector
with longitudes
lat numeric. Either a single number (the interval between latitudes), or a vector
with latitudes
crs character. The coordinate reference system to use

Value
SpatGraticule

graticule(90, c(-90, -60, -23.5, 0, 23.5, 60, 90), crs="+proj=robin")

gridDistance Distance on a grid

Description
The function calculates the distance to cells of a SpatRaster when the path has to go through the
centers of the eight neighboring raster cells.
The default distance (when scale=1, is meters if the coordinate reference system (CRS) of the Spa-
tRaster is longitude/latitude (+proj=longlat) and in the linear units of the CRS (typically meters)
in other cases.
Distances are computed by summing local distances between cells, which are connected with their
neighbors in 8 directions.
The shortest distance to the cells with the target value is computed for all cells that are not NA.
Cells that are NA cannot be traversed and are ignored, unless the target itself is NA, in which case the
distance to the nearest cell that is not NA is computed for all cells that are NA.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
gridDist(x, target=0, scale=1, maxiter=50, filename="", ...)
halo 121

Arguments
x SpatRaster
target numeric. value of the target cells (where to compute distance to)
scale numeric. Scale factor. For longitude/latitude data 1 = "m" and 1000 = "km". For
planar data that is also the case of the distance unit of the crs is "m"
maxiter numeric. The maximum number of iterations. Increase this number if you get
the warning that costDistance did not converge. Only relevant when target is
not NA
filename character. output filename (optional)
... additional arguments as for writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
See distance for "as the crow flies" distance, and costDist for distance across a landscape with
variable friction

Examples
# global lon/lat raster
r <- rast(ncol=10,nrow=10, vals=1)
r[48] <- 0
r[66:68] <- NA
d <- gridDist(r)
plot(d)

# planar
crs(r) <- "+proj=utm +zone=15 +ellps=GRS80 +datum=NAD83 +units=m +no_defs"
d <- gridDist(r)
plot(d)

# distance to cells that are not NA

rr <- classify(r, cbind(1, NA))
dd <- gridDist(rr, NA)

halo Add halo-ed text to a plot

Description
Add text to a plot that has a "halo". That is, a buffer around it to enhance visibility.
122 headtail

Usage
halo(x, y=NULL, labels, col="black", hc="white", hw=0.1, ...)

Arguments
x,y numeric. coordinates where the text labels should be written
labels character. The text to be written
col character. The main color to be used
hc character. The halo color
hw numeric. The halo width
... additional arguments to pass to text

r <- rast(nrows=4, ncols=4)

values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
plot(r, col="blue", legend=FALSE)

text(-100, 20, "hello", cex=2)

halo(50, 20, "hello", cex=2)

halo(0, -20, "world", font=3, hc="light blue", cex=2, hw=.2)

halo(0, 90, "world", font=2, cex=2, hw=.2, xpd=TRUE, pos=2)
halo(0, 90, "world", col="white", font=2, hc="blue", cex=2, hw=.2, xpd=TRUE, pos=4)

headtail head and tail of a SpatRaster or SpatVector

Description
Show the head (first values) or tail (last values) of a SpatRaster or of the attributes of a SpatVector.

Usage
head(x, ...)
tail(x, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
... additional arguments passed on to other methods
hist 123

Value
matrix (SpatRaster) or data.frame (SpatVector)

r1 <- r2 <- rast(nrows=50, ncols=50)

values(r1) <- runif(ncell(r1))
values(r2) <- runif(ncell(r1))
rs <- r1 + r2
rp <- r1 * r2

opar <- par(no.readonly =TRUE)

par(mfrow=c(2,2))
plot(rs, main='sum')
plot(rp, main='product')
hist(rs)
a <- hist(rp)
a
x <- c(rs, rp, sqrt(rs))
hist(x)
par(opar)

ifel ifelse for SpatRasters

Description
Implementation of ifelse for SpatRasters. This method allows for a concise expression of what
can otherwise be achieved with a combination of classify, mask, and cover.
ifel is an R equivalent to the Con method in ArcGIS (arcpy).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
ifel(test, yes, no, filename="", ...)

Arguments
test SpatRaster
yes SpatRaster or numeric
no SpatRaster or numeric
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster
image 125

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=5, ncols=5, xmin=0, xmax=1, ymin=0, ymax=1)
values(r) <- c(-10:0, NA, NA, NA, 0:10)

x <- ifel(r > 1, 1, r)

# same as
a <- classify(r, cbind(1, Inf, 1))
# or
b <- app(r, fun=function(i) {i[i > 1] <- 1; i})
# or
d <- clamp(r, -Inf, 1)
# or (not recommended for large datasets)
e <- r
e[e>1] <- 1

## other examples
f <- ifel(is.na(r), 100, r)

z <- ifel(r > -2 & r < 2, 100, 0)

# nested expressions
y <- ifel(r > 1, 1, ifel(r < -1, -1, r))

k <- ifel(r > 0, r+10, ifel(r < 0, r-10, 3))

image SpatRaster image method

Description
Plot (make a map of) the values of a SpatRaster via image. See plot if you need more fancy options
such as a legend.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
image(x, y=1, maxcell=500000, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y positive integer indicating the layer to be plotted, or a character indicating the
name of the layer
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
... additional arguments as for graphics::image

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
image(r)
image(r, col=rainbow(24))

impose Impose the geometry of a SpatRaster to those in a SpatRasterCollec-

tion.

Description

Warp the members of a SpatRasterCollection to match the geometry of a SpatRaster.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection'

impose(x, y, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRasterCollection
y SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename
... list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

resample
initialize 127

initialize Initialize a SpatRaster with values

Description

Create a SpatRaster with values reflecting a cell property: ’x’, ’y’, ’col’, ’row’, ’cell’ or ’chess’.
Alternatively, a function can be used. In that case, cell values are initialized without reference to
pre-existing values. E.g., initialize with a random number (fun=runif). While there are more direct
ways of achieving this for small objects (see examples) for which a vector with all values can be
created in memory, the init function will also work for SpatRaster objects with many cells.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

init(x, fun, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
fun function to be applied. This must be a either single number, multiple numbers,
a function, or one of a set of known character values. A function must take the
number of cells as a single argument to return a vector of values with a length
equal to the number of cells, such as fun=runif. Allowed character values are
’x’, ’y’, ’row’, ’col’, ’cell’, and ’chess’ to get the x or y coordinate, row, col or
cell number or a chessboard pattern (alternating 0 and 1 values)
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=5, xmin=0, xmax=10, ymin=0, ymax=5)
x <- init(r, fun="cell")
y <- init(r, fun=runif)

# initialize with a single value

z <- init(r, fun=8)
128 inplace

inplace Change values in-place

Description
These "in-place" replacement methods assign new value to an object without making a copy. That
is efficient, but if there is a copy of the object that you made by standard assignment (e.g. with y <-
x), that copy is also changed.
set.names is the in-place replacement version of names<-.
set.ext is the in-place replacement version of ext<-
set.values is the in-place replacement version of [<-.
set.cats is the in-place replacement version of categories
set.crs is the in-place replacement version of crs<-

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
set.names(x, value, index=1:nlyr(x), validate=FALSE)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'
set.names(x, value, index=1:length(x), validate=FALSE)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
set.names(x, value, index=1:ncol(x), validate=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

set.ext(x, value)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
set.ext(x, value)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

set.crs(x, value)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
set.crs(x, value)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

set.values(x, cells, values, layer=0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

set.cats(x, layer=1, value, active=1)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

set.RGB(x, value, type="rgb")

Arguments
x SpatRaster
inplace 129

value character for set.names. For set.cats: a data.frame with columns (value,
category) or vector with category names. For set.RGB 3 or 4 numbers indicating
the RGB(A) layers
index positive integer indicating layer(s) to assign a name to
validate logical. Make names valid and/or unique?
cells cell numbers or missing
values replacement values or missing to load all values into memory
layer positive integer(s) indicating to which layer(s) to you want to assign these cat-
egories or to which you want to set these values. A number < 1 indicates "all
layers"
active positive integer indicating the active category (column number in value, but not
counting the first column
type character. The color space. One of "rgb" "hsv", "hsi" and "hsl"

Value

logical (invisibly)

Examples

s <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, nlyrs=3)

x <- s
names(s)
names(s) <- c("a", "b", "c")
names(s)
names(x)

x <- s
set.names(s, c("e", "f", "g"))
names(s)
names(x)

set.ext(x, c(0,180,0,90))

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)

#values from file to memory

set.values(r)

# change values
set.values(r, 1:1000, 900)
130 inset

inset Make an inset map

Description
Make an inset map or scale the extent of a SpatVector

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
inset(x, e, loc="", scale=0.2, background="white",
perimeter=TRUE, box=NULL, pper, pbox, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

inset(x, e, loc="", scale=0.2, background="white",
perimeter=TRUE, box=NULL, pper, pbox, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

inext(x, e, y=NULL, gap=0)

Arguments
x SpatVector, SpatRaster
e SpatExtent to set the size and location of the inset. Or missing
loc character. One of "bottomright", "bottom", "bottomleft", "left", "topleft", "top",
"topright", "right", "center"
scale numeric. The relative size of the inset, used when x is missing
background color for the background of the inset. Use NA for no background color
perimeter logical. If TRUE a perimeter (border) is drawn around the inset
box SpatExtent or missing, to draw a box on the inset, e.g. to show where the map
is located in a larger area
pper list with graphical parameters (arguments) such as col and lwd for the perimeter
line
pbox list with graphical parameters (arguments) such as col and lwd for the box (line)
... additional arguments passed to plot for the drawing of x
y SpatVector. If not NULL, y is scaled based with the parameters for x. This
is useful, for example, when x represent boundaries, and y points within these
boundaries
gap numeric to add space between the SpatVector and the SpatExtent

Value
scaled and shifted SpatVector or SpatRaster (returned invisibly)
interpIDW 131

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
x <- v[v$NAME_2 == "Diekirch", ]

plot(x, density=10, col="blue")

inset(v)

# more elaborate
plot(x, density=10, col="blue")
inset(v, col = "brown", border="lightgrey", perimeter=TRUE,
pper=list(col="orange", lwd=3, lty=2),
box=ext(x), pbox=list(col="blue", lwd=2))

cols <- rep("light grey", 12)

cols[2] <- "red"
e <- ext(c(6.2, 6.3, 49.9, 50))
b <- ext(x)+0.02
inset(v, e=e, col=cols, box=b)

# with a SpatRaster
ff <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(ff)
r <- crop(r, ext(x) + .01)
plot(r, type="int", mar=c(2,2,2,2), plg=list(x="topright"))
lines(v, lwd=1.5)
lines(x, lwd=2.5)
inset(v, col=cols, loc="topleft", scale=0.15)

# a more complex one

plot(r, plg=list(title="meter\n", shrink=.2, cex=.8))
lines(v, lwd=4, col="white")
lines(v, lwd=1.5)
lines(x, lwd=2.5)
text(x, "NAME_2", cex=1.5, halo=TRUE)
sbar(6, c(6.04, 49.785), type="bar", below="km", label=c(0,3,6), cex=.8)
s <- inset(v, col=cols, box=b, scale=.2, loc="topright", background="light yellow",
pbox=list(lwd=2, lty=5, col="blue"))

# note the returned inset SpatVector

s
lines(s, col="orange")

interpIDW Interpolate points using a moving window

132 interpIDW

Description

Interpolate points within a moving window using inverse distance weighting. The maximum num-
ber of points used can be restricted, optionally by selecting the nearest points.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'

interpIDW(x, y, field, radius, power=2, smooth=0,
maxPoints=Inf, minPoints=1, near=FALSE, fill=NA, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,matrix'

interpIDW(x, y, radius, power=2, smooth=0,
maxPoints=Inf, minPoints=1, near=FALSE, fill=NA, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
y SpatVector or matrix with three columns (x,y,z)
field character. field name in SpatVector y
radius numeric. The radius of the circle (single number). If near=FALSE, it is also
possible to use two or three numbers. Two numbers are interpreted as the radii
of an ellipse (x and y-axis). A third number should indicated the desired, counter
clockwise, rotation of the ellipse (in degrees)
power numeric. Weighting power
smooth numeric. Smoothing parameter
minPoints numeric. The minimum number of points to use. If fewer points are found in a
search ellipse it is considered empty and the fill value is returned
maxPoints numeric. The maximum number of points to consider in a search area. Addi-
tional points are ignored. If fewer points are found, the fill value is returned
near logical. If maxPoints is reached, should the nearest points within the neighbor-
hood be used?
fill numeric. value to use to fill empty cells
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

rasterizeWin, rasterize, interpNear, interpolate

interpNear 133

Examples

r <- rast(ncol=100, nrow=100, crs="local", xmin=0, xmax=50, ymin=0, ymax=50)

set.seed(100)
x <- runif(25, 5, 45)
y <- runif(25, 5, 45)
z <- sample(25)
xyz <- cbind(x,y,z)

x <- interpIDW(r, xyz, radius=5, power=1, smooth=1, maxPoints=5)

interpNear Nearest neighbor interpolation

Description
Nearest neighbor interpolation of points, using a moving window

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'
interpNear(x, y, field, radius, interpolate=FALSE, fill=NA, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,matrix'

interpNear(x, y, radius, interpolate=FALSE, fill=NA, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatVector or matrix with three columns (x,y,z)
field character. field name in SpatVector y
radius numeric. The radius of the circle (single number). If interpolate=FALSE it is
also possible to use two or three numbers. Two numbers are interpreted as the
radii of an ellipse (x and y-axis). A third number should indicated the desired,
counter clockwise, rotation of the ellipse (in degrees)
interpolate logical. Should the nearest neighbor values be linearly interpolated between
points?
fill numeric. value to use to fill empty cells
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster
134 interpolation

See Also
rasterizeWin, rasterize, interpIDW, interpolate

Examples

r <- rast(ncol=100, nrow=100, crs="local", xmin=0, xmax=50, ymin=0, ymax=50)

set.seed(100)
x <- runif(25, 5, 45)
y <- runif(25, 5, 45)
z <- sample(25)
xyz <- cbind(x,y,z)

x <- interpNear(r, xyz, radius=5)

p <- vect(data.frame(xyz), geom=c("x", "y"))

v <- voronoi(p)

plot(x, col=rainbow(25))
lines(v)

# plot(v, col=rainbow(25)); points(p)

interpolation Spatial interpolation

Description
Make a SpatRaster with interpolated values using a fitted model object of classes such as "gstat"
(gstat package) or "Krige" (fields package), or any other model that has location (e.g., "x" and
"y", or "longitude" and "latitude") as predictors (independent variables). If x and y are the only
predictors, it is most efficient if you provide an empty (no associated data in memory or on file)
SpatRaster for which you want predictions. If there are more spatial predictor variables provide
these as a SpatRaster in the first argument of the function. If you do not have x and y locations as
implicit predictors in your model you should use predict instead.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
interpolate(object, model, fun=predict, ..., xyNames=c("x", "y"),
factors=NULL, const=NULL, index = NULL, cores=1, cpkgs=NULL,
na.rm=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
object SpatRaster
model model object
interpolation 135

fun function. Default value is "predict", but can be replaced with e.g. "predict.se"
(depending on the class of model), or a custom function (see examples)
... additional arguments passed to fun
xyNames character. variable names that the model uses for the spatial coordinates. E.g.,
c("longitude", "latitude")
factors list with levels for factor variables. The list elements should be named with
names that correspond to names in object such that they can be matched. This
argument may be omitted for some models from which the levels can be ex-
tracted from the model object
const data.frame. Can be used to add a constant for which there is no SpatRaster for
model predictions. This is particularly useful if the constant is a character-like
factor value
index positive integer or NULL. Allows for selecting of the variable returned if the
model returns multiple variables
cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used
cpkgs character. The package(s) that need to be loaded on the nodes to be able to run
the model.predict function (see examples in predict)
na.rm logical. If TRUE, cells with NA values in the predictors are removed from the
computation. This option prevents errors with models that cannot handle NA
values. In most other cases this will not affect the output. An exception is
when predicting with a model that returns predicted values even if some (or all!)
variables are NA
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
predict, link{interpIDW}, link{interpNear}

Examples

r <- rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))

ra <- aggregate(r, 10)
xy <- data.frame(xyFromCell(ra, 1:ncell(ra)))
v <- values(ra)
i <- !is.na(v)
xy <- xy[i,]
v <- v[i]

## Not run:
136 interpolation

library(fields)
tps <- Tps(xy, v)
p <- rast(r)

# use model to predict values at all locations

p <- interpolate(p, tps)
p <- mask(p, r)
plot(p)

### change "fun" from predict to fields::predictSE to get the TPS standard error
## need to use "rast(p)" to remove the values
se <- interpolate(rast(p), tps, fun=predictSE)
se <- mask(se, r)
plot(se)

### another predictor variable, "e"

e <- (init(r, "x") * init(r, "y")) / 100000000
names(e) <- "e"

z <- as.matrix(extract(e, xy)[,-1])

## add as another independent variable

xyz <- cbind(xy, z)
tps2 <- Tps(xyz, v)
p2 <- interpolate(e, tps2, xyOnly=FALSE)

## as a linear coveriate
tps3 <- Tps(xy, v, Z=z)

## Z is a separate argument in Krig.predict, so we need a new function

## Internally (in interpolate) a matrix is formed of x, y, and elev (Z)

pfun <- function(model, x, ...) {

predict(model, x[,1:2], Z=x[,3], ...)
}
p3 <- interpolate(e, tps3, fun=pfun)

#### gstat examples

library(gstat)
library(sp)
data(meuse)

### inverse distance weighted (IDW)

r <- rast(system.file("ex/meuse.tif", package="terra"))
mg <- gstat(id = "zinc", formula = zinc~1, locations = ~x+y, data=meuse,
nmax=7, set=list(idp = .5))
z <- interpolate(r, mg, debug.level=0, index=1)
z <- mask(z, r)

## with a model built with an `sf` object you need to provide custom function

library(sf)
intersect 137

sfmeuse <- st_as_sf(meuse, coords = c("x", "y"), crs=crs(r))

mgsf <- gstat(id = "zinc", formula = zinc~1, data=sfmeuse, nmax=7, set=list(idp = .5))

interpolate_gstat <- function(model, x, crs, ...) {

v <- st_as_sf(x, coords=c("x", "y"), crs=crs)
p <- predict(model, v, ...)
as.data.frame(p)[,1:2]
}

zsf <- interpolate(r, mgsf, debug.level=0, fun=interpolate_gstat, crs=crs(r), index=1)

zsf <- mask(zsf, r)

### kriging

### ordinary kriging

v <- variogram(log(zinc)~1, ~x+y, data=meuse)
mv <- fit.variogram(v, vgm(1, "Sph", 300, 1))
gOK <- gstat(NULL, "log.zinc", log(zinc)~1, meuse, locations=~x+y, model=mv)
OK <- interpolate(r, gOK, debug.level=0)

## universal kriging
vu <- variogram(log(zinc)~elev, ~x+y, data=meuse)
mu <- fit.variogram(vu, vgm(1, "Sph", 300, 1))
gUK <- gstat(NULL, "log.zinc", log(zinc)~elev, meuse, locations=~x+y, model=mu)
names(r) <- "elev"
UK <- interpolate(r, gUK, debug.level=0)

## co-kriging
gCoK <- gstat(NULL, 'log.zinc', log(zinc)~1, meuse, locations=~x+y)
gCoK <- gstat(gCoK, 'elev', elev~1, meuse, locations=~x+y)
gCoK <- gstat(gCoK, 'cadmium', cadmium~1, meuse, locations=~x+y)
gCoK <- gstat(gCoK, 'copper', copper~1, meuse, locations=~x+y)
coV <- variogram(gCoK)
plot(coV, type='b', main='Co-variogram')
coV.fit <- fit.lmc(coV, gCoK, vgm(model='Sph', range=1000))
coV.fit
plot(coV, coV.fit, main='Fitted Co-variogram')
coK <- interpolate(r, coV.fit, debug.level=0)
plot(coK)

## End(Not run)

intersect Intersection

Description
You can intersect SpatVectors with each other or with a SpatExtent. Intersecting points with points
uses the extent of y to get the intersection. Intersecting of points and lines is not supported because
of numerical inaccuracies with that. You can use buffer, to create polygons from lines and use
these with intersect.
138 intersect

You can also intersect two SpatExtents.

When intersecting two SpatRasters these need to be aligned (have the same origin and spatial reso-
lution). The values of the returned SpatRaster are TRUE where both have input rasters have values,
FALSE where one has values, and NA in all other cells.
See crop for intersection of a SpatRaster with a SpatExtent (or the extent of a SpatRaster or
SpatVector).
See is.related(x, y, "intersects") to find out which geometries of a SpatVector intersect.
You can spatially subset a SpatVector with another one with x[y]

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'
intersect(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatExtent'

intersect(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,SpatVector'

intersect(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,SpatExtent'

intersect(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

intersect(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatVector, SpatExtent, or SpatRaster
y SpatVector, SpatExtent, or SpatRaster if x is a SpatRaster

Value
Same as x

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
e <- ext(5.6, 6, 49.55, 49.7)
x <- intersect(v, e)
is.bool 139

p <- vect(c("POLYGON ((5.8 49.8, 6 49.9, 6.15 49.8, 6 49.6, 5.8 49.8))",
"POLYGON ((6.3 49.9, 6.2 49.7, 6.3 49.6, 6.5 49.8, 6.3 49.9))"), crs=crs(v))
values(p) <- data.frame(pid=1:2, area=expanse(p))

y <- intersect(v, p)

r <- s <- rast(ncol=5, nrow=5, xmin=1, xmax=5, ymin=1, ymax=5)

r[5:20] <- 5:20
s[11:20] <- 11:20
rs <- intersect(r, s)

u <- shift(r, .8)

us <- intersect(u, s)

is.bool Raster value types

Description

The values in a SpatRaster layer are by default numeric, but they can also be logical (Boolean),
integer, or categorical (factor).
For a SpatRaster, as.logical and isTRUE is equivalent to as.bool. isFALSE is equivalent to
!as.bool, and as.integer is the same as as.int.
See levels and cats to create categorical layers by setting labels.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

is.bool(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

as.bool(x, filename, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

is.int(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

as.int(x, filename, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

is.factor(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

as.factor(x)
140 is.lonlat

Arguments
x SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename
... list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
The as.* methods return a new SpatRaster, whereas the is.* methods return a logical value for
each layer in x.

See Also
levels and cats to create categorical layers (and set labels).

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, vals=1:100)
is.bool(r)
z <- as.bool(r)
is.bool(z)

x <- r > 25
is.bool(x)

rr <- r/2
is.int(rr)
is.int(round(rr))

is.lonlat Check for longitude/latitude crs

Description
Test whether a SpatRaster or SpatVector has a longitude/latitude coordinate reference system (CRS),
or perhaps has one. That is, when the CRS is unknown ("") but the x coordinates are within -181
and 181 and the y coordinates are within -90.1 and 90.1. For a SpatRaster you can also test if it has
a longitude/latitude CRS and it is "global" (covers all longitudes).
A warning is given if the CRS is missing or if it is specified as longitude/latitude but the coordinates
do not match that.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
is.lonlat(x, perhaps=FALSE, warn=TRUE, global=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

is.lonlat(x, perhaps=FALSE, warn=TRUE)
lapp 141

## S4 method for signature 'character'

is.lonlat(x, perhaps=FALSE, warn=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
perhaps logical. If TRUE and the CRS is unknown, the method returns TRUE if the coor-
dinates are plausible for longitude/latitude
warn logical. If TRUE, a warning is given if the CRS is unknown but assumed to be
lon/lat and perhaps=TRUE
global logical. If TRUE, the method tests if the raster covers all longitudes (from -180
to 180 degrees) such that the extreme columns are in fact adjacent

Value
logical or NA

Examples
r <- rast()
is.lonlat(r)
is.lonlat(r, global=TRUE)

crs(r) <- ""

is.lonlat(r)
is.lonlat(r, perhaps=TRUE, warn=FALSE)

crs(r) <- "+proj=lcc +lat_1=48 +lat_2=33 +lon_0=-100 +ellps=WGS84"

is.lonlat(r)

lapp Apply a function to layers of a SpatRaster, or sub-datasets of a Spa-

tRasterDataset

Description
Apply a function to a SpatRaster, using layers as arguments.
The number of arguments in function fun must match the number of layers in the SpatRaster (or the
number of sub-datasets in the SpatRasterDataset). For example, if you want to multiply two layers,
you could use this function: fun=function(x,y){return(x*y)} percentage: fun=function(x,y){return(100
* x / y)}. If you combine three layers you could use fun=function(x,y,z){return((x + y) *
z)}
Before you use the function, test it to make sure that it is vectorized. That is, it should work for
vectors longer than one, not only for single numbers. Or if the input SpatRaster(s) have multiple
layers, it should work for a matrix (multiple cells) of input data (or matrices in the case of a Spa-
tRasterDataSet). The function must return the same number of elements as its input vectors, or
142 lapp

multiples of that. Also make sure that the function is NA-proof: it should returns the same number
of values when some or all input values are NA. And the function must return a vector or a matrix,
not a data.frame. To test it, run it with do.call(fun, data) (see examples).
Use app for summarize functions such as sum, that take any number of arguments; and tapp to do
so for groups of layers.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

lapp(x, fun, ..., usenames=FALSE, cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

lapp(x, fun, ..., usenames=FALSE, recycle=FALSE,
filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset
fun a function that takes a vector and can be applied to each cell of x
... additional arguments to be passed to fun
usenames logical. Use the layer names (or dataset names if x is a SpatRasterDataset) to
match the function arguments? If FALSE, argument matching is by position
cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used. You can also supply a cluster object
recycle logical. Recycle layers to match the subdataset with the largest number of layers
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

Note

Use sapp or lapply to apply a function that takes a SpatRaster as argument to each layer of a
SpatRaster (that is rarely necessary).

See Also

app, tapp, math

lapp 143

Examples

s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra")) + 1

ss <- s[[2:1]]

fvi <- function(x, y){ (x - y ) / (x + y) }

# test the function
data <- list(c(1:5,NA), 6:1)
do.call(fvi, data)

x <- lapp(ss, fun=fvi )

# which is the same as supplying the layers to "fun"

# in some cases this will be much faster
y <- fvi(s[[2]], s[[1]])

f2 <- function(x, y, z){ (z - y + 1) / (x + y + 1) }

p1 <- lapp(s, fun=f2 )

p2 <- lapp(s[[1:2]], f2, z=200)

# the usenames argument

fvi2 <- function(red, green){ (red - green ) / (red + green) }

names(s)
x1 <- lapp(s[[1:2]], fvi2, usenames=TRUE)
x2 <- lapp(s[[2:1]], fvi2, usenames=TRUE)
# x1 and x2 are the same, despite the change in the order of the layers
# x4 is also the same, but x3 is not
x3 <- lapp(s[[2:1]], fvi2, usenames=FALSE)
x4 <- lapp(s, fvi2, usenames=TRUE)

# while this would fail because

# there are too many layers in s
# x5 <- lapp(s, fvi2, usenames=FALSE)

pairs(c(x1, x2, x3, x4))

## SpatRasterDataset
x <- sds(s, s[[1]]+50)
fun <- function(x, y) { x/y }

# test "fun"
data <- list(matrix(1:9, ncol=3), matrix(9:1, ncol=3))
do.call(fun, data)

lapp(x, fun, recycle=TRUE)

# the same, more concisely

z <- s / (s[[1]]+50)
144 layerCor

layerCor Correlation and (weighted) covariance

Description
Compute correlation, (weighted) covariance, or similar summary statistics that compare the values
of all pairs of the layers of a SpatRaster.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
layerCor(x, fun, w, asSample=TRUE, na.rm=FALSE, maxcell=Inf, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
fun character. The statistic to compute: either "cov" (covariance), "weighted.cov"
(weighted covariance), or "pearson" (correlation coefficient) or your own func-
tion that takes two vectors as argument to compute a single number
w SpatRaster with the weights to compute the weighted covariance. It should have
a single layer and the same geometry as x
asSample logical. If TRUE, the statistic for a sample (denominator is n-1) is computed,
rather than for the population (denominator is n). Only for the standard functions
na.rm logical. Should missing values be removed?
maxcell postive integer. The number of cells to be regularly sampled. Only used when
fun is a function
... additional arguments for fun (if it is a proper function)

Value
If fun is one of the three standard statistics, you get a list with two items: the correlation or
(weighted) covariance matrix, and the (weighted) means.
If fun is a function, you get a matrix.

References
For the weighted covariance:

• Canty, M.J. and A.A. Nielsen, 2008. Automatic radiometric normalization of multitemporal
satellite imagery with the iteratively re-weighted MAD transformation. Remote Sensing of
Environment 112:1025-1036.
• Nielsen, A.A., 2007. The regularized iteratively reweighted MAD method for change detec-
tion in multi- and hyperspectral data. IEEE Transactions on Image Processing 16(2):463-478.
linearUnits 145

See Also

global, cov.wt, weighted.mean

Examples
b <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
layerCor(b, "pearson")

layerCor(b, "cov")

# weigh by column number

w <- init(b, fun="col")
layerCor(b, "weighted.cov", w=w)

linearUnits Linear units of the coordinate reference system

Description

Get the linear units of the coordinate reference system (crs) of a SpatRaster or SpatVector expressed
in m. The value returned is used internally to transform area and perimeter measures to meters. The
value returned for longitude/latitude crs is zero.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

linearUnits(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

linearUnits(x)

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatVector

Value

numeric (meter)

See Also

crs
146 lines

Examples
x <- rast()
crs(x) <- ""
linearUnits(x)

crs(x) <- "+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84"

linearUnits(x)

crs(x) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1 +units=cm"

linearUnits(x)

crs(x) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1 +units=km"

linearUnits(x)

crs(x) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1 +units=us-ft"

linearUnits(x)

lines Add points, lines, or polygons to a map

Description
Add a vector geometries to a plot (map) with points, lines, or polys.
These are simpler alternatives for plot(x, add=TRUE)
These methods also work for a small(!) SpatRaster. Only cells that are not NA in the first layer are
used.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
points(x, col, cex=0.7, pch=16, alpha=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

lines(x, y=NULL, col, lwd=1, lty=1, arrows=FALSE, alpha=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

polys(x, col, border="black", lwd=1, lty=1, alpha=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

points(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

lines(x, mx=10000, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

polys(x, mx=10000, dissolve=TRUE, ...)
lines 147

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

points(x, col="black", alpha=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

lines(x, col="black", alpha=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

polys(x, col, alpha=1, ...)

Arguments

x SpatVector or SpatExtent
y missing or SpatVector. If both x and y have point geometry and the same number
of rows, lines are drawn between pairs of points
col character. Colors
border character. color(s) of the polygon borders. Use NULL or NA to not draw a border
cex numeric. point size magnifier. See par
pch positive integer, point type. See points. On some (linux) devices, the default
symbol "16" is a not a very smooth circle. You can use "20" instead (it takes a
bit longer to draw) or "1" for an open circle
alpha number between 0 and 1 to set transparency
lwd numeric, line-width. See par
lty positive integer, line type. See par
arrows logical. If TRUE and y is a SpatVector, arrows are drawn intead of lines. See
?arrows for additional arguments
mx postive number. If the number of cells of SpatRaster x is higher, the method will
fail with an error message
dissolve logical. Should boundaries between cells with the same value be removed?
... additional graphical arguments such as lwd, cex and pch

Examples

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)

r <- rast(v)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
plot(r)
lines(v)
points(v)
148 makeTiles

makeTiles Make tiles

Description
Divide a SpatRaster into "tiles". The cells of another SpatRaster (normally with a much lower
resolution) or a SpatVector with polygon geometry can be used to define the tiles. You can also
provide one or two numbers to indicate the number of rows and columns per tile.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
makeTiles(x, y, filename="tile_.tif", extend=FALSE, na.rm=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatRaster, SpatVector, or numeric
filename character. Output filename template. Filenames will be altered by adding the
tile number for each tile
extend logical. If TRUE, the extent of y is expanded to assure that it covers all of x
na.rm logical. If TRUE, tiles with only missing values are ignored
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
character (filenames)

See Also
vrt to create a virtual raster from tiles

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=100, nrows=100)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
x <- rast(ncols=2, nrows=2)
filename <- paste0(tempfile(), "_.tif")
ff <- makeTiles(r, x, filename)
ff

vrt(ff)
makeVRT 149

makeVRT Make a VRT header file

Description
Create a VRT header file for a "flat binary" raster file that needs a header file to be able to read it,
but does not have it.

Usage
makeVRT(filename, nrow, ncol, nlyr=1, extent, xmin, ymin, xres, yres=xres, xycenter=TRUE,
crs="+proj=longlat", lyrnms="", datatype, NAflag=NA, bandorder="BIL", byteorder="LSB",
toptobottom=TRUE, offset=0, scale=1)

Arguments
filename character. raster filename (without the ".vrt" extension)
nrow positive integer, the number of rows
ncol positive integer, the number of columns
nlyr positive integer, the number of layers
extent SpatExtent or missing
xmin numeric. minimum x coordinate (only used if extent is missing)
ymin numeric. minimum y coordinate (only used if extent is missing)
xres positive number. x resolution
yres positive number. y resolution)
xycenter logical. If TRUE, xmin and xmax represent the coordinates of the center of the
extreme cell, in stead of the coordinates of the outside corner. Only used of
extent is missing
crs character. Coordinate reference system description
lyrnms character. Layer names
datatype character. One of "INT2S", "INT4S", "INT1U", "INT2U", "INT4U", "FLT4S",
"FLT8S". If missing, this is guessed from the file size (INT1U for 1 byte per
value, INT2S for 2 bytes and FLT4S for 4 bytes per value). This may be wrong
because, for example, 2 bytes per value may in fact be INT2U (with the U for
unsigned) values
NAflag numeric. The value used as the "NA flag"
bandorder character. One of "BIL", "BIP", or "BSQ". That is Band Interleaved by Line, or
by Pixel, or Band SeQuential
byteorder character. One of "LSB", "MSB". "MSB" is common for files generated on
Linux systems, whereas "LSB" is common for files generated on windows
toptobottom logical. If FALSE, the values are read bottom to top
offset numeric. offset to be applied
scale numeric. scale to be applied
150 map.pal

Value
character (.VRT filename)

See Also
vrt to create a vrt for a collection of raster tiles

map.pal map.pal arrow

Description
Get a color palette for mapping. These palettes were copied from GRASS.

Usage
map.pal(name, n=50, ...)

Arguments
name character (name of a palette, see Details), or missing (to get the available names)
n numeric. The number of colors
... additional arguments that are passed to colorRamp

Details

Name Description
aspect aspect oriented grey colors
bcyr blue through cyan through yellow to red
bgyr blue through green through yellow to red
blues white to blue
byg blue through yellow to green
byr blue through yellow to red
curvature for terrain curvatures
differences differences oriented colors
elevation maps relative ranges of raster values to elevation color ramp
grass GRASS GIS green (perceptually uniform)
greens white to green
grey grey scale
grey.eq histogram-equalized grey scale
grey.log histogram logarithmic transformed grey scale
gyr green through yellow to red
haxby relative colors for bathymetry or topography
inferno perceptually uniform sequential color table inferno
magma perceptually uniform sequential color table magma
mask 151

oranges white to orange

plasma perceptually uniform sequential color table plasma
rainbow rainbow color table
ramp color ramp
random random color table
reds white to red
roygbiv
rstcurv terrain curvature
ryb red through yellow to blue
ryg red through yellow to green
sepia yellowish-brown through to white
viridis perceptually uniform sequential color table viridis
water water depth
wave color wave

Value
none

r <- rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))

plot(r, col=map.pal("elevation"))

map.pal()

mask Mask values in a SpatRaster or SpatVector

Description
If x is a SpatRaster: Create a new SpatRaster that has the same values as SpatRaster x, except for
the cells that are NA (or other maskvalue) in another SpatRaster (the ’mask’), or the cells that are
not covered by a SpatVector. These cells become NA (or another updatevalue).
If x is a SpatVector: Select geometries of x that intersect, or not intersect, with the geometries of
y.
152 mask

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
mask(x, mask, inverse=FALSE, maskvalues=NA,
updatevalue=NA, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'

mask(x, mask, inverse=FALSE, updatevalue=NA,
touches=TRUE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

mask(x, mask, inverse=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
mask SpatRaster or SpatVector
inverse logical. If TRUE, areas on mask that are _not_ the maskvalue are masked
maskvalues numeric. The value(s) in mask that indicate which cells of x should be masked
(change their value to updatevalue (default = NA))
updatevalue numeric. The value that masked cells should become (if they are not NA)
touches logical. If TRUE, all cells touched by lines or polygons will be masked, not just
those on the line render path, or whose center point is within the polygon
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

m <- mask(r, msk)

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)[1,]

mv1 <- mask(r, v)

mv2 <- crop(r, v, mask=TRUE)
match 153

match Value matching for SpatRasters

Description

match returns a SpatRaster with the position of the matched values. The cell values are the index
of the table argument.
%in% returns a 0/1 (FALSE/TRUE) SpatRaster indicating if the cells values were matched or not.

Usage

match(x, table, nomatch = NA_integer_, incomparables = NULL)

x %in% table

Arguments

x SpatRaster
table vector of the values to be matched against
nomatch the value to be returned in the case when no match is found. Note that it is
coerced to integer
incomparables a vector of values that cannot be matched. Any value in x matching a value
in this vector is assigned the nomatch value. For historical reasons, FALSE is
equivalent to NULL

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

app, match

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
values(r) <- 1:100
m <- match(r, c(5:10, 50:55))
n <- r %in% c(5:10, 50:55)
154 Math-methods

Math-methods General mathematical methods

Description
Standard mathematical methods for computations with SpatRaster objects. Computations are local
(applied on a cell by cell basis). If multiple SpatRaster objects are used, these must have the same
extent and resolution. These have been implemented:
abs, sign, sqrt, ceiling, floor, trunc, cummax, cummin, cumprod, cumsum, log, log10, log2,
log1p, acos, acosh, asin, asinh, atan, atanh, exp, expm1, cos, cosh, sin, sinh, tan, tanh,
round, signif
Instead of directly calling these methods, you can also provide their name to the math method. This
is useful if you want to provide an output filename.
The following methods have been implemented for SpatExtent: round, floor, ceiling
round has also been implemented for SpatVector, to round the coordinates of the geometries.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
sqrt(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

log(x, base=exp(1))

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

round(x, digits=0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

math(x, fun, digits=0, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

round(x, digits=4)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

cumsum(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
base a positive or complex number: the base with respect to which logarithms are
computed
digits Number of digits for rounding
fun character. Math function name
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
mem 155

Value
SpatRaster or SpatExtent

See Also
See app to use mathematical functions not implemented by the package, and Arith-methods for
arithmetical operations. Use roll for rolling functions.

Examples
r1 <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
v <- runif(ncell(r1))
v[10:20] <- NA
values(r1) <- v
r2 <- rast(r1)
values(r2) <- 1:ncell(r2) / ncell(r2)
r <- c(r1, r2)

s <- sqrt(r)
# same as
math(r, "sqrt")

round(s, 1)

cumsum(r)

mem Memory available and needed

Description
mem_info prints the amount of RAM that is required and available to process a SpatRaster.
free_RAM returns the amount of RAM that is available

Usage
mem_info(x, n=1)

free_RAM()

Arguments
x SpatRaster
n positive integer. The number of copies of x that are needed

Value
free_RAM returns the amount of available RAM in kilobytes
156 merge

Examples
mem_info(rast())

free_RAM()

merge Merge SpatRasters, or merge a SpatVector with a data.frame

Description
Merge multiple SpatRasters to create a new SpatRaster object with a larger spatial extent. The Spa-
tRasters must have the same origin and spatial resolution. In areas where the SpatRasters overlap,
the values of the SpatRaster that is first in the sequence of arguments (or in the SpatRasterCollec-
tion) will be retained (unless first=FALSE. Cells that are NA are ignored unless na.rm=FALSE
There is a also a method for merging SpatVector with a data.frame; that is, to join the data.frame to
the attribute table of the SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
merge(x, y, ..., first=TRUE, na.rm=TRUE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection,missing'

merge(x, first=TRUE, na.rm=TRUE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,data.frame'

merge(x, y, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatRasterCollection, or SpatVector
y missing if x is a SpatRasterCollection. SpatRaster if x is a SpatRaster. data.frame
if x is a SpatVector
... if x is a SpatRaster: additional objects of the same class as x. If x is a SpatRaster-
Collection: options for writing files as in writeRaster. If x is a SpatVector, the
same arguments as in merge
first logical. If TRUE, in areas where rasters overlap, the first value is used. Otherwise
the last value is used
na.rm logical. If TRUE values that are NA are ignored
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster
mergeTime 157

Value
SpatRaster or SpatVector

See Also
Combining tiles with vrt may be more efficient than using merge. See mosaic for averaging
overlapping regions.
See classify to merge a SpatRaster and a data.frame and union to combine SpatExtent objects.

Examples
x <- rast(xmin=-110, xmax=-80, ymin=40, ymax=70, res=1, vals=1)
y <- rast(xmin=-85, xmax=-55, ymax=60, ymin=30, res=1, vals=2)
z <- rast(xmin=-60, xmax=-30, ymax=50, ymin=20, res=1, vals=3)

m1 <- merge(x, y, z)
m2 <- merge(z, y, x)
m3 <- merge(y, x, z)

# if you have many SpatRasters, it may be convenient

# to make a SpatRasterCollection
rlist <- list(x, y, z)
rsrc <- sprc(rlist)

m <- merge(rsrc)

## SpatVector with data.frame

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
p <- vect(f)
dfr <- data.frame(District=p$NAME_1, Canton=p$NAME_2, Value=round(runif(length(p), 100, 1000)))
dfr <- dfr[1:5, ]
pm <- merge(p, dfr, all.x=TRUE, by.x=c('NAME_1', 'NAME_2'), by.y=c('District', 'Canton'))
pm
values(pm)

mergeTime merge SpatRasters by timelines to create a single timeseries

Description
Combine SpatRasters with partly overlapping time-stamps to create a single time series. If there is
no overlap between the SpatRasters there is no point in using this function (use c instead).
Also note that time gaps are not filled. You can use fillTime to do that.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'
mergeTime(x, fun=mean, filename="", ...)
158 meta

Arguments
x SpatRasterDataset
fun A function that reduces a vector to a single number, such as mean or min
filename character. Output filename
... list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

Examples
r <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
s1 <- c(r, r)
time(s1) <- as.Date("2001-01-01") + 0:5
s1 <- s1/10
time(s1) <- as.Date("2001-01-07") + 0:5
s2 <- s1*10
time(s2) <- as.Date("2001-01-05") + 0:5
x <- sds(s1, s1, s2)

m <- mergeTime(x, mean)

meta meta

Description
Get metadata associated with the sources or layers of a SpatRaster

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
meta(x, layers=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
layers logical. Should the layer level metadata be returned?

Value
list
modal 159

modal modal value

Description

Compute the mode for each cell across the layers of a SpatRaster. The mode, or modal value, is the
most frequent value in a set of values.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

modal(x, ..., ties="first", na.rm=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments

x SpatRaster
... additional argument of the same type as x or numeric
ties character. Indicates how to treat ties. Either "random", "lowest", "highest",
"first", or "NA"
na.rm logical. If TRUE, NA values are ignored. If FALSE, NA is returned if x has any NA
values
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

Examples

r <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))

r <- c(r/2, r, r*2)
m <- modal(r)
160 mosaic

mosaic mosaic SpatRasters

Description
Combine adjacent and (partly) overlapping SpatRasters to form a single new SpatRaster. Values in
overlapping cells are averaged (by default) or can be computed with another function.
The SpatRasters must have the same origin and spatial resolution.
This method is similar to the simpler, but much faster, merge method.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
mosaic(x, y, ..., fun="mean", filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection,missing'

mosaic(x, fun="mean", filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y object of same class as x
... additional SpatRasters
fun character. One of "sum", "mean", "median", "min", "max"
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

x <- rast(xmin=-110, xmax=-60, ymin=40, ymax=70, res=1, vals=1)

y <- rast(xmin=-95, xmax=-45, ymax=60, ymin=30, res=1, vals=2)
z <- rast(xmin=-80, xmax=-30, ymax=50, ymin=20, res=1, vals=3)

m1 <- mosaic(x, y, z)

m2 <- mosaic(z, y, x)
na.omit 161

# with many SpatRasters, make a SpatRasterCollection from a list

rlist <- list(x, y, z)
rsrc <- sprc(rlist)

m <- mosaic(rsrc)

na.omit na.omit for SpatVector

Description

Remove empty geometries and/or records that are NA from a SpatVector.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

na.omit(object, field=NA, geom=FALSE)

Arguments

object SpatVector
field character or NA. If NA, missing values in the attributes are ignored. Other values
are either one or more field (variable) names, or "" to consider all fields
geom logical. If TRUE empty geometries are removed

Value

SpatVector

Examples

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
v$test <- c(1,2,NA)
nrow(v)
x <- na.omit(v, "test")
nrow(x)
162 NAflag

NAflag Set the NA flag

Description

The main purpose of this method is to allow correct reading of a SpatRaster that is based on a file
that has an incorrect NA flag. The file is not changed, but flagged value is set to NA when values are
read from the file ("lazy evaluation"). In contrast, if the values are in memory the change is made
immediately.
To change values, it is generally better to use classify

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

NAflag(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

NAflag(x)<-value

Arguments

x SpatRaster
value numeric. The value to be interpreted as NA; set this before reading the values
from the file. This can be a single value, or multiple values, one for each data
source (file / subdataset)

Value

none or numeric

See Also

classify

Examples

s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))[[1]]

NAflag(s) <- 255
plot(s)
NAflag(s)
names 163

names Names of Spat* objects

Description
Get or set the names of the layers of a SpatRaster or the attributes of a SpatVector. With longnames
you can get or set the "long names" of a SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset.
For a SpatRaster, you can also get/set a variable name or long name (one per data source).
See set.names for in-place setting of names.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
names(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

names(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

varnames(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

varnames(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

longnames(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

longnames(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

names(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

names(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

varnames(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

varnames(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

longnames(x)
164 names

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

longnames(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

names(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector'

names(x)<-value

Arguments

x SpatRaster, SpatRasterDataset, or SpatVector

value character (vector)

Value

character

Note

terra enforces neither unique nor valid names. See make.unique to create unique names and
{make.names} to make syntactically valid names.

Examples

s <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, nlyrs=3)

nlyr(s)
names(s)
names(s) <- c("a", "b", "c")
names(s)

# space is not valid

names(s)[2] <- "hello world"
names(s)

# two invalid names

names(s) <- c("a", " a ", "3")
names(s)

# SpatVector names
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
names(v)
names(v) <- paste0(substr(names(v), 1, 2), "_", 1:ncol(v))
names(v)
nearest 165

nearest nearby geometries

Description
Identify geometries that are near to each other. Either get the index of all geometries within a
certain distance, or the k nearest neighbors, or (with nearest) get the nearest points between two
geometries.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
nearby(x, y=NULL, distance=0, k=1, centroids=TRUE, symmetrical=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

nearest(x, y, pairs=FALSE, centroids=TRUE, lines=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatVector
y SpatVector or NULL
distance numeric. maximum distance
k positive integer. number of neighbors. Ignored if distance > 0
centroids logical. Should the centroids of polygons be used?
symmetrical logical. If TRUE, a near pair is only included once. That is, if geometry 1 is near
to geometry 3, the implied nearness between 3 and 1 is not reported. Ignored if
k neighbors are returned
pairs logical. If TRUE pairwise nearest points are returned (only relevant when using
at least one SpatVector of lines or polygons
lines logical. If TRUE lines between the nearest points instead of (the nearest) points

Value
matrix

normalize.longitude normalize vector data that crosses the dateline

Description

Normalize the longitude of geometries, move them if they are outside of the -180 to 180 degrees
range.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

normalize.longitude(x)

Arguments

x SpatVector

Value

SpatVector

See Also

rotate for SpatRaster

Examples
p <- vect("POLYGON ((120 10, 230 75, 230 -75, 120 10))")
normalize.longitude(p)

north North arrow

Description

Add a (North) arrow to a map

Usage

north(xy=NULL, type=1, label="N", angle=0, d, head=0.1, xpd=TRUE, ...)

north 167

Arguments
xy numeric. x and y coordinate to place the arrow. It can also be one of fol-
lowing character values: "bottomleft", "bottom", "bottomright", topleft", "top",
"topright", "left", "right", or NULL
type integer between 1 and 12, or a character (unicode) representation of a right point-
ing arrow such as "\u27A9"
label character, to be printed near the arrow
angle numeric. The angle of the arrow in degrees
d numeric. Distance covered by the arrow in plot coordinates. Only applies to
type=1
head numeric. The size of the arrow "head", for type=1
xpd logical. If TRUE, the scale bar or arrow can be outside the plot area
... graphical arguments to be passed to other methods

Value
none

text(x, -20, i, xpd=TRUE)

}

## End(Not run)

not.na is not NA

Description

Shortcut method to avoid the two-step !is.na(x)

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

not.na(x, falseNA, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
falseNA logical. Should the result be TRUE, NA instead of TRUE, FALSE?
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

Compare-methods

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, vals=1)
r[10:20] <- NA
x <- not.na(r)
options 169

options Options

Description
Get or set general options.

Usage
terraOptions(..., print=TRUE)

Arguments
... option names and values (see Details). Or missing, to get or show the current
options
print logical. If TRUE the option names and values are printed

Details
The following options are available.
memfrac - value between 0 and 0.9 (larger values give a warning). The fraction of RAM that may
be used by the program.
memmin - if memory required is below this threshold (in GB), the memory is assumed to be avail-
able. Otherwise, terra checks if it is available.
memmax - the maximum amount of RAM (in GB) that terra is allowed to use when processing a
raster dataset. Should be less than what is detected (see mem_info), and higher values are ignored.
Set it to a negative number or NA to not set this option. terraOptions only shows the value of
memmax if it is set.
tempdir - directory where temporary files are written. The default what is returned by tempdir().
datatype - default data type. See writeRaster
todisk - logical. If TRUE write all raster data to disk (temp file if no file name is specified). For
debugging.
progress - non-negative integer. A progress bar is shown if the number of chunks in which the data
is processed is larger than this number. No progress bar is shown if the value is zero
verbose - logical. If TRUE debugging info is printed for some functions

Value
list. Invisibly if print=TRUE

Note
It is possible to set your own default options in "etc/.Rprofile.site" of your R installation like this
options(terra_default=list(tempdir="d:/temp", memfrac=.4))
But that may not be a good practise. It is clearer to set your favorite options at the beginning of each
script.
170 origin

Examples

terraOptions()
terraOptions(memfrac=0.5, tempdir = "c:/temp")
terraOptions(progress=10)
terraOptions()

origin Origin

Description

Get or set the coordinates of the point of origin of a SpatRaster. This is the point closest to (0, 0)
that you could get if you moved towards that point in steps of the x and y resolution.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

origin(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

origin(x)<-value

Arguments

x SpatRaster
value numeric vector of length 1 or 2

Value

A vector of two numbers (x and y coordinates)

Examples

r <- rast(xmin=-0.5, xmax = 9.5, ncols=10)

origin(r)
origin(r) <- c(0,0)
r
pairs 171

pairs Pairs plot (matrix of scatterplots)

Description

Pair plots of layers in a SpatRaster. This is a wrapper around graphics function pairs.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

pairs(x, hist=TRUE, cor=TRUE, use="pairwise.complete.obs", maxcells=100000, ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
hist logical. If TRUE a histogram of the values is shown on the diagonal
cor logical. If TRUE the correlation coefficient is shown in the upper panels
use argument passed to the cor function
maxcells integer. Number of pixels to sample from each layer of a large SpatRaster
... additional arguments (graphical parameters)

See Also

boxplot, hist

Examples

r <-rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))
s <- c(r, 1/r, sqrt(r))
names(s) <- c("elevation", "inverse", "sqrt")
pairs(s)

# to make indvidual histograms:

hist(r)
# or scatter plots:
plot(s[[1]], s[[2]])
172 panel

panel Map panel

Description
Show multiple maps that share a single legend.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
panel(x, main, loc.main="topleft", nc, nr, maxnl=16,
maxcell=500000, box=FALSE, pax=list(), plg=list(), ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
main character. Main plot titles (one for each layer to be plotted). You can use argu-
ments cex.main, font.main, col.main to change the appearance
loc.main numeric of character to set the location of the main title. Either two coordinates,
or a character value such as "topleft")
nc positive integer. Optional. The number of columns to divide the plotting device
in (when plotting multiple layers)
nr positive integer. Optional. The number of rows to divide the plotting device in
(when plotting multiple layers)
maxnl positive integer. Maximum number of layers to plot (for a multi-layer object)
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
box logical. Should a box be drawn around the map?
plg see plot
pax see plot
... arguments passed to plot("SpatRaster", "numeric") and additional graphi-
cal arguments

See Also
plot and see rasterVis::levelplot and tidyterra::autoplot for more sophisticated panel
plots.

Examples

r <- rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))

v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))
x <- c(r, r/2, r*2, r)
names(x) <- paste0("(", LETTERS[1:4], ")")
panel(x)
panel(x, fun=\()lines(v), loc.main="topright")
patches 173

patches Detect patches (clumps) of cells

Description
Detect patches (clumps). Patches are groups of cells that are surrounded by cells that are NA. Set
zeroAsNA to TRUE to also identify patches separated by cells with values of zero.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
patches(x, directions=4, zeroAsNA=FALSE, allowGaps=TRUE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
directions integer indicating which cells are considered adjacent. Should be 8 (Queen’s
case) or 4 (Rook’s case)
zeroAsNA logical. If TRUE treat cells that are zero as if they were NA
allowGaps logical. If TRUE there may be gaps in the patch IDs (e.g. you may have patch
IDs 1, 2, 3 and 5, but not 4). If it is FALSE, these numbers will be recoded from
1 to the number of patches (4 in this example)
filename character. Output filename
... options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster. Cell values are patch numbers

# zero as background instead of NA

r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, xmin=0, vals=0)
r[3, 3] <- 10
r[4, 4] <- 10
r[5, 5:8] <- 12
174 perim

r[6, 6:9] <- 12

# treat zeros as NA

p4 <- patches(r, zeroAsNA=TRUE)

p8 <- patches(r, 8, zeroAsNA=TRUE)

### patches for different values

# remove zeros manually
rr <- classify(r, cbind(0, NA))

# make layers for each value

s <- segregate(rr, keep=TRUE, other=NA)
p <- patches(s)

### patch ID values are not guaranteed to be consecutive

r <- rast(nrows=5, ncols=10, xmin=0)
set.seed(0)
values(r)<- round(runif(ncell(r))*0.7)
rp <- patches(r, directions=8, zeroAsNA=TRUE)
plot(rp, type="classes"); text(rp)

## unless you set allowGaps=FALSE

rp <- patches(r, directions=8, zeroAsNA=TRUE, allowGaps=FALSE)
plot(rp, type="classes"); text(rp)

### use zonal to remove small patches

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
x <- classify(r, cbind(-Inf, 400, NA))
y <- patches(x)
# remove patches smaller than 100 ha
rz <- zonal(cellSize(y, unit="ha"), y, sum, as.raster=TRUE)
s <- ifel(rz < 250, NA, y)

perim Perimeter or length

Description
This method returns the length of lines or the perimeter of polygons.
When the crs is not longitude/latitude, you may get more accurate results by first unprojecting the
SpatVector (you can use project to transform the crs to longitude/latitude)

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
perim(x)
persp 175

Arguments
x SpatVector

Value
numeric (m)

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
perim(v)

persp Perspective plot

Description
Perspective plot of a SpatRaster. This is an implementation of a generic function in the graphics
package.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
persp(x, maxcells=100000, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster. Only the first layer is used
maxcells integer > 0. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot. If maxpixels <
ncell(x), spatSample(method="regular") is used before plotting
... Any argument that can be passed to persp (graphics package)

r <- rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))

persp(r)
176 plet

plet Plot with leaflet

Description
Plot the values of a SpatRaster or SpatVector to make an interactive leaflet map that is displayed in
a browser.
These methods require the development version of leaflet that you can install with remotes::install_github("rstudio/le

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
plet(x, y=1, col, alpha=0.8, main=names(x), tiles=NULL,
wrap=TRUE, maxcell=500000, legend="bottomright",
shared=FALSE, panel=FALSE, collapse=TRUE, map=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

plet(x, y="", col, alpha=1, fill=0, main=y, cex=1, lwd=2, popup=TRUE,
label=FALSE, split=FALSE, tiles=c("Streets", "Esri.WorldImagery", "OpenTopoMap"),
wrap=TRUE, legend="bottomright", collapse=FALSE, map=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorCollection'

plet(x, col, alpha=1, fill=0, cex=1, lwd=2, popup=TRUE,
label=FALSE, tiles=c("Streets", "Esri.WorldImagery", "OpenTopoMap"), wrap=TRUE,
legend="bottomright", collapse=FALSE, map=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'leaflet'

lines(x, y, col, lwd=2, alpha=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'leaflet'

points(x, y, col, cex=1, alpha=1, popup=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector, or leaflet object
y missing, or positive integer, or character (variable or layer name) indicating the
layer(s) to be plotted. If x is a SpatRater, you can select multiple layers
col character. Vector of colors or color generating function
alpha Number between 0 and 1 to set the transparency for lines (0 is transparent, 1 is
opaque)
fill Number between 0 and 1 to set the transparency for polygon areas (0 is trans-
parent, 1 is opaque)
tiles character or NULL. Names of background tile providers
plet 177

wrap logical. if TRUE, tiles wrap around

maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
legend character to indicate the legend position ("bottomleft", "bottomright", "topleft"
or "topright") or NULL to suppress the legend
main character. Title for the legend. The length should be 1 if x is a SpatVector and
length nlyr(x) if x is a SpatVector
shared logical. Should the legend be the same for all rasters (if multiple layers of Spa-
tRaster x are mapped)
map leaflet object
... additional arguments for drawing points, lines, or polygons passed on the the
relevant leaflet function
collapse logical. Should the layers "control" panel be collapsed?
split logical. IF TRUE a check-box is created to toggle each value in codey (If x is a
SpatVector)
cex numeric. point size magnifier. See par
lwd numeric, line-width. See par
popup logical. Should pop-ups be created?
label logical. Should mouse-over labels be added?
panel logical. Should SpatRaster layers be shown as a panel"

See Also
plot

Examples

## Not run:
if (require(leaflet)) {
if (packageVersion("leaflet") > "2.1.1") {

v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))

p <- spatSample(as.polygons(v, ext=T), 30)
values(p) = data.frame(id=11:40, name=letters[1:30])

m <- plet(v, "NAME_1", alpha=.4, tiles="")

m <- points(m, p, col="red", cex=2, popup=T)
lines(m, v)

plet(v, "NAME_1", split=TRUE, alpha=.2) |>

points(p, col="gray", cex=2, popup=TRUE,
clusterOptions = markerClusterOptions() |> lines(v)

s <- svc(v, p)
names(s) <- c("the polys", "set of points")
plet(s, col=c("red", "blue"), lwd=1)
178 plot

r <- rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))

plet(r, main="Hi\nthere") |> lines(v, lwd=1)

plet(r, tiles="Streets") |> lines(v, lwd=2, col="blue")

x <- c(r, 50*classify(r, 5))

names(x) <- c("first", "second")

# each their own legend

plet(x, 1:2, tiles="Streets", collapse=FALSE) |> lines(v, lwd=2, col="blue")

# shared legend
plet(x, 1:2, tiles="Streets", shared=TRUE, collapse=FALSE) |> lines(v, lwd=2, col="blue")

}}
## End(Not run)

plot Make a map

Description
Plot the values of a SpatRaster or SpatVector to make a map.
See points, lines or polys to add a SpatVector to an existing map (or use argument add=TRUE.
There is a separate help file for plotting a SpatGraticule or SpatExtent.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'
plot(x, y=1, col, type=NULL, mar=NULL, legend=TRUE, axes=TRUE, plg=list(), pax=list(),
maxcell=500000, smooth=FALSE, range=NULL, levels=NULL, all_levels=FALSE,
breaks=NULL, breakby="eqint", fun=NULL, colNA=NULL, alpha=NULL, sort=FALSE,
decreasing=FALSE, grid=FALSE, ext=NULL, reset=FALSE, add=FALSE, buffer=FALSE,
background=NULL, box=axes, clip=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,missing'

plot(x, y, main, mar=NULL, nc, nr, maxnl=16, maxcell=500000, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,character'

plot(x, y, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,character'

plot(x, y, col=NULL, type=NULL, mar=NULL, add=FALSE, legend=!add, axes=!add,
main="", buffer=TRUE, background=NULL, grid=FALSE, ext=NULL, sort=TRUE,
decreasing=FALSE, plg=list(), pax=list(), nr, nc, colNA=NA, alpha=NULL,
box=axes, clip=TRUE, ...)
plot 179

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,numeric'

plot(x, y, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,missing'

plot(x, y, values=NULL, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
y missing or positive integer or name indicating the layer(s) to be plotted
col character. Colors. The default is rev(grDevices::terrain.colors(50)). If
x is a SpatRaster, it can also be a data.frame with two columns (value, color)
to get a "classes" type legend or with three columns (from, to, color) to get an
"interval" type legend
type character. Type of map/legend. One of "continuous", "classes", or "interval". If
not specified, the type is chosen based on the data
mar numeric vector of length 4 to set the margins of the plot (to make space for the
legend). The default is (3.1, 3.1, 2.1, 7.1) for a single plot with a legend and
(3.1, 3.1, 2.1, 2.1) otherwise. The default for a RGB raster is 0. Use mar=NA to
not set the margins
legend logical or character. If not FALSE a legend is drawn. The character value can
be used to indicate where the legend is to be drawn. For example "topright" or
"bottomleft". Use plg for more refined placement. Not supported for continuous
legends (the default for raster data)
axes logical. Draw axes?
buffer logical. If TRUE the plotting area is made slightly larger than the extent of x
background background color. Default is no color (white)
box logical. Should a box be drawn around the map?
clip logical. Should the axes be clipped to the extent of x?
plg list with parameters for drawing the legend. See the arguments for legend. Pa-
rameter digits can be used to set the number of digits to print (after the decimal
point for a continuous legend). Parameter size can be used to change the height
and/or width of a continuous legend. The defaults are c(1,1), negative values
for size flip the order of the legend
pax list with parameters for drawing axes. See the arguments for axis. Arguments
side, tick and lab can be used to indicate for which of the four axes to draw
a line (side), tick-mark, and/or the tick-mark labels. The default is c(1:4) for
side and 1:2 for the other two. If side is changed the other two default to that
value. Logical argument retro can be used to use a sexagesimal notation for the
labels (degrees/minutes/hemisphere) instead of the standard decimal notation
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
smooth logical. If TRUE the cell values are smoothed (only if a continuous legend is
used)
range numeric. minimum and maximum values to be used for the continuous legend
180 plot

levels character. labels for the legend when type="classes"

all_levels logical. If TRUE, the legend shows all levels of a categorical raster, even if they
are not present in the data
breaks numeric. Either a single number to indicate the number of breaks desired, or
the actual breaks. When providing this argument, the default legend becomes
"interval"
breakby character or function. Either "eqint" for equal interval breaks, "cases" for equal
quantile breaks. If a function is supplied it should take a single argument (a
vector of values) and create groups
fun function to be called after plotting each SpatRaster layer to add something to
each map (such as text, legend, lines). For example, with SpatVector v, you
could do fun=function() lines(v). The function may have one argument,
representing the layer that is plotted (1 to the number of layers)
colNA character. color for the NA values
alpha Either a single numeric between 0 and 1 to set the transparency for all colors (0
is transparent, 1 is opaque) or a SpatRaster with values between 0 and 1 to set
the transparency by cell. To set the transparency for a given color, set it to the
colors directly
sort logical. If TRUE legends with categorical values are sorted. If x is a SpatVector
you can also supply a vector of the unique values, in the order in which you want
them to appear in the legend
decreasing logical. If TRUE, legends are sorted in decreasing order
grid logical. If TRUE grid lines are drawn. Their properties such as type and color can
be set with the pax argument
nc positive integer. Optional. The number of columns to divide the plotting device
in (when plotting multiple layers)
nr positive integer. Optional. The number of rows to divide the plotting device in
(when plotting multiple layers)
main character. Main plot titles (one for each layer to be plotted). You can use
arguments cex.main, font.main, col.main to change the appearance; and
loc.main to change the location of the main title (either two coordinates, or
a character value such as "topleft")
maxnl positive integer. Maximum number of layers to plot (for a multi-layer object)
add logical. If TRUE add the object to the current plot
ext SpatExtent. Can be use instead of xlim and ylim to set the extent of the plot
reset logical. If TRUE add the margins (see argument mar) are reset to what they were
before calling plot; doing so may affect the display of additional objects that are
added to the map (e.g. with lines
values Either a vector with values to be used for plotting or a two-column data.frame,
where the first column matches a variable in x and the second column has the
values to be plotted
... arguments passed to plot("SpatRaster", "numeric") and additional graphi-
cal arguments
plot 181

See Also
points, lines, polys, image, scatterplot, mulitple layers: panel, scale bar: sbar, north arrow:
north, plot a SpatGraticule or SpatExtent, plotRGB

Examples

## SpatRaster
f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
plot(r)

plot(r, type="interval")

e <- c(6.37, 6.41, 49.9, 50.1)

plot(r, plg=list(ext=e, title="Legend\nTitle", title.cex=0.9),
pax=list(side=1:4, retro=TRUE))
north(cbind(5.8, 50.1))

d <- classify(r, c(100,200,300,400,500,600))

plot(d, type="classes")

plot(d, type="interval", breaks=1:5)

plot(d, type="interval", breaks=c(1,4,5), plg=list(legend=c("1-4", "4-5")))
plot(d, type="classes", xlim=c(5.6, 6.6),
plg=list(legend=c("Mr", "Xx", "As", "Zx", "Bb"), x="bottomleft"))

x <- trunc(r/200)
levels(x) <- data.frame(id=0:2, element=c("earth", "wind", "fire"))
plot(x, plg=list(x="topright"),mar=c(2,2,2,2))

oldpar <- par(no.readonly=TRUE)

# two plots with the same legend

dev.new(width=6, height=4, noRStudioGD = TRUE)
par(mfrow=c(1,2))
plot(r, range=c(50,600), mar=c(1,1,1,4))
plot(r/2, range=c(50,600), mar=c(1,1,1,4))

# as we only need one legend:

par(mfrow=c(1,2))
plot(r, range=c(50,600), mar=c(2, 2, 2, 2), plg=list(size=0.9, cex=.8),
pax=list(side=1:2, cex.axis=.6), box=FALSE)
#text(182500, 335000, "Two maps, one plot", xpd=NA)
plot(r/2, range=c(50,600), mar=c(2, 2, 2, 2), legend=FALSE,
pax=list(side=c(1,4), cex.axis=.6), box=FALSE)

par(oldpar)

# multi-layer with RGB

s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
182 plotRGB

s
plot(s)
# remove RGB
plot(s*1)
# or use layers
plot(s, 1)
plot(s, 1:3)

# fix legend by linking values and colors

x = rast(nrows = 2, ncols = 2, vals=1)

y = rast(nrows = 2, ncols = 2, vals=c(1,2,2,1))
cols = data.frame(id=1:2, col=c("red", "blue"))
plot(c(x,y), col=cols)

r = rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, vals=1:100)

dr = data.frame(from=c(5,33,66,150), to=c(33, 66, 95,200), col=rainbow(4))
plot(r, col=dr)

### SpatVector

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)

plot(v)

plot(v, "NAME_2", col=rainbow(12), border=c("gray", "blue"), lwd=3)

plot(v, 2, pax=list(side=1:2), plg=list(x=6.16, y=50.17, cex=.8), xlim=c(5.7, 6.7))

plot(v, 4, pax=list(side=1:2), plg=list(x=6.2, y=50.2, ncol=2), main="", box=FALSE)

plot(v, 1, plg=list(x=5.8, y=49.37, horiz=TRUE, cex=1.1), main="", mar=c(5,2,0.5,0.5))

plot(v, density=1:12, angle=seq(18, 360, 20), col=rainbow(12))

plot(v, "AREA", type="interval", breaks=3, mar=c(3.1, 3.1, 2.1, 3.1),

plg=list(x="topright"), main="")

plot(v, "AREA", type="interval", breaks=c(0,200,250,350),

mar=c(2,2,2,2), xlim=c(5.7, 6.75),
plg=list(legend=c("<200", "200-250", ">250"), cex=1, bty="o",
x=6.3, y=50.15, box.lwd=2, bg="light yellow", title="My legend"))

plotRGB Red-Green-Blue plot of a multi-layered SpatRaster

plotRGB 183

Description
Make a Red-Green-Blue plot based on three layers in a SpatRaster. The layers (sometimes referred
to as "bands" because they may represent different bandwidths in the electromagnetic spectrum) are
combined such that they represent the red, green and blue channel. This function can be used to
make "true" (or "false") color images from Landsat and other multi-spectral satellite images.
Note that the margins of the plot are set to zero (no axes or titles are visible) but can be set with the
mar argument.
An alternative way to plot RGB images is to first use colorize to create a single layer SpatRaster
with a color-table and then use plot.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
plotRGB(x, r=1, g=2, b=3, a=NULL, scale=NULL, mar=0,
stretch=NULL, smooth=TRUE, colNA="white", alpha=NULL, bgalpha=NULL,
zlim=NULL, zcol=FALSE, axes=FALSE ,...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
r integer between 1 and nlyr(x). Layer to use as the Red channel
g integer between 1 and nlyr(x). Layer to use as the Green channel
b integer between 1 and nlyr(x). Layer to use as the Blue channel
a NULL or integer between 1 and nlyr(x). Layer to use as the alpha (trans-
parency) channel. If not NULL, argument alpha is ignored
scale integer. Maximum (possible) value in the three channels. Defaults to 255 or to
the maximum value of x if that is known and larger than 255
mar numeric vector recycled to length 4 to set the margins of the plot. Use mar=NULL
or mar=NA to not set the margins
stretch character. Option to stretch the values to increase contrast: "lin" (linear) or "hist"
(histogram)
smooth logical. If TRUE, smooth the image when drawing to get the appearance of a
higher spatial resolution
colNA color. The color used for cells that have NA values
alpha transparency. Integer between 0 (transparent) and 255 (opaque)
bgalpha Background transparency. Integer between 0 (transparent) and 255 (opaque)
zlim numeric vector of length 2. Range of values to plot (optional). If this is set, and
stretch="lin" is used, then the values are stretched within the range of zlim.
This allows creating consistent coloring between SpatRasters with different cell-
value ranges, even when stretching the colors for improved contrast
zcol logical. If TRUE the values outside the range of zlim get the color of the extremes
of the range. Otherwise, the values outside the zlim range get the color of NA
values (see argument "colNA")
184 plot_extent

axes logical. If TRUE axes are drawn (and arguments such as main="title" will be
honored)
... graphical parameters as in plot<SpatRaster-method>

plot_extent Plot a SpatExtent

Description
Plot a SpatExtent. Use lines to add a SpatExtent to an existing map.
See plot for plotting other object types.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,missing'
plot(x, y, ...)

Arguments
x SpatExtent
y missing
... additional graphical arguments for lines

See Also
plot

Examples

r <- rast()
plot(ext(r))
plot_graticule 185

plot_graticule Plot a graticule

Description
Plot a SpatGraticule. You can create a SpatGraticule with graticule.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatGraticule,missing'
plot(x, y, background=NULL, col="black", mar=NULL, labels=TRUE,
retro=FALSE, lab.loc=c(1,1), lab.lon=NULL, lab.lat=NULL, lab.cex=0.65,
lab.col="black", off.lat=0.25, off.lon=0.25, box=FALSE, box.col="black",
add=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
y missing or positive integer or name indicating the layer(s) to be plotted
background background color. If NULL, no background is drawn
mar numeric vector of length 4 to set the margins of the plot. To make space for the
legend you may use something like c(3.1, 3.1, 2.1, 7.1). To fill the plotting
canvas, you can use c(0,0,0,0. Use NA to not set the margins
col character. Color for the graticule lines
labels logical. If TRUE, show graticule labels
retro logical. If TRUE, show "retro" instead of decimal labels with the graticule
lab.loc numeric. The first number indicates where the longitude graticule labels should
be drawn (1=bottom, 2=top, NA=not drawn, any other number=top and bottom).
The second number indicates where the latitude graticule labels should be drawn
(1=left, 2=right, NA=not drawn, any other number=left and right)
lab.lon positive integers between 1 and the number of labels, indicating which longitude
graticule labels should be included
lab.lat positive integers between 1 and the number of labels, indicating which latitude
graticule labels should be included
lab.cex double. size of the label font
lab.col character. color of the labels
off.lon numeric. longitude labels offset
off.lat numeric. latitude labels offset
box logical. If TRUE, the outer lines of the graticule are drawn on top with a sold line
lty=1
box.col character. color of the outer lines of the graticule if box=TRUE
add logical. Add the graticule to the current plot?
... additional graphical arguments passed to lines
186 predict

See Also
graticule, plot, points, lines, polys, image, scatterplot, scale bar: sbar, north arrow:
north

Examples
g <- graticule(60, 30, crs="+proj=robin")

plot(g, background="azure", col="red", lty=2, box=TRUE)

plot(g, background="azure", col="light gray", lab.loc=c(1,2),
lab.lon=c(2,4,6), lab.lat=3:5, lty=3, retro=TRUE)

predict Spatial model predictions

Description
Make a SpatRaster object with predictions from a fitted model object (for example, obtained with
glm or randomForest). The first argument is a SpatRaster object with the predictor variables. The
names in the Raster object should exactly match those expected by the model. Any regression like
model for which a predict method has been implemented (or can be implemented) can be used.
The method should work if the model’s predict function returns a vector, matrix or data.frame (or
a list that can be coerced to a data.frame). In other cases it may be necessary to provide a custom
"predict" function that wraps the model’s predict function to return the values in the required form.
See the examples.
This approach of using model predictions is commonly used in remote sensing (for the classification
of satellite images) and in ecology, for species distribution modeling.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
predict(object, model, fun=predict, ..., const=NULL, na.rm=FALSE,
index=NULL, cores=1, cpkgs=NULL, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
object SpatRaster
model fitted model of any class that has a "predict" method (or for which you can
supply a similar method as fun argument. E.g. glm, gam, or randomForest
fun function. The predict function that takes model as first argument. The default
value is predict, but can be replaced with e.g. predict.se (depending on the
type of model), or your own custom function
... additional arguments for fun
const data.frame. Can be used to add a constant value as a predictor variable so that
you do not need to make a SpatRaster layer for it
predict 187

na.rm logical. If TRUE, cells with NA values in the any of the layers of x are removed
from the computation (even if the NA cell is in a layer that is not used as a
variable in the model). This option prevents errors with models that cannot
handle NA values when makeing predictions. In most other cases this will not
affect the output. However, there are some models that return predicted values
even if some (or all) variables are NA
index integer. To select subset of output variables
cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used
cpkgs character. The package(s) that need to be loaded on the nodes to be able to run
the model.predict function (see examples)
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
interpolate for spatial model prediction

Examples
logo <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
names(logo) <- c("red", "green", "blue")
p <- matrix(c(48, 48, 48, 53, 50, 46, 54, 70, 84, 85, 74, 84, 95, 85,
66, 42, 26, 4, 19, 17, 7, 14, 26, 29, 39, 45, 51, 56, 46, 38, 31,
22, 34, 60, 70, 73, 63, 46, 43, 28), ncol=2)

a <- matrix(c(22, 33, 64, 85, 92, 94, 59, 27, 30, 64, 60, 33, 31, 9,
99, 67, 15, 5, 4, 30, 8, 37, 42, 27, 19, 69, 60, 73, 3, 5, 21,
37, 52, 70, 74, 9, 13, 4, 17, 47), ncol=2)

xy <- rbind(cbind(1, p), cbind(0, a))

# extract predictor values for points

e <- extract(logo, xy[,2:3])

# combine with response (excluding the ID column)

v <- data.frame(cbind(pa=xy[,1], e))

#build a model, here with glm

model <- glm(formula=pa~., data=v)

#predict to a raster
r1 <- predict(logo, model)
188 predict

plot(r1)
points(p, bg='blue', pch=21)
points(a, bg='red', pch=21)

# logistic regression
model <- glm(formula=pa~., data=v, family="binomial")
r1log <- predict(logo, model, type="response")

# to get the probability and standard error

r1se <- predict(logo, model, se.fit=TRUE)

# or provide a custom predict function

predfun <- function(model, data) {

v <- predict(model, data, se.fit=TRUE)
cbind(p=as.vector(v$fit), se=as.vector(v$se.fit))
}

r2 <- predict(logo, model, fun=predfun)

# principal components of a SpatRaster

pca <- prcomp(logo)

# or use sampling if cannot process all cell values

sr <- spatSample(logo, 100000, "regular")
pca <- prcomp(sr)

x <- predict(logo, pca)

plot(x)

## parallelization
## Not run:
## simple case with GLM
model <- glm(formula=pa~., data=v)
p <- predict(logo, model, cores=2)

## The above does not work with a model from a contributed

## package, as the package needs to be loaded in each core.
## Below are three approaches to deal with that

library(randomForest)
rfm <- randomForest(formula=pa~., data=v)

## approach 0 (not parallel)

rp0 <- predict(logo, rfm)

## approach 1, use the "cpkgs" argument

rp1 <- predict(logo, rfm, cores=2, cpkgs="randomForest")

## approach 2, write a custom predict function that loads the package

rfun <- function(mod, dat, ...) {
library(randomForest)
project 189

predict(mod, dat, ...)

}
rp2 <- predict(logo, rfm, fun=rfun, cores=2)

## approach 3, write a parallelized custom predict function

rfun <- function(mod, dat, ...) {
ncls <- length(cls)
nr <- nrow(dat)
s <- split(dat, rep(1:ncls, each=ceiling(nr/ncls), length.out=nr))
unlist( parallel::clusterApply(cls, s, function(x, ...) predict(mod, x, ...)) )
}

library(parallel)
cls <- parallel::makeCluster(2)
parallel::clusterExport(cls, c("rfm", "rfun", "randomForest"))
rp3 <- predict(logo, rfm, fun=rfun)
parallel::stopCluster(cls)

plot(c(rp0, rp1, rp2, rp3))

### with two output variables (probabilities for each class)

v$pa <- as.factor(v$pa)
rfm2 <- randomForest(formula=pa~., data=v)
rfp <- predict(logo, rfm2, cores=2, type="prob", cpkgs="randomForest")

## End(Not run)

project Change the coordinate reference system

Description
Change the coordinate reference system ("project") of a SpatVector, SpatRaster or a matrix with
coordinates.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
project(x, y, partial = FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

project(x, y, method, mask=FALSE, align=FALSE,
gdal=TRUE, res=NULL, origin=NULL, threads=FALSE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

project(x, from, to)
190 project

## S4 method for signature 'matrix'

project(x, from, to)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
y if (x is a SpatRaster, the preferred approach is for y to be a SpatRaster as well,
serving as a template for the geometry (extent and resolution) of the output Spa-
tRaster. Alternatively, you can provide a coordinate reference system (CRS)
description.
You can use the following formats to define coordinate reference systems: WKT,
PROJ.4 (e.g., +proj=longlat +datum=WGS84), or an EPSG code (e.g., "epsg:4326").
But note that the PROJ.4 notation has been deprecated, and you can only use it
with the WGS84/NAD83 and NAD27 datums. Other datums are silently ig-
nored.
If x is a SpatVector, you can provide a crs definition as discussed above, or any
other object from which such a crs can be extracted with crs
partial logical. If TRUE, geometries that can only partially be represented in the output
crs are included in the output
method character. Method used for estimating the new cell values of a SpatRaster. One
of:
near: nearest neighbor. This method is fast, and it can be the preferred method
if the cell values represent classes. It is not a good choice for continuous values.
This is used by default if the first layer of x is categorical.
bilinear: bilinear interpolation. This is the default if the first layer of x is
numeric (not categorical).
cubic: cubic interpolation.
cubicspline: cubic spline interpolation.
lanczos: Lanczos windowed sinc resampling.
sum: the weighted sum of all non-NA contributing grid cells.
min, q1, med, q3, max, average, mode, rms: the minimum, first quartile, me-
dian, third quartile, maximum, mean, mode, or root-mean-square value of all
non-NA contributing grid cells.
mask logical. If TRUE, mask out areas outside the input extent (see example with
Robinson projection)
align logical. If TRUE, and y is a SpatRaster, the template is used for the spatial reso-
lution and origin, but the extent is set such that all of the extent of x is included
gdal logical. If TRUE the GDAL-warp algorithm is used. Otherwise a slower internal
algorithm is used that may be more accurate if there is much variation in the cell
sizes of the output raster. Only the near and bilinear algorithms are available
for the internal algorithm
res numeric. Can be used to set the resolution of the output raster if y is a CRS
origin numeric. Can be used to set the origin of the output raster if y is a CRS
threads logical. If TRUE multiple threads are used (faster for large files)
project 191

filename character. Output filename

... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
from character. Coordinate reference system of x
to character. Output coordinate reference system

Value
SpatVector or SpatRaster

Note
The PROJ.4 notation of coordinate reference systems has been partly deprecated in the GDAL/PROJ
library that is used by this function. You can still use this notation, but *only* with the WGS84
datum. Other datums are silently ignored.
Transforming (projecting) raster data is fundamentally different from transforming vector data. Vec-
tor data can be transformed and back-transformed without loss in precision and without changes in
the values. This is not the case with raster data. In each transformation the values for the new cells
are estimated in some fashion. Therefore, if you need to match raster and vector data for analysis,
you should generally transform the vector data.
When using this method with a SpatRaster, the preferable approach is to provide a template
SpatRaster as argument y. The template is then another raster dataset that you want your data
to align with. If you do not have a template to begin with, you can do project(x, crs) and then
manipulate the output to get the template you want. For example, where possible use whole num-
bers for the extent and resolution so that you do not have to worry about small differences in the
future. You can use commands like dim(z) = c(180, 360) or res(z) <- 100000.
The output resolution should generally be similar to the input resolution, but there is no "correct"
resolution in raster transformation. It is not obvious what this resolution is if you are using lon/lat
data that spans a large North-South extent.

quantile Quantiles of spatial data

Description

Compute quantiles for each cell across the layers of a SpatRaster.

You can use use global(x, fun=quantile) to instead compute quantiles across cells for each
layer.
You can also use this method to compute quantiles of the numeric variables of a SpatVector.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

quantile(x, probs=seq(0, 1, 0.25), na.rm=FALSE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

quantile(x, probs=seq(0, 1, 0.25), ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatVector
probs numeric vector of probabilities with values in [0,1]
na.rm logical. If TRUE, NA’s are removed from x before the quantiles are computed
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster with layers representing quantiles

See Also

app
query 193

Examples
r <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
rr <- c(r/2, r, r*2)
qr <- quantile(rr)
qr

## Not run:
# same but slower
qa <- app(rr, quantile)

## End(Not run)

#quantile by layer instead of by cell

qg <- global(r, quantile)

query Query a SpatVectorProxy object

Description
Query a SpatVectorProxy to extract a subset

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorProxy'
query(x, start=1, n=nrow(x), vars=NULL, where=NULL,
extent=NULL, filter=NULL)

Arguments
x SpatVectorProxy
start positive integer. The record to start reading at
n positive integer. The number of records requested
vars character. Variable names. Must be a subset of names(x)
where character. expression like "NAME_1=’California’ AND ID > 3" , to subset
records. Note that start and n are applied after executing the where statement
extent Spat* object. The extent of the object is used as a spatial filter to select the
geometries to read. Ignored if filter is not NULL
filter SpatVector. Used as a spatial filter to select geometries to read (the convex hull
is used for lines or points)

Value
SpatVector
194 rangeFill

x <- query(v, vars=c("ID_2", "NAME_2"), start=5, n=2)

query(v, vars=c("ID_2", "NAME_1", "NAME_2"), where="NAME_1='Grevenmacher' AND ID_2 > 6")

## with an extent
e <- ext(5.9, 6.3, 49.9, 50)
x <- query(v, extent=e)

## with polygons
p <- as.polygons(e)
x <- query(v, filter=p)
x

rangeFill Fill layers with a range

Description
Fill layers with cell-varying ranges defined by a start and end SpatRaster. The range must start at 1
and end at a user-defined maximum.
For example, for a cell with start=3, end=5 and with limit=8, the output for that cell would be
0,0,1,1,1,0,0,0

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
rangeFill(x, limit, circular=FALSE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster with at two layers. The Cell values of the first layer indicate the start
of the range (1 based); the cell values are indicate the end of the range
limit numeric > 1. The range size
circular logical. If TRUE the values are considered circular, such as the days of the year.
In that case, if first > last the layers used are c(first:limit, 1:last). Otherwise, the
range would be considered invalid and NA would be used
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
rapp 195

Value
SpatRaster

x <- y <- rast(ncol=2, nrow=2)

values(x) <- c(NA, 1:3)
values(y) <- c(NA, 4:6)

r <- rangeFill(c(x, y), 8)

rapp Range-apply

Description
Apply a function to a range of the layers of a SpatRaster that varies by cell. The range is specified
for each cell with one or two SpatRasters (arguments first and last). For either first or last
you can use a single number instead.
You cannot use single numbers for both first and last because in that case you could use app or
Summary-methods, perhaps subsetting the layers of a SpatRaster.
See selectRange to create a new SpatRaster by extracting one or more values starting at a cell-
varying layer.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
rapp(x, first, last, fun, ..., allyrs=FALSE, fill=NA,
clamp=FALSE, circular=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
first SpatRaster or positive integer between 1 and nlyr(x), indicating the first layer in
the range of layers to be considered
last SpatRaster or positive integer between 1 and nlyr(x), indicating the last layer in
the range to be considered
fun function to be applied
... additional arguments passed to fun
allyrs logical. If TRUE, values for all layers are passed to fun but the values outside of
the range are set to fill
196 rast

fill numeric. The fill value for the values outside of the range, for when allyrs=TRUE
clamp logical. If FALSE and the specified range is outside 1:nlyr(x) all cells are
considered NA. Otherwise, the invalid part of the range is ignored
circular logical. If TRUE the values are considered circular, such as the days of the year.
In that case, if first > last the layers used are c(first:nlyr(x), 1:last). Otherwise,
the range would be considered invalid and NA would be returned
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
selectRange, app, Summary-methods, lapp, tapp

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=9, nrows=9)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
s <- c(r, r, r, r, r, r)
s <- s * 1:6
s[1:2] <- NA
start <- end <- rast(r)
start[] <- 1:3
end[] <- 4:6
a <- rapp(s, start, end, fun="mean")
b <- rapp(s, start, 2, fun="mean")

# cumsum from start to nlyr(x). return all layers

r <- rapp(s, start, nlyr(s), cumsum, allyrs=TRUE, fill=0)
# return only the final value
rr <- rapp(s, start, nlyr(s), function(i) max(cumsum(i)))

rast Create a SpatRaster

Description
Methods to create a SpatRaster. These objects can be created from scratch, from a filename, or from
another object.
A SpatRaster represents a spatially referenced surface divided into three dimensional cells (rows,
columns, and layers).
When a SpatRaster is created from a file, it does not load the cell (pixel) values into memory (RAM).
It only reads the parameters that describe the geometry of the SpatRaster, such as the number of
rows and columns and the coordinate reference system. The actual values will be read when needed.
rast 197

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'character'
rast(x, subds=0, lyrs=NULL, drivers=NULL, opts=NULL, win=NULL, snap="near", vsi=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'missing'

rast(x, nrows=180, ncols=360, nlyrs=1, xmin=-180, xmax=180,
ymin=-90, ymax=90, crs, extent, resolution, vals, names, time, units)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

rast(x, nlyrs=nlyr(x), names, vals, keeptime=TRUE, keepunits=FALSE, props=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'matrix'

rast(x, type="", crs="", digits=6, extent=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'data.frame'

rast(x, type="xyz", crs="", digits=6, extent=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'array'

rast(x, crs="", extent=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'list'

rast(x, warn=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

rast(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

rast(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

rast(x, ...)

Arguments
x filename (character), missing, SpatRaster, SpatRasterDataset, SpatExtent, SpatVec-
tor, matrix, array, list of SpatRaster objects. For other types it will be attempted
to create a SpatRaster via (‘as(x, "SpatRaster")‘
subds positive integer or character to select a sub-dataset. If zero or "", all sub-datasets
are returned (if possible)
lyrs positive integer or character to select a subset of layers (a.k.a. "bands")
drivers character. GDAL drivers to consider
opts character. GDAL dataset open options
win SpatExtent to set a window (area of interest)
snap character. One of "near", "in", or "out", to indicate how the extent of window
should be "snapped" to x
vsi logical. If TRUE, "\vsicurl\" is prepended to filenames that start with "http"
198 rast

nrows positive integer. Number of rows

ncols positive integer. Number of columns
nlyrs positive integer. Number of layers
xmin minimum x coordinate (left border)
xmax maximum x coordinate (right border)
ymin minimum y coordinate (bottom border)
ymax maximum y coordinate (top border)
crs character. Description of the Coordinate Reference System (map projection) in
PROJ.4, WKT or authority:code notation. See crs. If this argument is missing,
and the x coordinates are within -360 .. 360 and the y coordinates are within -90
.. 90, longitude/latitude is assigned
keeptime logical. If FALSE the time stamps are discarded
keepunits logical. If FALSE the layer units are discarded
props logical. If TRUE the properties (categories and color-table) are kept
extent object of class SpatExtent. If present, the arguments xmin, xmax, ymin and
ymax are ignored
resolution numeric vector of length 1 or 2 to set the spatial resolution (see res). If this
argument is used, arguments ncols and nrows are ignored
vals numeric. An optional vector with cell values (if fewer values are provided, these
are recycled to reach the number of cells)
names character. An optional vector with layer names (must match the number of lay-
ers)
time time or date stamps for each layer
units character. units for each layer
type character. If the value is not "xyz", the raster has the same number of rows
and columns as the matrix. If the value is "xyz", the matrix must have at least
two columns, the first with x (or longitude) and the second with y (or latitude)
coordinates that represent the centers of raster cells. The additional columns are
the values associated with the raster cells.
digits integer to set the precision for detecting whether points are on a regular grid (a
low number of digits is a low precision). Only used when type="xyz"
warn logical. If TRUE, a warnings about empty rasters may be emitted
... additional arguments passed on to the rast,missing-method

Details
Files are read with the GDAL library. GDAL guesses the file format from the name, and/or
tries reading it with different "drivers" (see gdal) until it succeeds. In very few cases this may
cause a file to be opened with the wrong driver, and some information may be lost. For exam-
ple, when a netCDF file is opened with the HDF5 driver. You can avoid that by using argument
rast("filename.ncdf", drivers="NETCDF")
These classes hold a C++ pointer to the data "reference class" and that creates some limitations.
They cannot be recovered from a saved R session either or directly passed to nodes on a computer
cluster. Generally, you should use writeRaster to save SpatRaster objects to disk (and pass a
filename or cell values ot cluster nodes). Also see wrap.
rasterize 199

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
sds to create a SpatRasterDataset (4 dimensions) and vect for vector (points, lines, polygons) data

Examples
# Create a SpatRaster from scratch
x <- rast(nrows=108, ncols=21, xmin=0, xmax=10)

# Create a SpatRaster from a file

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)

s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))

# Create a skeleton with no associated cell values

rast(s)

# from a matrix
m <- matrix(1:25, nrow=5, ncol=5)
rm <- rast(m)

# from a "xyz" data.frame

d <- as.data.frame(rm, xy=TRUE)
head(d)
rast(d, type="xyz")

rasterize Rasterize vector data

Description
Transfer values associated with the geometries of vector data to a raster

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatRaster'
rasterize(x, y, field="", fun, ..., background=NA, touches=FALSE, update=FALSE,
cover=FALSE, by=NULL, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'matrix,SpatRaster'

rasterize(x, y, values=1, fun, ..., background=NA, update=FALSE,
by=NULL, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())
200 rasterize

Arguments
x SpatVector or a two-column matrix (point coordinates)
y SpatRaster
field character or numeric. If field is a character, it should a variable name in x. If
field is numeric it typically is a single number or a vector of length nrow(x).
The values are recycled to nrow(x)
values typically a numeric vector of length 1 or nrow(x). If the length is below nrow(x)
the values will be recycled to nrow(x). Only used when x is a matrix. Can also
be a matrix or data.frame
fun summarizing function for when there are multiple geometries in one cell. For
lines and polygons you can only use "min", "max" and "sum" For points you
can use any function that returns a single number; for example mean, length (to
get a count), min or max
... additional arguments passed to fun
background numeric. Value to put in the cells that are not covered by any of the features of
x. Default is NA
touches logical. If TRUE, all cells touched by lines or polygons are affected, not just
those on the line render path, or whose center point is within the polygon. If
touches=TRUE, add cannot be TRUE
update logical. If TRUE, the values of the input SpatRaster are updated
cover logical. If TRUE and the geometry of x is polygons, the fraction of a cell that
is covered by the polygons is returned. This is estimated by determining pres-
ence/absence of the polygon in at least 100 sub-cells (more of there are very few
cells)
by character or numeric value(s) to split x into multiple groups. There will be a
separate layer for each group returned. If x is a SpatVector, by can be a column
number or name. If x is a matrix, by should be a vector that identifies group
membership for each row in x
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
rasterizeGeom, rasterizeWin, mask

Examples
r <- rast(xmin=0, ncols=18, nrows=18)

# generate points
rasterizeGeom 201

set.seed(1)
p <- spatSample(r, 1000, xy=TRUE, replace=TRUE)

# rasterize points as a matrix

x <- rasterize(p, r, fun=sum)
y <- rasterize(p, r, value=1:nrow(p), fun=max)

# rasterize points as a SpatVector

pv <- vect(p)
xv <- rasterize(pv, r, fun=sum)

# Polygons
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
r <- rast(v, ncols=75, nrows=100)
z <- rasterize(v, r, "NAME_2")
plot(z)
lines(v)

rasterizeGeom Rasterize geometric properties of vector data

Description
Rasterization of geometric properties of vector data. You can get the count of the number of ge-
ometries in each cell; the area covered by polygons; the length of the lines; or the number of lines
that cross the boundary of each cell. See rasterize for standard rasterization (of attribute values
associated with geometries).
The area of polygons is intended for summing the area of polygons that are relatively small relative
to the raster cells, and for when there may be multiple polygons per cell. See rasterize(fun="sum")
for counting large polygons and rasterize(cover=TRUE) to get the fraction that is covered by
larger polygons.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatRaster'
rasterizeGeom(x, y, fun="count", unit="m", filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatVector
y SpatRaster
fun character. "count", "area", "length", or "crosses"
unit character. "m" or "km"
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
202 rasterizeWin

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

rasterize

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
r <- rast(v, res=.1)

# length of lines
lns <- as.lines(v)
x <- rasterizeGeom(lns, r, fun="length", "km")

# count of points
set.seed(44)
pts <- spatSample(v, 100)
y <- rasterizeGeom(pts, r)

# area of polygons
pols <- buffer(pts, 1000)
z <- rasterizeGeom(pols, r, fun="area")

rasterizeWin Rasterize points with a moving window

Description

Rasterize points using a circle (or ellipse) as moving window. For each raster cell, the points (x, y)
that fall within the window centered on that cell are considered. A function is used to compute a
summary value (e.g. "mean") for the values (z) associated with these points.
This can result in much smoother results compared to the standard rasterize method.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatRaster'

rasterizeWin(x, y, field, win="circle", pars, fun, ..., cvars=FALSE,
minPoints=1, fill=NA, filename="", wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'data.frame,SpatRaster'

rasterizeWin(x, y, win="circle", pars, fun, ..., cvars=FALSE,
minPoints=1, fill=NA, filename="", wopt=list())
rasterizeWin 203

Arguments
x SpatVector or matrix with at least three columns ((x, y) coordinates and a vari-
able to be rasterized)
y SpatRaster
field character. field name in SpatVector x with the values to rasterize
win character to choose the window type. Can be "circle", "ellipse", "rectangle", or
"buffer"
pars parameters to define the window. If win="circle" or win="buffer", a single
number to set the radius of the circle or the width of the buffer. If win="ellipse",
either two numbers (the x and y-axis) or three numbers the axes and a rotation
(in degrees). If win="rectangle", either two (width, height) or three (width,
height) and the rotation in degrees. The unit of the radius/width/height/axis pa-
rameters is that of the coordinate reference system. That is, if you have a lon/lat
crs, there is no conversion of degrees to meters or vice-versa
fun function to summarize the values for each cell. If cvars=FALSE, functions
must take a numeric vector and return (in all cases) one or more numbers.
If cvars=TRUE, and multiple variables are used, the function must take a sin-
gle argument (a data.frame with the names variables). For win="circle" and
win="ellipse" there are two additional character values that can be used: "distto"
(average distance to the points from the center of the cell) and "distbetween"
(average distance between the points inside the window)
... additional named arguments passed to fun
minPoints numeric. The minimum number of points to use. If fewer points are found in a
search ellipse it is considered empty and the fill value is returned
fill numeric. value to use to fill cells with empty search areas
cvars logical. When using multiple fields, should fun operate on all of them at once?
If not, fun is applied to each variable separately
filename character. Output filename
wopt list with additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
rasterize, rasterizeGeom, interpNear, interpIDW

Examples

r <- rast(ncol=100, nrow=100, crs="local", xmin=0, xmax=50, ymin=0, ymax=50)

set.seed(100)
x <- runif(50, 5, 45)
y <- runif(50, 5, 45)
z <- sample(50)
204 rcl

xyz <- data.frame(x,y,z)

r <- rasterizeWin(xyz, r, fun="count", pars=5)

rfuns <- c("count", "min", "max", "mean")

x <- lapply(rfuns, function(f) rasterizeWin(xyz, r, fun=f, pars=5))
names(x) <- rfuns
x <- rast(x)
#plot(x)

rcl Combine row, column, and layer numbers

Description
Get a matrix with the combination of row, column, and layer numbers

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
rcl(x, row=NULL, col=NULL, lyr=NULL)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
row positive integer that are row number(s), a list thereof, or NULL for all rows
col as above for columns
lyr as above for layers

Details
If a list is used for at least one of row, col or lyr, these are evaluated in parallel. That is combi-
nations are made for each list element, not across list elements. If, in this case another argument is
not a list it has to have either length 1 (used for all cases) or have the same length as the (longest)
list, in which case the value is coerced into a list with as.list
If multiple arguments are a list but they have different lengths, theyare recycled to the longest list.

Value
matrix

See Also
rowColCombine, cellFromRowCol
readwrite 205

Examples
x <- rast(ncol=5, nrow=5, nlyr=2)
values(x) <- 1:size(x)

rcl(x, 1, 2:3, 1:2)

i <- rcl(x, 1, list(1:2, 3:4), 1:2)

# get the values for these cells

x[i]

readwrite Read from, or write to, file

Description
Methods to read from or write chunks of values to or from a file. These are low level methods for
programmers. Use writeRaster if you want to save an entire SpatRaster to file in one step. It is
much easier to use.
To write chunks, begin by opening a file with writeStart, then write values to it in chunks using
the list that is returned by writeStart. When writing is done, close the file with writeStop.
blocks only returns chunk size information. This can be useful when reading, but not writing,
raster data.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
readStart(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

readStop(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

readValues(x, row=1, nrows=nrow(x), col=1, ncols=ncol(x), mat=FALSE, dataframe=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,character'

writeStart(x, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, n=4, sources="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

writeStop(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,vector'

writeValues(x, v, start, nrows)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

blocks(x, n=4)
206 readwrite

fileBlocksize(x)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename
v vector with cell values to be written
start integer. Row number (counting starts at 1) from where to start writing v
row positive integer. Row number to start from, should be between 1 and nrow(x)
nrows positive integer. How many rows?
col positive integer. Column number to start from, should be between 1 and ncol(x)
ncols positive integer. How many columns? Default is the number of columns left
after the start column
mat logical. If TRUE, values are returned as a numeric matrix instead of as a vector,
except when dataframe=TRUE. If any of the layers of x is a factor, the level
index is returned, not the label. Use dataframe=TRUE to get the labels
dataframe logical. If TRUE, values are returned as a data.frame instead of as a vector (also
if matrix is TRUE)
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
n positive integer indicating how many copies the data may be in memory at any
point in time. This is used to determine how many blocks (large) datasets need
to be read
sources character. Filenames that may not be overwritten because they are used as input
to the function. Can be obtained with sources(x)
... For writeStart: additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
For readValues: additional arguments for data.frame (and thus only relevant
when dataframe=TRUE)

Value

readValues returns a vector, matrix, or data.frame

writeStart returns a list that can be used for processing the file in chunks.
The other methods invisibly return a logical value indicating whether they were successful or not.
Their purpose is the side-effect of opening or closing files.
rectify 207

rectify Rectify a SpatRaster

Description
Rectify a rotated SpatRaster into a non-rotated object

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
rectify(x, method="bilinear", aoi=NULL, snap=TRUE,
filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster to be rectified
method character. Method used to for resampling. See resample
aoi SpatExtent or SpatRaster to crop x to a smaller area of interest; Using a Spa-
tRaster allowing to set the exact output extent and output resolution
snap logical. If TRUE, the origin and resolution of the output are the same as would
the case when aoi = NULL. Only relevant if aoi is a SpatExtent
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

regress Cell level regression

Description
Run a regression model for each cell of a SpatRaster. The independent variable can either be defined
by a vector, or another SpatRaster to make it spatially variable.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

regress(y, x, formula=y~x, na.rm=FALSE, cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

regress(y, x, formula=y~x, na.rm=FALSE, cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)
208 relate

Arguments
y SpatRaster
x SpatRaster or numeric (of the same length as nlyr(x)
formula regression formula in the general form of y ~ x. You can add additional terms
such as I(x^2)
na.rm logical. Remove NA values?
cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used. You can also supply a cluster object.
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

Examples
s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
x <- regress(s, 1:nlyr(s))

relate Spatial relationships between geometries

Description
relate returns a logical matrix indicating the presence or absence of a specific spatial relationships
between the geometries in x and y.
is.related returns a logical vector indicating the presence or absence of a specific spatial rela-
tionships between x and any of the geometries in y

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'
relate(x, y, relation, pairs=FALSE, na.rm=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,missing'

relate(x, y, relation, pairs=FALSE, na.rm=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

is.related(x, y, relation)
relate 209

Arguments
x SpatVector or SpatExtent
y missing or as for x
relation character. One of "intersects", "touches", "crosses", "overlaps", "within", "con-
tains", "covers", "coveredby", "disjoint". Or a "DE-9IM" string such as "FF*FF****".
See wikipedia or geotools doc
pairs logical. If TRUE a two-column matrix is returned with the indices of the cases
where the requested relation is TRUE. This is especially helpful when dealing
with many geometries as the returned value is generally much smaller
na.rm logical. If TRUE and sparse=TRUE, geometries in x for which there is no related
geometry in y are omitted

Value
matrix (relate) or vector (is.related)

See Also
adjacent, nearby, intersect, crop

Examples

# polygons
p1 <- vect("POLYGON ((0 0, 8 0, 8 9, 0 9, 0 0))")
p2 <- vect("POLYGON ((5 6, 15 6, 15 15, 5 15, 5 6))")
p3 <- vect("POLYGON ((8 2, 9 2, 9 3, 8 3, 8 2))")
p4 <- vect("POLYGON ((2 6, 3 6, 3 8, 2 8, 2 6))")
p5 <- vect("POLYGON ((2 12, 3 12, 3 13, 2 13, 2 12))")
p6 <- vect("POLYGON ((10 4, 12 4, 12 7, 11 7, 11 6, 10 6, 10 4))")

p <- rbind(p1, p2, p3, p4, p5, p6)

plot(p, col=rainbow(6, alpha=.5))
lines(p, lwd=2)
text(p)

## relate SpatVectors
relate(p1, p2, "intersects")
relate(p1, p3, "touches")
relate(p1, p5, "disjoint")
relate(rbind(p1, p2), p4, "disjoint")

## relate geometries within SpatVectors

# which are completely separated?
relate(p, relation="disjoint")

# which touch (not overlap or within)?

relate(p, relation="touches")
# which overlap (not merely touch, and not within)?
relate(p, relation="overlaps")
210 rep

# which are within (not merely overlap)?

relate(p, relation="within")

# do they touch or overlap or are within?

relate(p, relation="intersects")

all(relate(p, relation="intersects") ==
(relate(p, relation="overlaps") |
relate(p, relation="touches") |
relate(p, relation="within")))

#for polygons, "coveredby" is "within"

relate(p, relation="coveredby")

# polygons, lines, and points

pp <- rbind(p1, p2)

L1 <- vect("LINESTRING(1 11, 4 6, 10 6)")
L2 <- vect("LINESTRING(8 14, 12 10)")
L3 <- vect("LINESTRING(1 8, 12 14)")
lns <- rbind(L1, L2, L3)
pts <- vect(cbind(c(7,10,10), c(3,5,6)))

plot(pp, col=rainbow(2, alpha=.5))

text(pp, paste0("POL", 1:2), halo=TRUE)
lines(pp, lwd=2)
lines(lns, col=rainbow(3), lwd=4)
text(lns, paste0("L", 1:3), halo=TRUE)
points(pts, cex=1.5)
text(pts, paste0("PT", 1:3), halo=TRUE, pos=4)

relate(lns, relation="crosses")
relate(lns, pp, relation="crosses")
relate(lns, pp, relation="touches")
relate(lns, pp, relation="intersects")

relate(lns, pp, relation="within")

# polygons can contain lines or points, not the other way around
relate(lns, pp, relation="contains")
relate(pp, lns, relation="contains")
# points and lines can be covered by polygons
relate(lns, pp, relation="coveredby")

relate(pts, pp, "within")

relate(pts, pp, "touches")
relate(pts, lns, "touches")

rep Replicate layers

replace_dollar 211

Description

Replicate layers in a SpatRaster

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

rep(x, ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
... arguments as in rep

Value

SpatRaster

Examples
s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
x <- rep(s, 2)
nlyr(x)
names(x)
x

replace_dollar Replace with $<-

Description

Replace a layer of a SpatRaster, or an attribute variable of a SpatVector

Usage

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

x$name <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector'

x$name<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatExtent'

x$name <- value
212 replace_layers

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent
name character. If x is a SpatRaster: layer name. If x is a SpatVector: variable name.
If x is a SpatExtent: "xmin", "xmax". "ymin" or "ymax"
value if x is a SpatRaster, a SpatRaster for which this TRUE: nlyr(value) == length(i);
if x is a SpatVector, a vector of new values; if x is a SpatExtent a single number

Value
Same as x

replace_layers Replace layers or variables

Description
Replace the layers of SpatRaster with (layers from) another SpatRaster or replace variables of a
SpatVector. You can also create new layers/variables with these methods.

Usage
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'
x[[i]] <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,character'

x[[i]] <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector,numeric'

x[[i]] <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector,character'

x[[i]] <- value
replace_values 213

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
i if x is a SpatRaster: layer number(s) of name(s). If x is a SpatVector: variable
number(s) or name(s) (column of the attributes)
value if x is a SpatRaster: SpatRaster for which this TRUE: nlyr(value) == length(i).
if x is a SpatVector: vector or data.frame

Value
SpatRaster

replace_values Replace values of a SpatRaster

Description
Replace values of a SpatRaster. These are convenience functions for smaller objects only. For larger
rasters see link{classify} or subst

Usage
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,ANY,ANY,ANY'
x[i, j, k] <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector,ANY,ANY'

x[i, j] <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatExtent,numeric,missing'

x[i, j] <- value
214 resample

Arguments
x SpatRaster
i row numbers. numeric, logical, or missing for all rows. Can also be a SpatRaster
or SpatVector
j column numbers. numeric, logical or missing for all columns
k layer number. numeric, logical or missing for all layers
value numeric, matrix, or data.frame

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
classify, subst, set.values, values, [[<-

Examples
## SpatRaster
r <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, xmin=0, xmax=5, ymin=0, ymax=5)
r[] <- 1:25
r[1,] <- 5
r[,2] <- 10
r[r>10] <- NA

## SpatVector
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
v[2,2] <- "hello"
v[1,] <- v[10,]
v[,3] <- v[,1]
v[2, "NAME_2"] <- "terra"
head(v, 3)

resample Transfer values of a SpatRaster to another one with a different geom-

etry

Description
resample transfers values between SpatRaster objects that do not align (have a different origin and/or
resolution). See project to change the coordinate reference system (crs).
If the origin and extent of the input and output are the same, you should consider using these other
functions instead: aggregate, disagg, extend or crop.
resample 215

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
resample(x, y, method, threads=FALSE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster to be resampled
y SpatRaster with the geometry that x should be resampled to
method character. Method used for estimating the new cell values. One of:
near: nearest neighbor. This method is fast, and it can be the preferred method
if the cell values represent classes. It is not a good choice for continuous values.
This is used by default if the first layer of x is categorical.
bilinear: bilinear interpolation. This is the default if the first layer of x is
numeric (not categorical).
cubic: cubic interpolation.
cubicspline: cubic spline interpolation.
lanczos: Lanczos windowed sinc resampling.
sum: the weighted sum of all non-NA contributing grid cells.
min, q1, med, q3, max, average, mode, rms: the minimum, first quartile, me-
dian, third quartile, maximum, mean, mode, or root-mean-square value of all
non-NA contributing grid cells.
threads logical. If TRUE multiple threads are used (faster for large files)
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
aggregate, disagg, crop, project,

Examples

r <- rast(nrows=3, ncols=3, xmin=0, xmax=10, ymin=0, ymax=10)

values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
s <- rast(nrows=25, ncols=30, xmin=1, xmax=11, ymin=-1, ymax=11)
x <- resample(r, s, method="bilinear")

opar <- par(no.readonly =TRUE)

par(mfrow=c(1,2))
plot(r)
plot(x)
par(opar)
216 rescale

rescale rescale

Description

Rescale a SpatVector or SpatRaster. This may be useful to make small inset maps or for georefer-
encing.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

rescale(x, fx=0.5, fy=fx, x0, y0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

rescale(x, fx=0.5, fy=fx, x0, y0)

Arguments

x SpatVector or SpatRaster
fx numeric > 0. The horizontal scaling factor
fy numeric > 0. The vertical scaling factor
x0 numeric. x-coordinate of the center of rescaling. If missing, the center of the
extent of x is used
y0 numeric. y-coordinate of the center of rescaling. If missing, the center of the
extent of x is used

Value

Same as x

See Also

t, shift, flip, rotate, inset

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
w <- rescale(v, 0.2)
plot(v)
lines(w, col="red")
RGB 217

RGB Layers representing colors

Description
With RGB you can get or set the layers to be used as Red, Green and Blue when plotting a SpatRaster.
Currently, a benefit of this is that plot will send the object to plotRGB. You can also associated the
layers with another color space (HSV, HSI or HSL)
With colorize you can convert a three-layer RGB SpatRaster into other color spaces. You can also
convert it into a single-layer SpatRaster with a color-table.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
RGB(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

RGB(x, type="rgb")<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

colorize(x, to="hsv", alpha=FALSE, stretch=NULL,
grays=FALSE, NAzero=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

has.RGB(x, strict=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value vector of three (or four) positive integers indicating the layers that are red, green
and blue (and optionally a fourth transparency layer). Or NULL to remove the
RGB settings
type character. The color space. One of "rgb" "hsv", "hsi" and "hsl"
to character. The color space to transform the values to. If x has RGB set, you can
transform these to "hsv", "hsi" and "hsl", or use "col" to create a single layer
with a color table. You can also use "rgb" to back transform to RGB
alpha logical. Should an alpha (transparency) channel be included? Only used if x has
a color-table and to="rgb"
stretch character. Option to stretch the values to increase contrast: "lin" (linear) or "hist"
(histogram). Only used for transforming RGB to col
grays logical. If TRUE, a gray-scale color-table is created. Only used for transforming
RGB to col
NAzero logical. If TRUE, NAs are treated as zeros such that a color can be returned if at
least one of the three channels has a value. Only used for transforming RGB to
("col")
218 roll

strict logical. If TRUE, the function returns FALSE if a color space such as "hsv", "hsi"
and "hsl" is used
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Examples
r <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
plot(r)
has.RGB(r)
RGB(r) <- NULL
has.RGB(r)
plot(r)
RGB(r) <- c(3,1,2)
plot(r)

RGB(r) <- 1:3

x <- colorize(r, "col")
y <- colorize(r, "hsv")
z <- colorize(y, "rgb")

roll Rolling (moving) functions

Description

Compute "rolling" or "moving" functions, such as the "rolling average"

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

roll(x, n, fun=mean, type="around", circular=FALSE, na.rm=FALSE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'numeric'

roll(x, n, fun=mean, type="around", circular=FALSE, na.rm=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatRaster or numeric
n integer > 1. The size of the "window", that is, the number of sequential cells to
use in fun
fun a function like mean, min, max, sum
rotate 219

type character. One of "around", "to", or "from". The choice indicates which values
should be used in the computation. The focal cell is always used. If type is
"around", (n-1)/2 before and after the focal cell are also included. If type =
"from", n-1 cells are after the focal cell are included. If type = "to", n-1 cells
before the focal cell are included. For example, when using n=3 for element 5
of a vector; "around" used elements 4,5,6; "to" used elements 3,4,5, and "from"
uses elements 5,6,7
circular logical. If TRUE, the data are considered to have a circular nature (e.g. days or
months of the year), such that there are no missing values before first or after
the last value.
na.rm logical. If TRUE, NA values should be ignored (by fun)
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

Same as x

See Also

cumsum

Examples
## numeric
roll(1:12, 3, mean)
roll(1:12, 3, mean, "to")
roll(1:12, 3, mean, circular=TRUE)

## SpatVector
r <- rast(ncol=2, nrow=2, nlyr=10, vals=1)
r[1,2] = 2
r[2,2] = 4

roll(r, n=3, "sum", "from", na.rm=FALSE) |> values()

roll(r, n=3, "sum", "from", na.rm=TRUE) |> values()
roll(r, n=3, "sum", "from", circular=TRUE) |> values()

roll(r, n=3, "sum", "to", na.rm=TRUE) |> values()

roll(r, n=3, "sum", "around", circular=TRUE) |> values()

rotate Rotate data along longitude

220 rotate

Description
Rotate a SpatRaster that has longitude coordinates from 0 to 360, to standard coordinates between
-180 and 180 degrees (or vice-versa). Longitude between 0 and 360 is frequently used in global
climate models.
Rotate a SpatVector as for a SpatRaster split=TRUE, or to correct for coordinates that are connected
across the date line (and end up at the "other side" of the longitude scale) are reconnected.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
rotate(x, left=TRUE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

rotate(x, longitude=0, split=FALSE, left=TRUE, normalize=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
left logical. If TRUE, rotate to the left, else to the right
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
longitude numeric. The longitude around which to rotate
split logical. Should geometries be split at longitude?
normalize logical. Should the output be normalized to longitudes between -180 and 180?
See normalize.longitude

Value
SpatRaster

x <- rotate(g, 50)

same.crs 221

plot(g)
lines(x, col="red")

## rotate countries to 0-360 longitude

#w <- geodata::world(path=".")
#x <- rotate(w, long=0, split=TRUE, left=FALSE)

same.crs Compare coordinate reference systems

Description
The function takes two coordinate reference system descriptions and compares them for equality.

Usage
same.crs(x, y)

Arguments
x character, SpatRaster, SpatVector, CRS, or other object that returns something
intelligible withcrs(x)
y same types as for x

Value
logical

Examples
r <- rast()
same.crs(r, "+proj=longlat")

same.crs(r, "+proj=utm +zone=1")

sapp Apply a terra function that takes only a single layer and returns a
SpatRaster to all layers of a SpatRaster

Description
Apply to all layers of a SpatRaster a function that only takes a single layer SpatRaster and returns a
SpatRaster (these are rare). In most cases you can also use lapply or sapply for this.
Or apply the same method to each sub-dataset (SpatRaster) in a SpatRasterDataset
222 sbar

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
sapp(x, fun, ..., filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

sapp(x, fun, ..., filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset
fun if x is a SpatRaster: a function that takes a SpatRaster argument and can be
applied to each layer of x (e.g. terrain. if x is a SpatRasterDataset: a
function that is applied to all layers of the SpatRasters in x (e.g. mean
... additional arguments to be passed to fun
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

sbar scale bar

Description
Add a scale bar to a map

Usage
sbar(d, xy=NULL, type="line", divs=2, below="", lonlat=NULL, labels,
adj=c(0.5, -1), lwd=2, xpd=TRUE, ticks=FALSE, scaleby=1, halo=TRUE, ...)
sbar 223

Arguments
d numeric. Distance covered by the scale bar. For the scale bar, it should be in
the units of the coordinates of the plot (map), and in km for angular (longi-
tude/latitude) data; see argument lonlat. It can also be missing
xy numeric. x and y coordinate to place the scale bar. It can also be one of fol-
lowing character values: "bottomleft", "bottom", "bottomright", topleft", "top",
"topright", "left", "right", or NULL
type for sbar: "line" or "bar"
divs number of divisions for a bar: 2 or 4
below character. Text to go below the scale bar (e.g., "kilometers")
lonlat logical or NULL. If logical, TRUE indicates if the plot is using longitude/latitude
coordinates. If NULL this is guessed from the plot’s coordinates
labels vector of three numbers to label the scale bar (beginning, midpoint, end)
adj adjustment for text placement
lwd line width for the "line" type of the scale bar
xpd logical. If TRUE, the scale bar can be outside the plotting area
ticks logical or numeric. If not FALSE, tick marks are added to a "line" scale bar. The
length of the tick marks can be specified
scaleby numeric. If labels is not provided. The labels are divided by this number. For
example, use 1000 to go from m to km
halo logical. If TRUE the "line" type scale bar gets a white background
... graphical arguments to be passed to other methods

Value
none

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
plot(r, type="interval")
sbar(20, c(6.2, 50.1), type="bar", cex=.8, divs=4)
224 scale

sbar(15, c(6.3, 50), type="bar", below="km", label=c(0,7.5,15), cex=.8)

sbar(15, c(6.65, 49.8), cex=.8, label=c(0,"km",15))
north(type=2)
sbar(15, c(6.65, 49.7), cex=.8, label="15 kilometer", lwd=5)
sbar(15, c(6.65, 49.6), divs=4, cex=.8, below="km")

scale Scale values

Description
Center and/or scale raster data. For details see scale

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
scale(x, center=TRUE, scale=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
center logical or numeric. If TRUE, centering is done by subtracting the layer means
(omitting NAs), and if FALSE, no centering is done. If center is a numeric vector
(recycled to nlyr(x)), then each layer of x has the corresponding value from
center subtracted from it.
scale logical or numeric. If TRUE, scaling is done by dividing the (centered) layers
of x by their standard deviations if center is TRUE, and the root mean square
otherwise. If scale is FALSE, no scaling is done. If scale is a numeric vector
(recycled to nlyr(x)), each layer of x is divided by the corresponding value.
Scaling is done after centering.

Value
SpatRaster

## the equivalent, computed in steps

m <- global(r, "mean")
rr <- r - m[,1]
rms <- global(rr, "rms")
ss <- rr / rms[,1]
scatterplot 225

scatterplot Scatterplot of two SpatRaster layers

Description

Scatterplot of the values of two SpatRaster layers

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

plot(x, y, maxcell=100000, warn=TRUE, nc, nr,
maxnl=16, smooth=FALSE, gridded=FALSE, ncol=25, nrow=25, ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
y SpatRaster
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
nc positive integer. Optional. The number of columns to divide the plotting device
in (when plotting multiple layers)
nr positive integer. Optional. The number of rows to divide the plotting device in
(when plotting multiple layers)
maxnl positive integer. Maximum number of layers to plot (for multi-layer objects)
smooth logical. If TRUE show a smooth scatterplot
gridded logical. If TRUE the scatterplot is gridded (counts by cells)
warn boolean. Show a warning if a sample of the pixels is used (for scatterplot only)
ncol positive integer. Number of columns for gridding
nrow positive integer. Number of rows for gridding
... additional graphical arguments

Examples

s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))

plot(s[[1]], s[[2]])
plot(s, sqrt(s[[3:1]]))
226 scoff

scoff Scale (gain) and offset

Description
These functions can be used to get or set the scale (gain) and offset parameters used to transform
values when reading raster data from a file. The parameters are applied to the raw values using the
formula below:
value <- value * scale + offset
The default value for scale is 1 and for offset is 0. ’scale’ is sometimes referred to as ’gain’.
Note that setting the scale and/or offset are intended to be used with values that are stored in a file.
When values are memory, assigning scale or offset values will lead to the immediate computation
of new values; in such cases it would be clearer to use Arith-methods.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
scoff(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

scoff(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value two-column matrix with scale (first column) and offset (second column) for each
layer. Or NULL to remove all scale and offset values

Value
matrix or changed SpatRaster

Examples

r <- rast(system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra"))

minmax(r)
scoff(r)
r[4603]

scoff(r) <- cbind(10, 5)

minmax(r)
scoff(r)
r[4603]
sds 227

sds Create a SpatRasterDataset

Description
Methods to create a SpatRasterDataset. This is an object to hold "sub-datasets", each a SpatRaster
that in most cases will have multiple layers.
See describe for getting information about the sub-datasets present in a file.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'missing'
sds(x)

## S4 method for signature 'character'

sds(x, ids=0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

sds(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'list'

sds(x)

## S4 method for signature 'array'

sds(x, crs="", extent=NULL)

Arguments
x character (filename), or SpatRaster, or list of SpatRaster objects, or missing. If
multiple filenames are provided, it is attempted to make SpatRasters from these,
and combine them into a SpatRasterDataset
ids optional. vector of integer subdataset ids. Ignored if the first value is not a
positive integer
crs character. Description of the Coordinate Reference System (map projection) in
PROJ.4, WKT or authority:code notation. If this argument is missing, and the
x coordinates are within -360 .. 360 and the y coordinates are within -90 .. 90,
longitude/latitude is assigned
extent SpatExtent
... additional SpatRaster objects

Value
SpatRasterDataset

# extract the second SpatRaster

x[2]

a <- array(1:9, c(3,3,3,3))

sds(a)

segregate segregate

Description
Create a SpatRaster with a layer for each class (value, or subset of the values) in the input Spa-
tRaster. For example, if the input has vegetation types, this function will create a layer (pres-
ence/absence; dummy variable) for each of these classes.
This is called "one-hot encoding" or "dummy encoding" (for a dummy encoding scheme you can
remove (any) one of the output layers as it is redundant).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
segregate(x, classes=NULL, keep=FALSE, other=0, round=FALSE, digits=0, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
classes numeric. The values (classes) for which layers should be made. If NULL all
classes are used
keep logical. If TRUE, cells that are of the class represented by a layer get that value,
rather than a value of 1
other numeric. Value to assign to cells that are not of the class represented by a layer
round logical. Should the values be rounded first?
digits integer. Number of digits to round the values to
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster
sel 229

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=5, ncols=5)
values(r) <- rep(c(1:4, NA), each=5)
b <- segregate(r)
bb <- segregate(r, keep=TRUE, other=NA)

sel Spatial selection

Description

Geometrically subset SpatRaster or SpatVector (to be done) by drawing on a plot (map).

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

sel(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

sel(x, use="rec", show=TRUE, col="cyan", draw=TRUE, ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatVector
use character indicating what to draw. One of "rec" (rectangle) or "pol" (polygon)
show logical. If TRUE the selected geometries are shown on the map
col color to be used for drawing if draw=TRUE
draw logical. If TRUE the area drawn to select geometries is shown on the map
... additional graphics arguments for drawing the selected geometries

Value

SpatRaster or SpatVector

See Also

crop and intersect to make an intersection and click and text to see cell values or geometry
attributes.
Use draw to draw a SpatExtent of SpatVector that you want to keep.
230 selectHighest

Examples

## Not run:
# select a subset of a SpatRaster
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
plot(r)
s <- sel(r) # now click on the map twice

# plot the selection on a new canvas:

x11()
plot(s)

# vector
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
plot(v)
x <- sel(v) # now click on the map twice
x

## End(Not run)

selectHighest select cells with high or low values

Description

Identify n cells that have the highest of lowest values in the first layer of a SpatRaster.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

selectHighest(x, n, low=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatRaster. Only the first layer is processed

n The number of cells to select
low logical. If TRUE, the lowest values are selected instead of the highest values

Value

SpatRaster
selectRange 231

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
x <- selectHighest(r, 1000)
y <- selectHighest(r, 1000, TRUE)

m <- merge(y-1, x)
levels(m) <- data.frame(id=0:1, elevation=c("low", "high"))
plot(m)

selectRange Select the values of a range of layers, as specified by cell values in

another SpatRaster

Description
Use a single layer SpatRaster to select cell values from different layers in a multi-layer SpatRaster.
The values of the SpatRaster to select layers (y) should be whole numbers between 1 and nlyr(x)
(values outside this range are ignored).
See rapp for applying a function to a range of variable size.
See extract for extraction of values by cell, point, or otherwise.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
selectRange(x, y, z=1, repint=0, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatRaster. Cell values must be positive integers. They indicate the first layer to
select for each cell
z positive integer. The number of layers to select
repint integer > 1 and < nlyr(x) allowing for repeated selection at a fixed interval. For
example, if x has 36 layers, and the value of a cell in y=2 and repint = 12, the
values for layers 2, 14 and 26 are returned
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
rapp, tapp, extract
232 serialize

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- 1
s <- c(r, r+2, r+5)
s <- c(s, s)
set.seed(1)
values(r) <- sample(3, ncell(r), replace=TRUE)
x <- selectRange(s, r)

x <- selectRange(s, r, 3)

serialize serialize and saveRDS for SpatRaster and SpatVector

Description
serialize and saveRDS for SpatRaster and SpatVector. Note that these objects will first be "packed"
with wrap, and after unserialize/readRDS they need to be unpacked with rast or vect.
Use of these functions is not recommended. Especially for SpatRaster it is generally much more
efficient to use writeRaster and write, e.g., a GTiff file.
SpatRaster objects must have all values in memory (that is, the cell values are not in files) to be
serialized. These functions use set.values to load values into memory if needed and if deemed
possible given the amount of RAM available.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
saveRDS(object, file="", ascii = FALSE, version = NULL, compress=TRUE, refhook = NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

saveRDS(object, file="", ascii = FALSE, version = NULL, compress=TRUE, refhook = NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

serialize(object, connection, ascii = FALSE, xdr = TRUE, version = NULL, refhook = NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

serialize(object, connection, ascii = FALSE, xdr = TRUE, version = NULL, refhook = NULL)

Arguments
object SpatVector or SpatRaster
file file name to save object to
connection see serialize
ascii see serialize or saveRDS
version see serialize or saveRDS
setValues 233

compress see serialize or saveRDS

refhook see serialize or saveRDS
xdr see serialize or saveRDS

Value
Packed* object

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
p <- serialize(v, NULL)
head(p)
x <- unserialize(p)
x

setValues Set the values of raster cells or of geometry attributes

Description
Set cell values of a SpatRaster or the attributes of a SpatVector. For large SpatRaster objects use
init instead to set values.

Usage
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,ANY'
values(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,ANY'

setValues(x, values, keeptime=TRUE, keepunits=TRUE, keepnames=FALSE, props=FALSE)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector,ANY'

values(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
value For SpatRaster: numeric, matrix or data.frame. The length of the numeric values
must match the total number of cells (ncell(x) * nlyr(x)), or be a single value.
The number of columns of the matrix or data.frame must match the number of
layers of x, and the number of rows must match the number of cells of x. It is
also possible to use a matrix with the same number of rows as x and the number
of columns that matches ncol(x) * nlyr(x).
For SpatVector: data.frame, matrix, vector, or NULL
values Same as for value
234 shade

keeptime logical. If TRUE the time stamps are kept

keepunits logical. If FALSE the units are discarded
keepnames logical. If FALSE the layer names are replaced by the column names in y (if
present)
props logical. If TRUE the properties (categories and color-table) are kept

Value

The same object type as x

See Also

values, init

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
x <- setValues(r, 1:ncell(r))
x
values(x) <- runif(ncell(x))
x
head(x)

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
values(v) <- data.frame(ID=1:12, name=letters[1:12])
head(v)

shade Hill shading

Description

Compute hill shade from slope and aspect layers (both in radians). Slope and aspect can be com-
puted with function terrain.
A hill shade layer is often used as a backdrop on top of which another, semi-transparent, layer is
drawn.

Usage

shade(slope, aspect, angle=45, direction=0, normalize=FALSE,

filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)
sharedPaths 235

Arguments
slope SpatRasterwith slope values (in radians)
aspect SpatRaster with aspect values (in radians)
angle The elevation angle(s) of the light source (sun), in degrees
direction The direction (azimuth) angle(s) of the light source (sun), in degrees
normalize Logical. If TRUE, values below zero are set to zero and the results are multiplied
with 255
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

References
Horn, B.K.P., 1981. Hill shading and the reflectance map. Proceedings of the IEEE 69(1):14-47

# A better hill shade may be achieved by combining

# different angles and directions. For example

h <- shade(slope, aspect, angle = c(45, 45, 45, 80), direction = c(225, 270, 315, 135))
h <- Reduce(mean, h)

sharedPaths Shared paths

Description
Get shared paths of line or polygon geometries. This can for geometries in a single SpatVector, or
between two SpatVectors
236 shift

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
sharedPaths(x, y=NULL)

Arguments
x SpatVector of lines or polygons
y missing or SpatVector of lines or polygons

Value
SpatVector

z <- sharedPaths(v[3,], v[12,])

shift Shift

Description
Shift a SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent to another location.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
shift(x, dx=0, dy=0, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

shift(x, dx=0, dy=0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

shift(x, dx=0, dy=0)
sieve 237

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent
dx numeric. The shift in horizontal direction
dy numeric. The shift in vertical direction
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
Same as x

sieve Sieve filter

Description
Apply a sieve filter. That is, remove "noise", by changing small clumps of cells with a value that is
different from the surrounding cells, to the value of the largest neighbouring clump.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
sieve(x, threshold, directions=8, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, single layer with elevation values. Values should have the same unit
as the map units
threshold positive integer. Only clumps smaller than this threshold will be removed
directions numeric to indicate which cells are connected. Either 4 to only consider the hor-
izontal and vertical neighbors ("rook"), or 8 to consider the vertical, horizontal
and diagonal neighbors
filename character. Output filename
... Options for writing files as in writeRaster
238 simplifyGeom

simplifyGeom simplifyGeom geometries

Description
Reduce the number of nodes used to represent geometries.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
simplifyGeom(x, tolerance=0.1, preserveTopology=TRUE, makeValid=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatVector of lines or polygons
tolerance numeric. The minimum distance between nodes in units of the crs (i.e. degrees
for long/lat)
preserveTopology
logical. If TRUE the topology of output geometries is preserved
makeValid logical. If TRUE, makeValid is run after simplification to assure that the output
polygons are valid

Value
SpatVector

See Also
sharedPaths, gaps, is.valid
sort 239

Examples

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
w <- simplifyGeom(v, .02, makeValid=FALSE)
e <- erase(w)
g <- gaps(e)
plot(e, lwd=5, border="light gray")
polys(g, col="red", border="red")

sort Sort a SpatRaster or SpatVector

Description

Sort the cell values of a SpatRaster across layers. You can also compute the sorting order.
Or sort the records of SpatVector (or data.frame) by specifiying the column number(s) or names(s)
to sort on.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

sort(x, decreasing=FALSE, order=FALSE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

sort(x, v, decreasing=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
decreasing logical. If TRUE, sorting is in decreasing order
order logical. If TRUE the sorting order is returned instead of the sorted values
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
v character or numeric indicating the column(s) to sort on

Value

SpatRaster
240 sources

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
r <- c(r, r/2, r*2)
sort(r)

ord <- sort(r, order=TRUE)

# these two are the same
ord[[1]]
which.min(r)

sources Data sources of a SpatRaster

Description
Get the data sources of a SpatRaster or SpatVector or related object. Sources are either files (or
similar resources) or "", meaning that they are in memory. You can use hasValues to check if
in-memory layers actually have cell values.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
sources(x, nlyr=FALSE, bands=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

sources(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

hasValues(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

inMemory(x, bylayer=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatRasterCollection, SpatVector or SpatVectorProxy
nlyr logical. If TRUE for each source, the number of layers is returned
bands logical. If TRUE for each source, the "bands" used, that is, the layer number in
the source file, are returned
bylayer logical. If TRUE a value is returned for each layer instead of for each source

Value
A vector of filenames, or "" when there is no filename, if nlyr and bands are both FALSE. Otherwise
a data.frame
SpatExtent-class 241

Examples

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
s <- rast(r)
values(s) <- 1:ncell(s)
rs <- c(r,r,s,r)
sources(rs)
hasValues(r)
x <- rast()
hasValues(x)

SpatExtent-class Class "SpatExtent"

Description

Objects of class SpatExtent are used to define the spatial extent (extremes) of objects of the Spa-
tRaster class.

Objects from the Class

You can use the ext function to create SpatExtent objects, or to extract them from SpatRaster
objects.

Slots

ptr: pointer to the C++ class

Methods

show display values of a SpatExtent object

Examples

e <- ext(-180, 180, -90, 90)

e
242 spatSample

SpatRaster-class SpatRaster class

Description
A SpatRaster represents a rectangular part of the world that is sub-divided into rectangular cells of
equal area (in terms of the units of the coordinate reference system). For each cell can have multiple
values ("layers").
An object of the SpatRaster class can point to one or more files on disk that hold the cell values,
and/or it can hold these values in memory. These objects can be created with the rast method.
A SpatRasterDataset is a collection of sub-datasets, where each is a SpatRaster for the same
area (extent) and coordinate reference system, but possibly with a different resolution. Sub-datasets
are often used to capture variables (e.g. temperature and precipitation), or a fourth dimension (e.g.
height, depth or time) if the sub-datasets already have three dimensions (multiple layers).
A SpatRasterCollection is a collection of SpatRasters with no restriction in the extent or other
geometric parameters.

Examples
rast()

spatSample Take a regular sample

Description
Take a spatial sample from a SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent. Sampling a SpatVector or
SpatExtent always returns a SpatVector of points.
With a SpatRaster, you can get cell values, cell numbers (cells=TRUE), coordinates (xy=TRUE) or
(when type="regular" and as.raster=TRUE) get a new SpatRaster with the same extent, but
fewer cells.
In order to assure regularity when requesting a regular sample, the number of cells or points returned
may not be exactly the same as the size requested.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
spatSample(x, size, method="random", replace=FALSE, na.rm=FALSE,
as.raster=FALSE, as.df=TRUE, as.points=FALSE, values=TRUE, cells=FALSE,
xy=FALSE, ext=NULL, warn=TRUE, weights=NULL, exp=5, exhaustive=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

spatSample(x, size, method="random", strata=NULL, chess="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

spatSample(x, size, method="random", lonlat, as.points=FALSE)
spatSample 243

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent
size numeric. The sample size. If x is a SpatVector, you can also provide a vector
of the same length as x in which case sampling is done separately for each
geometry. If x is a SpatRaster, and you are using method="regular" you can
specify the size as two numbers (number of rows and columns)
method character. Should be "regular" or "random", If x is a SpatRaster, it can also
be "stratified" (each value in x is a stratum) or "weights" (each value in x is a
probability weight)
replace logical. If TRUE, sampling is with replacement (if method="random")
na.rm logical. If TRUE, NAs are removed. Only used with random sampling of cell
values. That is with method="random", as.raster=FALSE, cells=FALSE
as.raster logical. If TRUE, a SpatRaster is returned
as.df logical. If TRUE, a data.frame is returned instead of a matrix
as.points logical. If TRUE, a SpatVector of points is returned
values logical. If TRUE cell values are returned
cells logical. If TRUE, cell numbers are returned. If method="stratified" this is
always set to TRUE if xy=FALSE
xy logical. If TRUE, cell coordinates are returned
ext SpatExtent or NULL to restrict sampling to a subset of the area of x
warn logical. Give a warning if the sample size returned is smaller than requested
weights SpatRaster. Used to provide weights when method="stratified"
strata if not NULL, stratified random sampling is done, taking size samples from each
stratum. If x has polygon geometry, strata must be a field name (or index) in x.
If x has point geometry, strata can be a SpatVector of polygons or a SpatRaster
chess character. One of "", "white", or "black". For stratified sampling if strata is a
SpatRaster. If not "", samples are only taken from alternate cells, organized like
the "white" or "black" fields on a chessboard
lonlat logical. If TRUE, sampling of a SpatExtent is weighted by cos(latitude).
For SpatRaster and SpatVector this done based on the crs, but it is ignored
if as.raster=TRUE
exp numeric >= 1. "Expansion factor" that is multiplied with size to get an initial
sample used for stratified samples and random samples with na.rm=TRUE to try
to get at least size samples
exhaustive logical. If TRUE and na.rm=TRUE first all cells that are not NA are determined
and a sample is taked from these cells. This is useful when you are dealing
with a very large raster that is sparse (most cells are NA). Otherwise, the default
approach may not find enough samples. This should not be used in other cases,
especially not with large rasters that mostly have values

Value
numeric matrix, data.frame, SpatRaster or SpatVector
244 SpatVector-class

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
s <- spatSample(r, 10, as.raster=TRUE)
spatSample(r, 5)
spatSample(r, 5, na.rm=TRUE)
spatSample(r, 5, "regular")

## if you require cell numbers and/or coordinates

size <- 6
spatSample(r, 6, "random", cells=TRUE, xy=TRUE, values=FALSE)

# regular, with values

spatSample(r, 6, "regular", cells=TRUE, xy=TRUE)

# stratified
rr <- rast(ncol=10, nrow=10, names="stratum")
set.seed(1)
values(rr) <- round(runif(ncell(rr), 1, 3))
spatSample(rr, 2, "stratified", xy=TRUE)

s <- spatSample(rr, 5, "stratified", as.points=TRUE)

plot(rr, plg=list(title="raster"))
plot(s, 1, add=TRUE, plg=list(x=185, y=1, title="points"))

## SpatExtent
e <- ext(r)
spatSample(e, 10, "random", lonlat=TRUE)

## SpatVector
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)

# sample the geometries

i <- sample(v, 3)

# sample points in geometries

p <- spatSample(v, 3)

SpatVector-class Class "SpatVector"

Description
SpatVector can represent points, lines or polygons.
SpatVectorCollection can hold a collection of SpatVectors
SpatVectorProxy is a SpatVector for which the data are on-disk in-stead of in memory.
spin 245

spin spin a SpatVector

Description

Spin (rotate) the geometry of a SpatVector.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

spin(x, angle, x0, y0)

Arguments

x SpatVector
angle numeric. Angle of rotation in degrees
x0 numeric. x-coordinate of the center of rotation. If missing, the center of the
extent of x is used
y0 numeric. y-coordinate of the center of rotation. If missing, the center of the
extent of x is used

Value

SpatVector

See Also

rescale, t, shift

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
w <- spin(v, 180)
plot(v)
lines(w, col="red")

# lower-right corner as center

e <- as.vector(ext(v))
x <- spin(v, 45, e[1], e[3])
246 split

split Split

Description
Split a SpatRaster by layer, or a SpatVector by attributes. You can also split the geometry of a
polygon SpatVector with a line SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,ANY'
split(x, f)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,ANY'

split(x, f)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

split(x, f)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
f If x is a SpatRaster: a vector of the length nlyr(x). If x is a SpatVector: a field
(variable) name or a vector of the same length as x; or, if x is a SpatVector of
polygons, a SpatVector of lines to split the polygon gemetries

Value
list or SpatVector

Examples

## split layers
s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
y <- split(s, c(1,2,1))
sds(y)

## split attributes
v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))
x <- split(v, "NAME_1")

## split geometries
v <- v[1:5,]
line <- vect(matrix(c(5.79, 6.22, 5.75, 6.1, 5.8,
50.14, 50.05, 49.88, 49.85, 49.71), ncol=2), "line")
s <- split(v, line)
sprc 247

sprc Create a SpatRasterCollection

Description
Methods to create a SpatRasterCollection. This is an object to hold a collection (list) of SpatRaster
objects. There are no restrictions on the similarity of the SpatRaster geometry.
They can be used to combine several SpatRasters to be used with merge or mosaic
You can create a SpatRasterCollection from a file with subdatasets.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
sprc(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'list'

sprc(x)

## S4 method for signature 'missing'

sprc(x)

## S4 method for signature 'character'

sprc(x, ids=0)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, list with SpatRaster objects, missing, or filename
ids optional. vector of integer subdataset ids. Ignored if the first value is not a
positive integer
... additional SpatRaster objects

Value
SpatRasterCollection

subset Subset a SpatRaster or a SpatVector

Description
Select a subset of layers from a SpatRaster or select a subset of records (row) and/or variables
(columns) from a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
subset(x, subset, negate=FALSE, NSE=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

subset(x, subset, select, drop=FALSE, NSE=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
subset if x is a SpatRaster: integer or character to select layers
if x is a SpatVector: logical expression indicating the rows to keep (missing
values are taken as FALSE)
select expression, indicating columns to select
negate logical. If TRUE all layers that are not in the subset are selected
NSE logical. If TRUE, non-standard evaluation (the use of unquoted variable names)
is allowed. Set this to FALSE when calling subset from a function
drop logical. If TRUE, the geometries will be dropped, and a data.frame is returned
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
if x is a SpatRaster: SpatRaster
if x is a SpatVector: SpatVector or, if drop=TRUE, a data.frame.
250 subset_dollar

Examples
### SpatRaster
s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
subset(s, 2:3)
subset(s, c(3,2,3,1))

#equivalent to
s[[ c(3,2,3,1) ]]

s[[c("red", "green")]]
s$red

# expression based (partial) matching of names with single brackets

s["re"]
s["^re"]

# not with double brackets

# s[["re"]]

### SpatVector

v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))

subset(v, v$NAME_1 == "Diekirch", c("NAME_1", "NAME_2"))

subset(v, NAME_1 == "Diekirch", c(NAME_1, NAME_2), NSE=TRUE)

# or like this
v[2:3,]
v[1:2, 2:3]
v[1:2, c("NAME_1", "NAME_2")]

subset_dollar Subset a SpatRaster or a SpatVector

Description

Select a subset of layers from a SpatRaster or select a subset of records (row) and/or variables
(columns) from a SpatVector.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

x$name
subset_dollar 251

Arguments

x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent

name character. If x is a SpatRaster: layer name. If x is a SpatVector: variable name.
If x is a SpatExtent: xmin, xmax, ymin or ymax

Value

if x is a SpatRaster: SpatRaster
if x is a SpatVector: SpatVector or, if drop=TRUE, a data.frame.

See Also

link{subset}, link{[}, link{[[}, link{extract}

Examples

### SpatRaster
s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
subset(s, 2:3)
subset(s, c(3,2,3,1))
#equivalent to
s[[ c(3,2,3,1) ]]

s[[c("red", "green")]]
s$red

# expression based (partial) matching of names with single brackets

s["re"]
s["^re"]

# not with double brackets

# s[["re"]]

### SpatVector

v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))

v[2:3,]
v[1:2, 2:3]

subset(v, v$NAME_1 == "Diekirch", c("NAME_1", "NAME_2"))

subset(v, NAME_1 == "Diekirch", c(NAME_1, NAME_2), NSE=TRUE)

252 subset_double

subset_double Subset a SpatRaster or a SpatVector

Description
Select a subset of layers from a SpatRaster or select a subset of records (row) and/or variables
(columns) from a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric,missing'
x[[i, j]]

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset,ANY,ANY'

x[[i, j, drop=TRUE]]

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,numeric,missing'

x[[i, j, drop=FALSE]]

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
i if x is a SpatRaster: integer, logical, or character to select layers
if x is a SpatVector: integer, logical, or character to select variables)
j missing, or, for SpatRasterDataset only, numeric
drop logical. If TRUE, the geometries will be dropped, and a data.frame is returned

Value
if x is a SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset: SpatRaster
if x is a SpatVector: a data.frame.

See Also
link{subset}, link{$}, link{[}, link{extract}

Examples
### SpatRaster
s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
s[[ 1:2 ]]

s[[c("red", "green")]]

# expression based (partial) matching of names with single brackets

s["re"]
s["^re"]
subset_single 253

# does not with double brackets

# s[["re"]]

### SpatVector

v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))

v[[2:3]]

# to keep the geometry use

v[,2:3]

subset_single Extract values from a SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent

Description
Extract values from a SpatRaster; a subset of records (row) and/or variables (columns) from a
SpatVector; or a number from a SpatExtent.
You can use indices (row, column, layer or cell numbers) to extract. You can also use other Spat*
objects.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,ANY,ANY,ANY'
x[i, j, k]

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,numeric,numeric'

x[i, j, drop=FALSE]

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector,missing'

x[i, j]

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,numeric,missing'

x[i, j]

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent
i if x is a SpatRaster: numeric, logical or missing to select rows or, if j is miss-
ing, to select cells numbers.
if x is a SpatVector: numeric or missing to select rows. if i is another SpatVec-
tor: get a new SpatVector with the geometries that intersect.
if x is a SpatExtent: integer between 1 and 4.
j numeric, logical, or missing to select columns
254 subst

k numeric, character, or missing to select layers

drop logical. If FALSE an object of the same class as x is returned

Value
numeric if x is a SpatExtent. Same as x if drop=FALSE. Otherwise a data.frame

See Also
linkextract, link{subset}, link{$}, link{[[},

Examples
### SpatRaster
f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
r[3638]
rowColFromCell(r, 2638)
r[39, 28]
x <- r[39:40, 28:29, drop=FALSE]
as.matrix(x, wide=TRUE)

### SpatVector

v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))

v[2:3,]
v[1:2, 2:3]
v[1:2, 2:3, drop=TRUE]

subst replace cell values

Description
Substitute(replace) cell values of a SpatRaster with a new value. See classify for more com-
plex/flexible replacement.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
subst(x, from, to, others=NULL, raw=FALSE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
from numeric value(s). Normally a vector of the same length as ‘to‘. If x has multiple
layers, it can also be a matrix of numeric value(s) where nrow(x) == length(to).
In that case the output has a single layer, with values based on the combination
of the values of the input layers
summarize 255

to numeric value(s). Normally a vector of the same length as ‘from‘. If x has

a single layer, it can also be a matrix of numeric value(s) where nrow(x) ==
length(from). In that case the output has multiple layers, one for each column
in to
others numeric. If not NULL all values that are not matched are set to this value. Other-
wise they retain their original value.
raw logical. If TRUE, the values in from and to are the raw cell values, not the cate-
gorical labels. Only relevant if is.factor(x)
filename character. Output filename
... Additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

# multiple output layers

z <- subst(r, 2:3, cbind(20,30))

# multiple input layers

rr <- c(r, r+1, r+2)
m <- rbind(c(1:3), c(3:5))
zz <- subst(rr, m, c(100, 200))

summarize Summarize

Description
Compute summary statistics for cells, either across layers or between layers (parallel summary).
The following summary methods are available for SpatRaster: any, anyNA, all, allNA, max,
min, mean, median, prod, range, stdev, sum, which.min, which.max. See modal to compute
the mode and app to compute summary statistics that are not included here.
Because generic functions are used, the method applied is chosen based on the first argument: "x".
This means that if r is a SpatRaster, mean(r, 5) will work, but mean(5, r) will not work.
256 summarize

The mean method has an argument "trim" that is ignored.

If pop=TRUE stdev computes the population standard deviation, computed as:
f <- function(x) sqrt(sum((x-mean(x))^2) / length(x))
This is different than the sample standard deviation returned by sd (which uses n-1 as denominator).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
min(x, ..., na.rm=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

max(x, ..., na.rm=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

range(x, ..., na.rm=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

prod(x, ..., na.rm=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

sum(x, ..., na.rm=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

any(x, ..., na.rm=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

all(x, ..., na.rm=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

range(x, ..., na.rm=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

which.min(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

which.max(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

stdev(x, ..., pop=TRUE, na.rm=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

mean(x, ..., trim=NA, na.rm=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

median(x, na.rm=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

anyNA(x)
summarize 257

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

countNA(x, n=0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

noNA(x, falseNA=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

allNA(x, falseNA=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
... additional SpatRaster objects or numeric values; and arguments par for par-
allel summarization (see Details), and filename, overwrite and wopt as for
writeRaster
na.rm logical. If TRUE, NA values are ignored. If FALSE, NA is returned if x has any NA
values
trim ignored
pop logical. If TRUE, the population standard deviation is computed. Otherwise the
sample standard deviation is computed
falseNA logical. If TRUE, cells that would otherwise be FALSE are set to NA
n integer. If n > 0, cell values are TRUE if at least n of its layers are NA

Details
Additional argument par can be used for "parallel" summarizing a SpatRaster and a numeric or
logical value. If a SpatRaster x has three layers, max(x, 5) will return a single layer (the number
five is treated as a layer in which all cells have value five). In contrast max(x, 5, par=TRUE) returns
three layers (the number five is treated as another SpatRaster with a single layer with all cells having
the value five.

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
app, Math-methods, modal, which.lyr

Examples
set.seed(0)
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, nlyrs=3)
values(r) <- runif(ncell(r) * nlyr(r))

x <- mean(r)
# note how this returns one layer
258 summary

x <- sum(c(r, r[[2]]), 5)

# and this returns three layers

y <- sum(r, r[[2]], 5)

max(r)

## when adding a number, do you want 1 layer or all layers?

# 1 layer
max(r, 0.5)

# all layers
max(r, 0.5, par=TRUE)

y <- stdev(r)
# not the same as
yy <- app(r, sd)

z <- stdev(r, r*2)

x <- mean(r, filename=paste0(tempfile(), ".tif"))

v <- values(r)
set.seed(3)
v[sample(length(v), 50)] <- NA
values(r) <- v
is.na(r)
anyNA(r)
allNA(r)
countNA(r)
countNA(r, 2)

summary summary

Description
Compute summary statistics (min, max, mean, and quartiles) for SpatRaster using base summary
method. A sample is used for very large files.
For single or other statistics see Summary-methods, global, and quantile

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
summary(object, size=100000, warn=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

summary(object, ...)
svc 259

Arguments
object SpatRaster or SpatVector
size positive integer. Size of a regular sample used for large datasets (see spatSample)
warn logical. If TRUE a warning is given if a sample is used
... additional arguments passed on to the base summary method

Value
matrix with (an estimate of) the median, minimum and maximum values, the first and third quartiles,
and the number of cells with NA values

See Also
Summary-methods, global, quantile

Examples
set.seed(0)
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, nlyrs=3)
values(r) <- runif(nlyr(r)*ncell(r))
summary(r)

svc Create a SpatVectorCollection

Description
Methods to create a SpatVectorCollection. This is an object to hold "sub-datasets", each a SpatVec-
tor, perhaps of different geometry type.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'missing'
svc(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

svc(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'list'

svc(x)

Arguments
x SpatVector, or list of a SpatVector, or missing
... Additional SpatVectors
260 symdif

Value

SpatVectorCollection

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
x <- svc()
x <- svc(v, v[1:3,], as.lines(v[3:5,]), as.points(v))
length(x)
x

# extract
x[3]

# replace
x[2] <- as.lines(v[1,])

symdif Symmetrical difference

Description

Symmetrical difference of polygons

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

symdif(x, y)

Arguments

x SpatVector
y SpatVector

Value

SpatVector

See Also

erase
tapp 261

Examples
p <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))
b <- as.polygons(ext(6, 6.4, 49.75, 50))
#sd <- symdif(p, b)
#plot(sd, col=rainbow(12))

tapp Apply a function to subsets of layers of a SpatRaster

Description
Apply a function to subsets of layers of a SpatRaster (similar to tapply and aggregate). The layers
are combined based on the index.
The number of layers in the output SpatRaster equals the number of unique values in index times
the number of values that the supplied function returns for a single vector of numbers.
For example, if you have a SpatRaster with 6 layers, you can use index=c(1,1,1,2,2,2) and
fun=sum. This will return a SpatRaster with two layers. The first layer is the sum of the first three
layers in the input SpatRaster, and the second layer is the sum of the last three layers in the input
SpatRaster. Indices are recycled such that index=c(1,2) would also return a SpatRaster with two
layers (one based on the odd layers (1,3,5), the other based on the even layers (2,4,6)).
The index can also be one of the following values to group by time period (if x has the appropriate
time values): "years", "months", "yearmonths", "week" (the ISO 8601 week number, see Details),
"yearweeks", "days", "doy" (day of the year), "7days" (seven-day periods starting at Jan 1 of each
year), "10days", or "15days". It can also be a function that makes groups from time values.
See app or Summary-methods if you want to use a more efficient function that returns multiple
layers based on all layers in the SpatRaster.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
tapp(x, index, fun, ..., cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
index factor or numeric (integer). Vector of length nlyr(x) (shorter vectors are re-
cycled) grouping the input layers. It can also be one of the following values:
"years", "months", "yearmonths", "days", "week" (ISO 8601 week number), or
"doy" (day of the year)
fun function to be applied. The following functions have been re-implemented in
C++ for speed: "sum", "mean", "median", "modal", "which", "which.min",
"which.max", "min", "max", "prod", "any", "all", "sd", "std", "first". To use
the base-R function for say, "min", you could use something like fun = \(i)
min(i)
... additional arguments passed to fun
262 terrain

cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used. You can also supply a cluster object. Ignored for functions
that are implemented by terra in C++ (see under fun)
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Details
"week" follows the ISO 8601 definition. Weeks start on Monday. If the week containing 1 January
has four or more days in the new year, then it is considered week "01". Otherwise, it is the last week
of the previous year (week "52" or "53", and the next week is week 1.

Value
SpatRaster

terrain terrain characteristics

Description
Compute terrain characteristics from elevation data. The elevation values should be in the same
units as the map units (typically meter) for projected (planar) raster data. They should be in meter
when the coordinate reference system is longitude/latitude.
For accuracy, always compute these values on the original data (do not first change the projection).
Distances (needed for slope and aspect) for longitude/latitude data are computed on the WGS84
ellipsoid with Karney’s algorithm.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
terrain(x, v="slope", neighbors=8, unit="degrees", filename="", ...)
terrain 263

Arguments
x SpatRaster, single layer with elevation values. Values should have the same unit
as the map units, or in meters when the crs is longitude/latitude
v character. One or more of these options: slope, aspect, TPI, TRI, TRIriley,
TRIrmsd, roughness, flowdir (see Details)
unit character. "degrees" or "radians" for the output of "slope" and "aspect"
neighbors integer. Indicating how many neighboring cells to use to compute slope or aspect
with. Either 8 (queen case) or 4 (rook case)
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Details
When neighbors=4, slope and aspect are computed according to Fleming and Hoffer (1979) and
Ritter (1987). When neighbors=8, slope and aspect are computed according to Horn (1981). The
Horn algorithm may be best for rough surfaces, and the Fleming and Hoffer algorithm may be better
for smoother surfaces (Jones, 1997; Burrough and McDonnell, 1998).
If slope = 0, aspect is set to 0.5*pi radians (or 90 degrees if unit="degrees"). When computing slope
or aspect, the coordinate reference system of x must be known for the algorithm to differentiate
between planar and longitude/latitude data.
terrain is not vectorized over "neighbors" or "unit" – only the first value is used.
flowdir returns the "flow direction" (of water), that is the direction of the greatest drop in elevation
(or the smallest rise if all neighbors are higher). They are encoded as powers of 2 (0 to 7). The cell
to the right of the focal cell is 1, the one below that is 2, and so on:

32 64 128
16 x 1
8 4 2

If two cells have the same drop in elevation, a random cell is picked. That is not ideal as it may
prevent the creation of connected flow networks. ArcGIS implements the approach of Greenlee
(1987) and I might adopt that in the future.
Most terrain indices are according to Wilson et al. (2007), as in gdaldem. TRI (Terrain Ruggedness
Index) is the mean of the absolute differences between the value of a cell and its 8 surrounding cells.
TPI (Topographic Position Index) is the difference between the value of a cell and the mean value
of its 8 surrounding cells. Roughness is the difference between the maximum and the minimum
value of a cell and its 8 surrounding cells.
TRIriley (TRI according to Riley et al. (2007)) returns the square root of summed squared differ-
ences between the value of a cell and its 8 surrounding cells. TRIrmsd computes the square root of
the mean of the squared differences between these cells. The benefit of TRIrmsd
Such measures can also be computed with the focal function:
TRI <- focal(x, w=3, fun=\(x) sum(abs(x[-5]-x[5]))/8)
TPI <- focal(x, w=3, fun=\(x) x[5] - mean(x[-5]))
264 text

rough <- focal(x, w=3, fun=\(x) max(x) - min(x))

References
Burrough, P., and R.A. McDonnell, 1998. Principles of Geographical Information Systems. Oxford
University Press.
Fleming, M.D. and Hoffer, R.M., 1979. Machine processing of Landsat MSS data and DMA to-
pographic data for forest cover type mapping. LARS Technical Report 062879. Laboratory for
Applications of Remote Sensing, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.
Horn, B.K.P., 1981. Hill shading and the reflectance map. Proceedings of the IEEE 69:14-47
Jones, K.H., 1998. A comparison of algorithms used to compute hill slope as a property of the
DEM. Computers & Geosciences 24: 315-323
Karney, C.F.F., 2013. Algorithms for geodesics, J. Geodesy 87: 43-55. doi:10.1007/s00190-012-
0578-z.
Riley, S.J., De Gloria, S.D., Elliot, R. (1999): A Terrain Ruggedness that Quantifies Topographic
Heterogeneity. Intermountain Journal of Science 5: 23-27.
Ritter, P., 1987. A vector-based terrain and aspect generation algorithm. Photogrammetric Engi-
neering and Remote Sensing 53: 1109-1111
Wilson et al 2007, Multiscale Terrain Analysis of Multibeam Bathymetry Data for Habitat Mapping
on the Continental Slope. Marine Geodesy 30:3-35

text Add labels to a map

Description
Plots labels, that is a textual (rather than color) representation of values, on top an existing plot
(map).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
text(x, labels, digits=0, halo=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

text(x, labels, halo=FALSE, inside=FALSE, ...)
tighten 265

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
labels character. Optional. Vector of labels with length(x) or a variable name from
names(x)
digits integer. How many digits should be used?
halo logical. If TRUE a "halo" is printed around the text. If TRUE, additional arguments
hc="white" and hw=0.1 can be modified to set the color and width of the halo
inside logical. Should the text always be placed inside one the sub-geometries?
... additional arguments to pass to graphics function text

r <- rast(nrows=4, ncols=4)

values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
plot(r)
text(r)

plot(r)
text(r, halo=TRUE, hc="blue", col="white", hw=0.2)

plot(r, col=rainbow(16))
text(r, col=c("black", "white"), vfont=c("sans serif", "bold"), cex=2)

tighten tighten SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset objects

Description
Combines data sources within a SpatRaster object (that are in memory, or from the same file) to
allow for faster processing.
Or combine sub-datasets into a SpatRaster.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

tighten(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

tighten(x)
266 time

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset

Value
SpatRaster

Examples
r <- rast(nrow=5, ncol=9, vals=1:45)
x <- c(r, r*2, r*3)
x
tighten(x)

time time of SpatRaster layers

Description
Get or set the time of the layers of a SpatRaster. Time can be stored as POSIXlt (date and time,
with a resolution of seconds, and a time zone), Date, "months", "years", or "yearmonths".

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
time(x, format="")

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

time(x, tstep="")<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

timeInfo(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
format One of "", "seconds" (POSIXlt), "days" (Date), "yearmonths" (decimal years),
"years", "months". If "", the returned format is (based on) the format that was
used to set the time
value Date, POSIXt, yearmon (defined in package zoo), or numeric
tstep One of "years", "months", "yearmonths". Used when value is numeric. Ignored
when value is of type Date, POSIXt, or yearmon

Value
time: POSIXlt, Date, or numeric timeInfo: data.frame
tmpFiles 267

See Also

depth

Examples
s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))

# Date"
d <- as.Date("2001-05-04") + 0:2
time(s) <- d
time(s)

# POSIX (date/time with a resolution of seconds)

time(s) <- as.POSIXlt(d)
time(s)

# with time zone

time(s) <- as.POSIXlt(Sys.time(), "America/New_York") + 0:2
time(s)
timeInfo(s)

# years
time(s, tstep="years") <- 2000 + 0:2
s

time(s, tstep="months") <- 1:3

tmpFiles Temporary files

Description

List and optionally remove temporary files created by the terra package. These files are created
when an output SpatRaster may be too large to store in memory (RAM). This can happen when no
filename is provided to a function and when using functions where you cannot provide a filename.
Temporary files are automatically removed at the end of each R session that ends normally. You
can use tmpFiles to see the files in the current sessions, including those that are orphaned (not
connect to a SpatRaster object any more) and from other (perhaps old) sessions, and remove all the
temporary files.

Usage

tmpFiles(current=TRUE, orphan=FALSE, old=FALSE, remove=FALSE)

268 topology

Arguments
current logical. If TRUE, temporary files from the current R session are included
orphan logical. If TRUE, temporary files from the current R session that are no longer
associated with a SpatRaster object (if current is TRUE these are also included)
old logical. If TRUE, temporary files from other "R" sessions. Unless you are running
multiple instances of R at the same time, these are from old (possibly crashed)
R sessions and should be removed
remove logical. If TRUE, temporary files are removed

Value
character

topology Vector topology methods

Description
makeNodes create nodes on lines
mergeLines connect lines to form polygons
removeDupNodes removes duplicate nodes in geometries and optionally rounds the coordinates
emptyGeoms returns the indices of empty (null) geometries
snap makes boundaries of geometries identical if they are very close to each other.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
mergeLines(x)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
snap(x, y=NULL, tolerance)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
removeDupNodes(x, digits = -1)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
makeNodes(x)
transpose 269

Arguments

x SpatVector of lines or polygons

y SpatVector of lines or polygons to snap to. If NULL snapping is to the other
geometries in x
tolerance numeric. Snapping tolerance (distance between geometries)
digits numeric. Number of digits used in rounding. Ignored if < 0

Value

SpatVector

See Also

sharedPaths, gaps, simplifyGeom

Examples
p1 <- as.polygons(ext(0,1,0,1))
p2 <- as.polygons(ext(1.1,2,0,1))

p <- rbind(p1, p2)

y <- snap(p, tol=.15)

plot(p, lwd=3, col="light gray")
lines(y, col="red", lwd=2)

transpose Transpose

Description

Transpose a SpatRaster or SpatVector

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

t(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

t(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

trans(x, filename="", ...)
270 trim

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

trim Trim a SpatRaster

Description
Trim (shrink) a SpatRaster by removing outer rows and columns that are NA or another value.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
trim(x, padding=0, value=NA, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
padding integer. Number of outer rows/columns to keep
value numeric. The value of outer rows or columns that are to be removed
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster
union 271

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, xmin=0,xmax=10,ymin=0,ymax=10)
v <- rep(NA, ncell(r))
v[c(12,34,69)] <- 1:3
values(r) <- v
s <- trim(r)

union Union SpatVector or SpatExtent objects

Description
Overlapping polygons (between, not within, objects) are intersected. Union for lines and points
simply combines the two data sets; without any geometric intersections. This is equivalent to c.
Attributes are joined. See c if you want to combine polygons without intersection.
If x and y have a different geometry type, a SpatVectorCollection is returned.
If a single SpatVector is supplied, overlapping polygons are intersected. Original attributes are lost.
New attributes allow for determining how many, and which, polygons overlapped.
SpatExtent: Objects are combined into their union; this is equivalent to +.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'
union(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,missing'

union(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,SpatExtent'

union(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatVector or SpatExtent
y Same as x or missing

Value
SpatVector or SpatExtent

See Also
intersect
merge and mosaic to union SpatRaster objects.
crop and extend for the union of SpatRaster and SpatExtent.
merge for merging a data.frame with attributes of a SpatVector.
aggregate to dissolve SpatVector objects.
272 unique

Examples
e1 <- ext(-10, 10, -20, 20)
e2 <- ext(0, 20, -40, 5)
union(e1, e2)

#SpatVector
v <- vect(system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra"))
v <- v[,3:4]
p <- vect(c("POLYGON ((5.8 49.8, 6 49.9, 6.15 49.8, 6 49.65, 5.8 49.8))",
"POLYGON ((6.3 49.9, 6.2 49.7, 6.3 49.6, 6.5 49.8, 6.3 49.9))"), crs=crs(v))
values(p) <- data.frame(pid=1:2, value=expanse(p))
u <- union(v, p)
plot(u, "pid")

b <- buffer(v, 1000)

u <- union(b)
u$sum <- rowSums(as.data.frame(u))
plot(u, "sum")

unique Unique values

Description
This method returns the unique values in a SpatRaster, or removes duplicates records (geometry
and attributes) in a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
unique(x, incomparables=FALSE, digits=NA, na.rm=TRUE, as.raster=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

unique(x, incomparables=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
incomparables logical. If FALSE and x is a SpatRaster: the unique values are determined for
all layers together, and the result is a matrix. If TRUE, each layer is evaluated
separately, and a list is returned. If x is a SpatVector this argument is as for a
data.frame
digits integer. The number of digits for rounding the values before finding the unique
values. Use NA means to not do any rounding
na.rm logical. If TRUE, NaN is included if there are any missing values
as.raster logical. If TRUE, a single-layer categorical SpatRaster with the unique values is
returned
... additional arguments passed on to unique
units 273

Value

If x is a SpatRaster: data.frame or list (if incomparables=FALSE)

If x is a SpatVector: SpatVector

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5)
values(r) <- rep(1:5, each=5)
unique(r)
s <- c(r, round(r/3))
unique(s)
unique(s,TRUE)

unique(s, as.raster=TRUE)

v <- vect(cbind(x=c(1:5,1:5), y=c(5:1,5:1)),

crs="+proj=utm +zone=1 +datum=WGS84")
nrow(v)
u <- unique(v)
nrow(u)

values(v) <- c(1:5, 1:3, 5:4)

unique(v)

units units of SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataSet

Description

Get or set the units of the layers of a SpatRaster or the datasets in a SpatRasterDataSet.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

units(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

units(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

units(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

units(x)<-value
274 update

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value character

Value
character

units(s) <- c("m/s", "kg", "ha")

units(s)
s

units(s) <- "kg"

units(s)

update Change values in a file

Description
Change the contents of a file that is the data source of a SpatRaster. BE CAREFUL as you are
overwriting values in an existing file.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
update(object, names=FALSE, crs=FALSE, extent=FALSE)

Arguments
object SpatRaster
names logical. Should the names be updated?
crs logical. Should the coordinate reference system be updated?
extent logical. Should the extent be updated?

Value
SpatRaster (invisibly)
valid 275

Examples
s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))
fname <- paste0(tempfile(), ".tif")
x <- writeRaster(s, fname)
names(x) <- c("A", "B", "C")
ext(x) <- ext(x) + 1
crs(x) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1"

update(x, names=TRUE, crs=TRUE, extent=TRUE)

rast(fname)

valid Check or fix polygon or extent validity

Description
Check the validity of polygons or attempt to fix it. Or check the validity of a SpatExtent.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
is.valid(x, messages=FALSE, as.points=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

makeValid(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

is.valid(x)

Arguments
x SpatVector
messages logical. If TRUE the error messages are returned
as.points logical. If TRUE, it is attempted to return locations where polygons are invalid as
a SpatVector or points

Value
logical

Examples
w <- vect("POLYGON ((0 -5, 10 0, 10 -10, 0 -5))")
is.valid(w)

w <- vect("POLYGON ((0 -5, 10 0, 10 -10, 4 -2, 0 -5))")

is.valid(w)
276 values

is.valid(w, TRUE)

plot(w)
points(cbind(4.54, -2.72), cex=2, col="red")

values Cell values and geometry attributes

Description
Get the cell values of a SpatRaster or the attributes of a SpatVector.
By default all values returned are numeric. This is because a vector or matrix can only store one
data type, and a SpatRaster may consist of multiple data types. However, if all layers have integer
or logical values, the returned values also have that datatype.
Note that with values(x, dataframe=TRUE) and as.data.frame(x) the values returned match
the type of each layer, and can be a mix of numeric, logical, integer, and factor.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
values(x, mat=TRUE, dataframe=FALSE, row=1,
nrows=nrow(x), col=1, ncols=ncol(x), na.rm=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

values(x, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
mat logical. If TRUE, values are returned as a matrix instead of as a vector, except
when dataframe is TRUE
dataframe logical. If TRUE, values are returned as a data.frame instead of as a vector (also
if matrix is TRUE)
row positive integer. Row number to start from, should be between 1 and nrow(x)
nrows positive integer. How many rows?
col positive integer. Column number to start from, should be between 1 and ncol(x)
ncols positive integer. How many columns? Default is the number of columns left
after the start column
na.rm logical. Remove NAs?
... additional arguments passed to data.frame
vect 277

Details

If x is a SpatRaster, and mat=FALSE, the values are returned as a vector. In cell-order by layer. If
mat=TRUE, a matrix is returned in which the values of each layer are represented by a column (with
ncell(x) rows). The values per layer are in cell-order, that is, from top-left, to top-right and then
down by row. Use as.matrix(x, wide=TRUE) for an alternative matrix representation where the
number of rows and columns matches that of x.

Value

matrix or data.frame

See Also

values<-, focalValues

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
r
x <- values(r)
x[3650:3655, ]
r[3650:3655]

ff <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(ff)
y <- values(v)
head(y)

vect Create SpatVector objects

Description

Methods to create a SpatVector from a filename or other R object.

A filename can be for a shapefile or any spatial file format.
You can use a data.frame to make a SpatVector of points; or a "geom" matrix to make a SpatVector
of any supported geometry (see examples and geom).
You can supply a list of SpatVectors to append them into a single SpatVector.
SpatVectors can also be created from "Well Known Text", and from spatial vector data objects
defined in the sf or sp packages.
278 vect

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'character'
vect(x, layer="", query="", extent=NULL, filter=NULL,
crs="", proxy=FALSE, what="")

## S4 method for signature 'matrix'

vect(x, type="points", atts=NULL, crs="")

## S4 method for signature 'data.frame'

vect(x, geom=c("lon", "lat"), crs="", keepgeom=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'list'

vect(x, type="points", crs="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

vect(x, crs="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorCollection'

vect(x)

## S4 method for signature 'sf'

vect(x)

Arguments
x character. A filename; or a "Well Known Text" string; SpatExtent, data.frame
(to make a SpatVector of points); a "geom" matrix to make a SpatVector of
any supported geometry (see examples and geom); a spatial vector data object
defined in the sf or sp packages; or a list with matrices with coordinates
layer character. layer name to select a layer from a file (database) with multiple layers
query character. An query to subset the dataset in the OGR-SQL dialect
extent Spat* object. The extent of the object is used as a spatial filter to select the
geometries to read. Ignored if filter is not NULL
filter SpatVector. Used as a spatial filter to select geometries to read (the convex hull
is used for lines or points). It is guaranteed that all features that overlap with
the extent of filter will be returned. It can happen that additional geometries are
returned
type character. Geometry type. Must be "points", "lines", or "polygons"
atts data.frame with the attributes. The number of rows must match the number of
geometrical elements
crs character. The coordinate reference system in one of the following formats:
WKT/WKT2, <authority>:<code>, or PROJ-string notation (see crs). See crs
proxy logical. If TRUE a SpatVectorProxy is returned
what character indicating what to read. Either "" for geometries and attributes, geoms
to only read the geometries, attributes to only read the attributes (that are
returned as a data.frame)
vect 279

geom character. The field name(s) with the geometry data. Either two names for x
and y coordinates of points, or a single name for a single column with WKT
geometries)
keepgeom logical. If TRUE the geom variable(s) is (are) also included in the attributes

Value
SpatVector

## subsetting (large) files

## with attribute query
v <- vect(f, query="SELECT NAME_1, NAME_2, ID_2 FROM lux WHERE ID_2 < 4")
v

## with an extent
e <- ext(5.9, 6.3, 49.9, 50)
v <- vect(f, extent=e)

## with polygons
p <- as.polygons(e)
v <- vect(f, filter=p)

### SpatVector from a geom matrix

x1 <- rbind(c(-180,-20), c(-140,55), c(10, 0), c(-140,-60))
x2 <- rbind(c(-10,0), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55))
x3 <- rbind(c(-125,0), c(0,60), c(40,5), c(15,-45))
hole <- rbind(c(80,0), c(105,13), c(120,2), c(105,-13))
z <- rbind(cbind(object=1, part=1, x1, hole=0), cbind(object=2, part=1, x3, hole=0),
cbind(object=3, part=1, x2, hole=0), cbind(object=3, part=1, hole, hole=1))
colnames(z)[3:4] <- c('x', 'y')

p <- vect(z, "polygons")

z[z[, "hole"]==1, "object"] <- 4

lns <- vect(z[,1:4], "lines")
plot(p)
lines(lns, col="red", lwd=2)
280 vector_layers

### from wkt

v <- vect("POLYGON ((0 -5, 10 0, 10 -10, 0 -5))")

wkt <- c("MULTIPOLYGON ( ((40 40, 20 45, 45 30, 40 40)),

((20 35, 10 30, 10 10, 30 5, 45 20, 20 35),(30 20, 20 15, 20 25, 30 20)))",
"POLYGON ((0 -5, 10 0, 10 -10, 0 -5))")
w <- vect(wkt)

# combine two SpatVectors

vw <- rbind(w, v)

# add a data.frame
d <- data.frame(id=1:2, name=c("a", "b"))
values(w) <- d

# add data.frame on creation, here from a geom matrix

g <- geom(w)
d <- data.frame(id=1:2, name=c("a", "b"))
m <- vect(g, "polygons", atts=d, crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")

### SpatVector from a data.frame

d$wkt <- wkt
x <- vect(d, geom="wkt")

d$wkt <- NULL

d$lon <- c(0,10)
d$lat <- c(0,10)
x <- vect(d, geom=c("lon", "lat"))

# SpatVector to sf
#sf::st_as_sf(x)

vector_layers List or remove layers from a vector file

Description
List or remove layers from a vector file that supports layers such as GPGK

Usage
vector_layers(filename, delete="", return_error=FALSE)

Arguments
filename character. filename
delete character. layers to be deleted (ignored if the value is ""
return_error logical. If TRUE, an error occurs if some layers cannot be deleted. Otherwise a
warning is given
viewshed 281

viewshed Compute a viewshed

Description

Use elevation data to compute the locations that can be seen, or how much higher they would have to
be to be seen, from a certain position. The raster data coordinate reference system must planar (not
lon/lat), with the elevation values in the same unit as the distance unit of the coordinate reference
system.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

viewshed(x, loc, observer=1.80, target=0, curvcoef=6/7, output="yes/no", filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster, single layer with elevation values. Values should have the same unit
as the map units
loc location (x and y coordinates) or a cell number
observer numeric. The height above the elevation data of the observer
target numeric. The height above the elevation data of the targets
curvcoef numeric. Coefficient to consider the effect of the curvature of the earth and re-
fraction of the atmosphere. The elevation values are corrected with: elevation
= elevation - curvcoeff * (distance)^2 / (earth_diameter). This means
that with the default value of 0.85714, you lose sight of about 1 meter of eleva-
tion for each 385 m of planar distance
output character. Can be "yes/no" to get a binary (logical) output showing what areas
are visible; "land" to get the height above the current elevation that would be
visible; or "sea" the elevation above sea level that would be visible
filename character. Output filename
... Options for writing files as in writeRaster

References

The algorithm used is by Wang et al.: https://www.asprs.org/wp-content/uploads/pers/2000journal/january/2000_jan_87-

90.pdf.

See Also

terrain
282 voronoi

Examples

if (gdal() >= 3.1) {

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
x <- project(r, "EPSG:2169")
p <- cbind(70300, 96982)
v <- viewshed(x, p, 0, 0, 0.85714)
}

voronoi Voronoi diagram and Delaunay triangles

Description
Get a Voronoi diagram or Delaunay triangles for points, or the nodes of lines or polygons

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
voronoi(x, bnd=NULL, tolerance=0, as.lines=FALSE, deldir=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

delaunay(x, tolerance=0, as.lines=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatVector
bnd SpatVector to set the outer boundary of the voronoi diagram
tolerance numeric >= 0, snapping tolerance (0 is no snapping)
as.lines logical. If TRUE, lines are returned without the outer boundary
deldir logical. If TRUE, the deldir is used instead of the GEOS C++ library method.
It has been reported that deldir does not choke on very large data sets

Value
SpatVector

Examples
wkt <- c("MULTIPOLYGON ( ((40 40, 20 45, 45 30, 40 40)),
((20 35, 10 30, 10 10, 30 5, 45 20, 20 35),(30 20, 20 15, 20 25, 30 20)))",
"POLYGON ((0 -5, 10 0, 10 -10, 0 -5))")
x <- vect(wkt)
v <- voronoi(x)
v
vrt 283

d <- delaunay(x)
d

plot(v, lwd=2, col=rainbow(15))

lines(x, col="gray", lwd=2)
points(x)

vrt Virtual Raster Dataset

Description
Create a Virtual Raster Dataset (VRT) from a collection of file-based raster datasets (tiles).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'character'
vrt(x, filename="", options=NULL, overwrite=FALSE)

Arguments
x character. Filenames of raster "tiles". See tiles
filename character. Output VRT filename
options character. All arguments as separate vector elements. Options as for gdalbuild-
vrt
overwrite logical. Should filename be overwritten if it exists?

Value
SpatRaster

Note
A VRT can reference very many datasets. These are not all opened at the same time. The default
is to open not more than 100 files. To increase performance, this maximum limit can be increased
by setting the GDAL_MAX_DATASET_POOL_SIZE configuration option to a bigger value with
setGDALconfig. Note that a typical user process on Linux is limited to 1024 simultaneously opened
files.

See Also
makeTiles to create tiles; makeVRT to create a .vrt file for a binary raster file that does not have a
header file.
284 weighted.mean

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=100, nrows=100)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
x <- rast(ncols=2, nrows=2)
filename <- paste0(tempfile(), "_.tif")
ff <- makeTiles(r, x, filename)
ff

#vrtfile <- paste0(tempfile(), ".vrt")

#v <- vrt(ff, vrtfile)

## output in lower resolution

#vrtfile <- paste0(tempfile(), ".vrt")
#v <- vrt(ff, vrtfile, options = c("-tr", 5, 5))
#head(readLines(vrtfile))
#v

weighted.mean Weighted mean of layers

Description
Compute the weighted mean for each cell of the layers of a SpatRaster. The weights can be spatially
variable or not.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'
weighted.mean(x, w, na.rm=FALSE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

weighted.mean(x, w, na.rm=FALSE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
w A vector of weights (one number for each layer), or for spatially variable weights,
a SpatRaster with weights (should have the same extent, resolution and number
of layers as x)
na.rm Logical. Should missing values be removed?
filename character. Output filename
... options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster
where 285

# give least weight to first layer, most to last layer

wm1 <- weighted.mean(b, w=1:3)

# spatially varying weights

# weigh by column number
w1 <- init(b, "col")

# weigh by row number

w2 <- init(b, "row")
w <- c(w1, w2, w2)

wm2 <- weighted.mean(b, w=w)

where Where are the cells with the min or max values?

Description
This method returns the cell numbers for the cells with the min or max values of each layer in a
SpatRaster.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
where.min(x, values=TRUE, list=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

where.max(x, values=TRUE, list=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
values logical. If TRUE the min or max values are also returned
list logical. If TRUE a list is returned instead of a matrix

Value
matrix or list

See Also
which and Summary-methods for which.min and which.max
286 which.lyr

Examples

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
where.min(r)

which.lyr Which cells are TRUE?

Description

This method returns a single layer SpatRaster with cell values indicating the first layer in the input
that is TRUE. All numbers that are not zero (or FALSE), are considered to be TRUE.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

which.lyr(x)

Arguments

x SpatRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

isTRUE, which, See Summary-methods for which.min and which.max

Examples

s <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package="terra"))

x <- which.lyr(s > 100)
width 287

width SpatVector geometric properties

Description
width returns the minimum diameter of the geometry, defined as the smallest band that contains the
geometry, where a band is a strip of the plane defined by two parallel lines. This can be thought of
as the smallest hole that the geometry can be moved through, with a single rotation.
clearance returns the minimum clearance of a geometry. The minimum clearance is the smallest
amount by which a vertex could be moved to produce an invalid polygon, a non-simple linestring,
or a multipoint with repeated points. If a geometry has a minimum clearance of ’mc’, it can be said
that:
No two distinct vertices in the geometry are separated by less than ’mc’ No vertex is closer than
’mc’ to a line segment of which it is not an endpoint. If the minimum clearance cannot be defined for
a geometry (such as with a single point, or a multipoint whose points are identical, NA is returned.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
width(x, as.lines=FALSE)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
clearance(x, as.lines=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatVector of lines or polygons
as.lines logical. If TRUE lines are returned that define the width or clearance

Value
numeric or SpatVector

window Set a window

Description
Assign a window (area of interest) to a SpatRaster with a SpatExtent, or set it to NULL to remove
the window. This is similar to crop without actually creating a new dataset.
The window is intersect with the extent of the SpatRaster. It is envisioned that in a future version,
the window may also go outside these boundaries.

Usage
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'
window(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

window(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value SpatExtent

Value
none for window<- and logical for window

f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
global(r, "mean", na.rm=TRUE)
e <- ext(c(5.9, 6,49.95, 50))

window(r) <- e
global(r, "mean", na.rm=TRUE)
r

x <- rast(f)
xe <- crop(x, e)
global(xe, "mean", na.rm=TRUE)

b <- c(xe, r)
wrap 289

window(b)
b

window(r) <- NULL

wrap wrap and unwrap

Description
Use wrap to pack a SpatRaster or SpatVector object to create a Packed* object. Packed objects can
be passed over a connection that serializes (e.g. to nodes on a computer cluster). At the receiving
end they need to be unpacked with unwrap.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
wrap(x, proxy=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

wrap(x)

## S4 method for signature 'ANY'

unwrap(x)

Arguments
x SpatVector or SpatRaster
proxy logical. If FALSE raster cell values are forced to memory if possible. If TRUE, a
reference to source filenames is stored for data sources that are not in memory

Value
wrap: Packed* object
unwrap: SpatRaster or SpatVector

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
p <- wrap(v)
p
vv <- vect(p)
vv
290 writeCDF

writeCDF Write raster data to a NetCDF file

Description
Write a SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset to a NetCDF file.
When using a SpatRasterDataset, the varname, longname, and unit should be set in the object (see
examples).
Always use the ".nc" or ".cdf" file extension to assure that the file can be properly read again by
GDAL

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
writeCDF(x, filename, varname, longname="", unit="", split=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

writeCDF(x, filename, overwrite=FALSE, zname="time", atts="",
gridmap="", prec="float", compression=NA, missval, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset
filename character. Output filename
varname character. Name of the dataset
longname character. Long name of the dataset
unit character. Unit of the data
split logical. If TRUE each layer of x is treated as a sub-dataset
atts character. A vector of additional global attributes to write. The must be format-
ted like c("x=a value", "y=abc")
gridmap character. The crs is always writting to the file in standard formats. With
this argument you can also write the format commonly used in netcdf files.
Something like c("grid_mapping_name=lambert_azimuthal_equal_area",
"longitude_of_projection_origin=10", "latitude_of_projection_origin=52",
"false_easting=4321000", "false_northing=3210000")
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
zname character. The name of the "time" dimension
prec character. One of "double", "float", "integer", "short", "byte" or "char"
compression Can be set to an integer between 1 (least compression) and 9 (most compression)
missval numeric, the number used to indicate missing values
... additional arguments passed on to the SpatRasterDataset method, and from there
possibly to ncvar_def
writeRaster 291

Value
SpatRaster or SpatDataSet

See Also
see writeRaster for writing other file formats

Examples
f <- system.file("ex/elev.tif", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
fname <- paste0(tempfile(), ".nc")
#rr <- writeCDF(r, fname, overwrite=TRUE, varname="alt",
# longname="elevation in m above sea level", unit="m")

a <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, nl=50)

values(a) <- 1:prod(dim(a))
time(a) <- as.Date("2020-12-31") + 1:nlyr(a)
#aa <- writeCDF(a, fname, overwrite=TRUE, varname="power",
# longname="my nice data", unit="U/Pa")

b <- sqrt(a)
s <- sds(a, b)
names(s) <- c("temp", "prec")
longnames(s) <- c("temperature (C)", "precipitation (mm)")
units(s) <- c("C", "mm")
#ss <- writeCDF(s, fname, overwrite=TRUE)

# for CRAN
#file.remove(fname)

writeRaster Write raster data to a file

Description
Write a SpatRaster object to a file.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,character'
writeRaster(x, filename, overwrite=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename. Can be a single filename, or as many filenames as
nlyr(x) to write a file for each layer
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for for writing files. See Details
292 writeRaster

Details
In writeRaster, and in other methods that generate SpatRaster objects, options for writing raster files
to disk can be provided as additional arguments or, in a few cases, as the wopt argument (a named
list) if the additional arguments are already used for a different purpose. See terraOptions to get
or set default values. The following options are available:

name description
datatype values accepted are "INT1U", "INT2U", "INT2S", "INT4U", "INT4S", "FLT4S", "FLT8S". With GDAL >= 3.5 y
filetype file format expresses as GDAL driver names. If this argument is not supplied, the driver is derived from the filena
gdal GDAL driver specific datasource creation options. See the GDAL documentation. For example, with the GeoTiff
tempdir the path where temporary files are to be written to.
progress positive integer. If the number of chunks is larger, a progress bar is shown.
memfrac numeric between 0 and 0.9 (higher values give a warning). The fraction of available RAM that terra is allowed to
memmax memmax - the maximum amount of RAM (in GB) that terra can use when processing a raster dataset. Should be l
names output layer names.
NAflag numeric. value to represent missing (NA or NaN) values. See note
scale numeric. Cell values written to disk are divided by this value (default is 1). See scoff
offset numeric. Value that is subtracted from the cell values written to disk (default is 0). See scoff
verbose logical. If TRUE debugging information is printed
steps positive integers. In how many steps (chunks) do you want to process the data (for debugging)
todisk logical. If TRUE processing operates as if the dataset is very large and needs to be written to a temporary file (for d

Value
SpatRaster. This function is used for the side-effect of writing values to a file.

Note
GeoTiff files are, by default, written with LZW compression. If you do not want compression, use
gdal="COMPRESS=NONE".
When writing integer values the lowest available value (given the datatype) is used to represent NA
for signed types, and the highest value is used for unsigned values. This can be a problem with byte
data (between 0 and 255) as the value 255 is reserved for NA. To keep the value 255, you need to set
another value as NAflag, or do not set a NAflag (with NAflag=NA)

See Also
see writeCDF for writing NetCDF files.

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=5, ncols=5, vals=1:25)

# create a temporary filename for the example

f <- file.path(tempdir(), "test.tif")

writeRaster(r, f, overwrite=TRUE)
writeVector 293

writeRaster(r, f, overwrite=TRUE, gdal=c("COMPRESS=NONE", "TFW=YES"), datatype='INT1U')

## Or with a wopt argument:

writeRaster(r, f, overwrite=TRUE, wopt= list(gdal=c("COMPRESS=NONE"), datatype='INT1U'))

## remove the file

unlink(f)

writeVector Write SpatVector data to a file

Description
Write a SpatVector to a file. You can choose one of many file formats.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,character'
writeVector(x, filename, filetype=NULL, layer=NULL, insert=FALSE,
overwrite=FALSE, options="ENCODING=UTF-8")

Arguments
x SpatVector
filename character. Output filename
filetype character. A file format associated with a GDAL "driver" such as "ESRI Shape-
file". See gdal(drivers=TRUE) or the GDAL docs. If NULL it is attempted to
guess the filetype from the filename extension
layer character. Output layer name. If NULL the filename is used
insert logical. If TRUE, a new layer is inserted into the file, if the format allows it (e.g.
GPKG allows that). See vector_layers to remove a layer
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
options character. Format specific GDAL options such as "ENCODING=UTF-8". Use
NULL or "" to not use any options

Examples
v <- vect(cbind(1:5,1:5))
crs(v) <- "+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84"
v$id <- 1:length(v)
v$name <- letters[1:length(v)]
tmpf1 <- paste0(tempfile(), ".gpkg")
writeVector(v, tmpf1)
x <- vect(tmpf1)

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

294 xmin

v <- vect(f)
tmpf2 <- paste0(tempfile(), ".gpkg")
writeVector(v, tmpf2)
y <- vect(tmpf2)

xmin Get or set single values of an extent

Description
Get or set single values of an extent. Values can be set for a SpatExtent or SpatRaster, but not for a
SpatVector)

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'
xmin(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

xmax(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

ymin(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

ymax(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

xmin(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

xmax(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

ymin(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

ymax(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

xmin(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

xmax(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

ymin(x)
xyRowColCell 295

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

ymax(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

xmin(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

xmax(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

ymin(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

ymax(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatExtent, or SpatVector
value numeric

Value
SpatExtent or numeric coordinate

Examples
r <- rast()
ext(r)
ext(c(0, 20, 0, 20))

xmin(r)
xmin(r) <- 0
xmin(r)

xyRowColCell Coordinates from a row, column or cell number and vice versa

Description
Get coordinates of the center of raster cells for a row, column, or cell number of a SpatRaster object.
Or get row, column, or cell numbers from coordinates or from each other.
Cell numbers start at 1 in the upper left corner, and increase from left to right, and then from top
to bottom. The last cell number equals the number of cells of the SpatRaster object. row numbers
start at 1 at the top, column numbers start at 1 at the left.
296 xyRowColCell

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'
xFromCol(object, col)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

yFromRow(object, row)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

xyFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

xFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

yFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

colFromX(object, x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

rowFromY(object, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric,numeric'

cellFromRowCol(object, row, col)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric,numeric'

cellFromRowColCombine(object, row, col)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric,numeric'

rowColCombine(object, row, col)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

rowFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

colFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

rowColFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,matrix'

cellFromXY(object, xy)

Arguments
object SpatRaster
cell integer. cell number(s)
col integer. column number(s) or missing (equivalent to all columns)
xyRowColCell 297

row integer. row number(s) or missing (equivalent to all rows)

x x coordinate(s)
y y coordinate(s)
xy matrix of x and y coordinates

Details
Cell numbers start at 1 in the upper left corner, and increase from left to right, and then from top to
bottom. The last cell number equals the number of cells of the SpatRaster (see ncell).

Value
xFromCol, yFromCol, xFromCell, yFromCell: vector of x or y coordinates
xyFromCell: matrix(x,y) with coordinate pairs
colFromX, rowFromY, cellFromXY, cellFromRowCol, rowFromCell, colFromCell: vector of row,
column, or cell numbers
rowColFromCell, rowColCombine: matrix of row and column numbers

xFromCol(r, c(1, 120, 180))

yFromRow(r, 90)
xyFromCell(r, 10000)
xyFromCell(r, c(0, 1, 32581, ncell(r), ncell(r)+1))

cellFromRowCol(r, 5, 5)
cellFromRowCol(r, 1:2, 1:2)
cellFromRowCol(r, 1, 1:3)

# all combinations
cellFromRowColCombine(r, 1:2, 1:2)

colFromX(r, 10)
rowFromY(r, 10)
xy <- cbind(lon=c(10,5), lat=c(15, 88))
cellFromXY(r, xy)

# if no row/col specified all are returned

range(xFromCol(r))
length(yFromRow(r))
298 zonal

zonal Zonal statistics

Description
Compute zonal statistics, that is summarize values of a SpatRaster for each "zone" defined by an-
other SpatRaster, or by a SpatVector with polygon geometry.
If fun is a true R function, the <SpatRaster,SpatRaster> method may fail when using very large
SpatRasters, except for the functions ("mean", "min", "max", "sum", "isNA", and "notNA").
You can also summarize values of a SpatVector for each polygon (zone) defined by another SpatVec-
tor.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
zonal(x, z, fun="mean", ..., w=NULL, wide=TRUE,
as.raster=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'

zonal(x, z, fun=mean, ..., w=NULL, weights=FALSE,
exact=FALSE, touches=FALSE, as.raster=FALSE, filename="", wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

zonal(x, z, fun=mean, ..., weighted=FALSE, as.polygons=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
z SpatRaster with cell-values representing zones or a SpatVector with each poly-
gon geometry representing a zone. z can have multiple layers to define inter-
secting zones
fun function to be applied to summarize the values by zone. Either as character:
"mean", "min", "max", "sum", "isNA", and "notNA" and, for relatively small
SpatRasters, a proper function
... additional arguments passed to fun, such as na.rm=TRUE
w SpatRaster with weights. Should have a single-layer with non-negative values
wide logical. Should the values returned in a wide format? This only affects the
results when nlyr(z) == 2
as.raster logical. If TRUE, a SpatRaster is returned with the zonal statistic for each zone
filename character. Output filename (ignored if as.raster=FALSE
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
weights logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the approximate fraction of each cell that is
covered is returned as well, for example to compute a weighted mean
zonal 299

exact logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the exact fraction of each cell that is covered
is returned as well, for example to compute a weighted mean
touches logical. If TRUE, values for all cells touched by lines or polygons are extracted,
not just those on the line render path, or whose center point is within the poly-
gon. Not relevant for points; and always considered TRUE when weights=TRUE
or exact=TRUE
weighted logical. If TRUE, a weighted.mean is computed and fun is ignored. Weights are
based on the length of the lines or the area of the polygons in x that intersect
with z. This argument is ignored of x is a SpatVector or points
as.polygons logical. Should the results be merged with the attributes of z?

Value
A data.frame with a value for each zone, or a SpatRaster, or SpatVector of polygons.

See Also
See global for "global" statistics (i.e., all of x is considered a single zone), app for local statistics,
and extract for an alternative way to summarize values of a SpatRaster with a SpatVector.

Examples

### SpatRaster, SpatRaster

r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
z <- rast(r)
values(z) <- rep(c(1:2, NA, 3:4), each=20)
names(z) <- "zone"
zonal(r, z, "sum", na.rm=TRUE)

# with weights
w <- init(r, "col")
zonal(r, z, w=w, "mean", na.rm=TRUE)

# multiple layers
r <- rast(system.file("ex/logo.tif", package = "terra"))
# zonal layer
z <- rast(r, 1)
names(z) <- "zone"
values(z) <- rep(c(1:2, NA, c(3:4)), each=ncell(r)/5, length.out=ncell(r))

zonal(r, z, "mean", na.rm = TRUE)

# raster of zonal values

zr <- zonal(r, z, "mean", na.rm = TRUE, as.raster=TRUE)

### SpatRaster, SpatVector

x <- rast(ncol=2,nrow=2, vals=1:4, xmin=0, xmax=1, ymin=0, ymax=1, crs="+proj=utm +zone=1")
p <- as.polygons(x)
300 zoom

pp <- shift(p, .2)

r <- disagg(x, 4)

zonal(r, p)
zonal(r, p, sum)
zonal(x, pp, exact=TRUE)
zonal(c(x, x*10), pp, w=x)

### SpatVector, SpatVector

f <- system.file("ex/lux.shp", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)[,c(2,4)]

p <- spatSample(v, 100)

values(p) <- data.frame(b2=1:100, ssep1=100:1)

zonal(p, v, mean)

zoom Zoom in on a map

Description
Zoom in on a map (plot) by providing a new extent, by default this is done by clicking twice on the
map.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
zoom(x, e=draw(), maxcell=100000, layer=1, new=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

zoom(x, e=draw(), new=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
e SpatExtent
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells used for the map
layer positive integer to select the layer to be used
new logical. If TRUE, the zoomed in map will appear on a new device (window)
... additional arguments passed to plot

Value
SpatExtent (invisibly)
zoom 301

!,SpatRaster-method (Compare-methods), diff, 79

61 disagg, 83
∗ classes dots, 87
options, 169 elongate, 89
SpatExtent-class, 241 erase, 90
SpatRaster-class, 242 expanse, 91
SpatVector-class, 244 extract, 95
∗ math extremes, 98
Arith-methods, 32 factors, 99
atan2, 38 fillHoles, 101
Compare-methods, 61 fillTime, 102
Math-methods, 154 focalValues, 113
modal, 159 gaps, 114
∗ methods geomtype, 117
activeCat, 20 graticule, 119
add_legend, 22 headtail, 122
aggregate, 24 hist, 123
animate, 28 image, 125
app, 29 impose, 126
Arith-methods, 32 inset, 130
as.data.frame, 34 interpolation, 134
as.list, 35 intersect, 137
as.raster, 36 is.bool, 139
barplot, 41 lapp, 141
boundaries, 42 lines, 146
cartogram, 46 makeTiles, 148
catalyze, 47 makeVRT, 149
cells, 48 mask, 151
cellSize, 49 match, 153
colors, 58 Math-methods, 154
combineGeoms, 59 merge, 156
Compare-methods, 61 mergeTime, 157
concats, 63 meta, 158
contour, 64 mosaic, 160
convHull, 65 normalize.longitude, 166
cover, 67 not.na, 168
crosstab, 71 panel, 172
deepcopy, 74 patches, 173
densify, 75 perim, 174

302
INDEX 303

persp, 175 terra-package, 7

plet, 176 ∗ spatial
plot, 178 activeCat, 20
plot_extent, 184 add, 21
plot_graticule, 185 add_legend, 22
plotRGB, 182 adjacent, 22
predict, 186 aggregate, 24
quantile, 192 align, 25
query, 193 all.equal, 27
rapp, 195 animate, 28
rast, 196 app, 29
readwrite, 205 approximate, 31
regress, 207 Arith-methods, 32
relate, 208 as.character, 33
replace_layers, 212 as.data.frame, 34
replace_values, 213 as.list, 35
RGB, 217 as.raster, 36
sapp, 221 as.spatvector, 37
scatterplot, 225 atan2, 38
scoff, 226 autocorrelation, 39
sds, 227 barplot, 41
selectRange, 231 boundaries, 42
serialize, 232 boxplot, 43
setValues, 233 buffer, 44
sharedPaths, 235 c, 45
simplifyGeom, 238 cartogram, 46
sources, 240 catalyze, 47
split, 246 cells, 48
sprc, 247 cellSize, 49
summarize, 255 centroids, 51
summary, 258 clamp, 52
svc, 259 clamp_ts, 53
symdif, 260 classify, 54
tapp, 261 click, 56
text, 264 coerce, 57
topology, 268 colors, 58
union, 271 combineGeoms, 59
values, 276 Compare-methods, 61
vect, 277 compareGeom, 62
vector_layers, 280 concats, 63
vrt, 283 contour, 64
width, 287 convHull, 65
window, 288 costDist, 66
wrap, 289 cover, 67
writeCDF, 290 crds, 68
writeRaster, 291 crop, 69
writeVector, 293 crosstab, 71
∗ package crs, 72
304 INDEX

deepcopy, 74 interpolation, 134

densify, 75 intersect, 137
density, 76 is.bool, 139
depth, 77 is.lonlat, 140
describe, 78 lapp, 141
diff, 79 linearUnits, 145
dimensions, 80 lines, 146
direction, 82 makeTiles, 148
disagg, 83 makeVRT, 149
distance, 84 map.pal, 150
dots, 87 mask, 151
draw, 88 match, 153
elongate, 89 Math-methods, 154
erase, 90 mem, 155
expanse, 91 merge, 156
ext, 93 mergeTime, 157
extend, 94 meta, 158
extract, 95 mosaic, 160
extremes, 98 na.omit, 161
factors, 99 NAflag, 162
fillHoles, 101 names, 163
fillTime, 102 nearest, 165
flip, 103 normalize.longitude, 166
focal, 104 north, 166
focal3D, 106 not.na, 168
focalCpp, 107 options, 169
focalMat, 109 origin, 170
focalPairs, 110 pairs, 171
focalReg, 112 panel, 172
focalValues, 113 patches, 173
freq, 113 perim, 174
gaps, 114 persp, 175
gdal, 115 plet, 176
geom, 116 plot, 178
geomtype, 117 plot_extent, 184
global, 118 plot_graticule, 185
graticule, 119 plotRGB, 182
gridDistance, 120 predict, 186
headtail, 122 project, 189
hist, 123 quantile, 192
ifel, 124 query, 193
image, 125 rangeFill, 194
impose, 126 rapp, 195
initialize, 127 rast, 196
inplace, 128 rasterize, 199
inset, 130 rasterizeGeom, 201
interpIDW, 131 rasterizeWin, 202
interpNear, 133 rcl, 204
INDEX 305

readwrite, 205 svc, 259

rectify, 207 symdif, 260
regress, 207 tapp, 261
relate, 208 terra-package, 7
rep, 210 terrain, 262
replace_dollar, 211 text, 264
replace_layers, 212 tighten, 265
replace_values, 213 time, 266
resample, 214 tmpFiles, 267
rescale, 216 topology, 268
RGB, 217 transpose, 269
roll, 218 trim, 270
rotate, 219 union, 271
same.crs, 221 unique, 272
sapp, 221 units, 273
sbar, 222 update, 274
scale, 224 valid, 275
scatterplot, 225 values, 276
scoff, 226 vect, 277
sds, 227 vector_layers, 280
segregate, 228 viewshed, 281
sel, 229 voronoi, 282
selectHighest, 230 vrt, 283
selectRange, 231 where, 285
serialize, 232 which.lyr, 286
setValues, 233 width, 287
shade, 234 window, 288
sharedPaths, 235 wrap, 289
shift, 236 writeCDF, 290
sieve, 237 writeRaster, 291
simplifyGeom, 238 writeVector, 293
sort, 239 xmin, 294
sources, 240 xyRowColCell, 295
SpatExtent-class, 241 zonal, 298
SpatRaster-class, 242 zoom, 300
spatSample, 242 ∗ univar
SpatVector-class, 244 freq, 113
spin, 245 modal, 159
split, 246 [, 13, 16, 138
sprc, 247 [ (subset_single), 253
stretch, 248 [,SpatExtent,missing,missing-method
subset, 249 (subset_single), 253
subset_dollar, 250 [,SpatExtent,numeric,missing-method
subset_double, 252 (subset_single), 253
subset_single, 253 [,SpatRaster,ANY,ANY,ANY-method
subst, 254 (subset_single), 253
summarize, 255 [,SpatRaster,ANY,ANY-method
summary, 258 (subset_single), 253
306 INDEX

[,SpatRaster,SpatExtent,missing-method [,SpatVector,logical,missing-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_single), 253
[,SpatRaster,SpatRaster,missing-method [,SpatVector,logical,numeric-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_single), 253
[,SpatRaster,SpatVector,missing-method [,SpatVector,matrix,missing-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_single), 253
[,SpatRaster,data.frame,missing-method [,SpatVector,missing,character-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_single), 253
[,SpatRaster,matrix,missing-method [,SpatVector,missing,logical-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_single), 253
[,SpatRaster,missing,missing-method [,SpatVector,missing,missing-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_single), 253
[,SpatRaster,missing,numeric-method [,SpatVector,missing,numeric-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_single), 253
[,SpatRaster,numeric,missing-method [,SpatVector,numeric,character-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_single), 253
[,SpatRaster,numeric,numeric-method [,SpatVector,numeric,logical-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_single), 253
[,SpatRasterCollection,numeric,missing-method[,SpatVector,numeric,missing-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_single), 253
[,SpatRasterDataset,character,missing-method [,SpatVector,numeric,numeric-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_single), 253
[,SpatRasterDataset,logical,missing-method [,SpatVectorCollection,numeric,missing-method
(subset_single), 253 (svc), 259
[,SpatRasterDataset,missing,logical-method [<- (replace_values), 213
(subset_single), 253 [<-,SpatExtent,numeric,missing-method
[,SpatRasterDataset,missing,numeric-method (replace_values), 213
(subset_single), 253 [<-,SpatRaster,ANY,ANY,ANY-method
[,SpatRasterDataset,numeric,logical-method (replace_values), 213
(subset_single), 253 [<-,SpatRaster,ANY,ANY-method
[,SpatRasterDataset,numeric,missing-method (replace_values), 213
(subset_single), 253 [<-,SpatRasterDataset,numeric,missing-method
[,SpatRasterDataset,numeric,numeric-method (sds), 227
(subset_single), 253 [<-,SpatVector,ANY,ANY-method
[,SpatVector,SpatExtent,missing-method (replace_values), 213
(subset_single), 253 [<-,SpatVector,ANY,missing-method
[,SpatVector,SpatVector,missing-method (replace_values), 213
(subset_single), 253 [<-,SpatVector,missing,ANY-method
[,SpatVector,character,missing-method (replace_values), 213
(subset_single), 253 [<-,SpatVectorCollection,numeric,missing-method
[,SpatVector,data.frame,ANY-method (svc), 259
(subset_single), 253 [[ (subset_double), 252
[,SpatVector,data.frame,missing-method [[,SpatRaster,ANY,missing-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_double), 252
[,SpatVector,logical,character-method [[,SpatRaster,character,missing-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_double), 252
[,SpatVector,logical,logical-method [[,SpatRaster,logical,missing-method
(subset_single), 253 (subset_double), 252
INDEX 307

[[,SpatRaster,numeric,missing-method add_legend, 22
(subset_double), 252 addCats (factors), 99
[[,SpatRasterDataset,ANY,ANY-method addCats,SpatRaster-method (factors), 99
(subset_double), 252 adjacent, 9, 14, 22, 165, 209
[[,SpatVector,character,missing-method adjacent,SpatRaster-method (adjacent),
(subset_double), 252 22
[[,SpatVector,logical,missing-method adjacent,SpatVector-method (adjacent),
(subset_double), 252 22
[[,SpatVector,numeric,missing-method aggregate, 8, 14, 24, 83, 214, 215, 261, 271
(subset_double), 252 aggregate,SpatRaster-method
[[,SpatVectorCollection,numeric,missing-method (aggregate), 24
(svc), 259 aggregate,SpatVector-method
[[<- (replace_layers), 212 (aggregate), 24
[[<-,SpatRaster,character-method align, 16, 25
(replace_layers), 212 align,SpatExtent,numeric-method
[[<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method (align), 25
(replace_layers), 212 align,SpatExtent,SpatRaster-method
[[<-,SpatVector,character-method (align), 25
(replace_layers), 212 all (summarize), 255
[[<-,SpatVector,numeric-method all,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255
(replace_layers), 212 all.equal, 27, 62
$, 212 all.equal,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
$ (subset_dollar), 250 (all.equal), 27
$,SpatExtent-method (subset_dollar), 250 allNA (summarize), 255
$,SpatRaster-method (subset_dollar), 250 allNA,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255
$,SpatRasterDataset-method
animate, 28
(subset_dollar), 250
animate,SpatRaster-method (animate), 28
$,SpatVector-method (subset_dollar), 250
any (summarize), 255
$<- (replace_dollar), 211
any,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255
$<-,SpatExtent-method (replace_dollar),
anyNA (summarize), 255
211
anyNA,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255
$<-,SpatRaster-method (replace_dollar),
app, 8, 18, 29, 33, 62, 119, 142, 153, 155, 192,
211
195, 196, 222, 255, 257, 261, 262,
$<-,SpatVector-method (replace_dollar),
299
211
%in% (match), 153 app,SpatRaster-method (app), 29
%in%,SpatRaster-method (match), 153 app,SpatRasterDataset-method (app), 29
apply, 29
activeCat, 12, 20, 48, 100 approx, 31
activeCat,SpatRaster-method approximate, 9, 18, 31, 102, 103
(activeCat), 20 approximate,SpatRaster-method
activeCat<- (activeCat), 20 (approximate), 31
activeCat<-,SpatRaster-method area (deprecated), 77
(activeCat), 20 area,SpatRaster-method (deprecated), 77
add, 21 Arith,logical,SpatRaster-method
add<-, 7, 18 (Arith-methods), 32
add<- (add), 21 Arith,matrix,SpatRaster-method
add<-,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method (Arith-methods), 32
(add), 21 Arith,missing,SpatRaster-method
308 INDEX

(Arith-methods), 32 as.int (is.bool), 139

Arith,numeric,SpatExtent-method as.int,SpatRaster-method (is.bool), 139
(Arith-methods), 32 as.integer,SpatRaster-method (is.bool),
Arith,numeric,SpatRaster-method 139
(Arith-methods), 32 as.lines, 17
Arith,SpatExtent,numeric-method as.lines (as.spatvector), 37
(Arith-methods), 32 as.lines,SpatExtent-method
Arith,SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method (as.spatvector), 37
(Arith-methods), 32 as.lines,SpatRaster-method
Arith,SpatRaster,logical-method (as.spatvector), 37
(Arith-methods), 32 as.lines,SpatVector-method
Arith,SpatRaster,matrix-method (as.spatvector), 37
(Arith-methods), 32 as.list, 15, 19, 35, 35
Arith,SpatRaster,missing-method as.list,SpatRaster-method (as.list), 35
(Arith-methods), 32 as.list,SpatRasterCollection-method
Arith,SpatRaster,numeric-method (as.list), 35
(Arith-methods), 32 as.list,SpatRasterDataset-method
Arith,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method (as.list), 35
(Arith-methods), 32 as.list,SpatVector-method (as.list), 35
Arith,SpatVector,SpatVector-method as.list,SpatVectorCollection-method
(Arith-methods), 32 (as.list), 35
Arith-methods, 8, 32, 62 as.logical,SpatRaster-method (is.bool),
arrows, 147 139
as.array, 10 as.matrix, 10, 35, 277
as.array (coerce), 57 as.matrix (coerce), 57
as.array,SpatRaster-method (coerce), 57 as.matrix,SpatRaster-method (coerce), 57
as.bool, 8 as.numeric, 12
as.bool (is.bool), 139 as.numeric (catalyze), 47
as.bool,SpatRaster-method (is.bool), 139 as.numeric,SpatRaster-method
as.character, 33 (catalyze), 47
as.character,SpatExtent-method as.points, 17, 19
(as.character), 33 as.points (as.spatvector), 37
as.character,SpatRaster-method as.points,SpatExtent-method
(as.character), 33 (as.spatvector), 37
as.contour, 17 as.points,SpatRaster-method
as.contour (contour), 64 (as.spatvector), 37
as.contour,SpatRaster-method (contour), as.points,SpatVector-method
64 (as.spatvector), 37
as.data.frame, 15, 34, 58, 276 as.polygons, 17, 19, 58
as.data.frame,SpatRaster-method as.polygons (as.spatvector), 37
(as.data.frame), 34 as.polygons,SpatExtent-method
as.data.frame,SpatVector-method (as.spatvector), 37
(as.data.frame), 34 as.polygons,SpatRaster-method
as.factor, 12, 100 (as.spatvector), 37
as.factor (is.bool), 139 as.polygons,SpatVector-method
as.factor,SpatRaster-method (is.bool), (as.spatvector), 37
139 as.raster, 36, 36
as.int, 8 as.raster,SpatRaster-method
INDEX 309

(as.raster), 36 categories,SpatRaster-method (factors),

as.spatvector, 37 99
as.vector (coerce), 57 cats, 12, 20, 48, 64, 139, 140
as.vector,SpatRaster-method (coerce), 57 cats (factors), 99
atan2, 38 cats,SpatRaster-method (factors), 99
atan2,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method cellFromRowCol, 11, 204
(atan2), 38 cellFromRowCol (xyRowColCell), 295
atan_2 (atan2), 38 cellFromRowCol,SpatRaster,numeric,numeric-method
atan_2,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method (xyRowColCell), 295
(atan2), 38 cellFromRowColCombine, 11
autocor, 10 cellFromRowColCombine (xyRowColCell),
autocor (autocorrelation), 39 295
autocor,numeric-method cellFromRowColCombine,SpatRaster,numeric,numeric-method
(autocorrelation), 39 (xyRowColCell), 295
autocor,SpatRaster-method cellFromXY, 11
(autocorrelation), 39 cellFromXY (xyRowColCell), 295
autocorrelation, 39 cellFromXY,SpatRaster,data.frame-method
axis, 179 (xyRowColCell), 295
cellFromXY,SpatRaster,matrix-method
barplot, 18, 41, 41 (xyRowColCell), 295
barplot,SpatRaster-method (barplot), 41 cells, 11, 18, 48, 96
blocks, 12 cells,SpatRaster,missing-method
blocks (readwrite), 205 (cells), 48
blocks,SpatRaster-method (readwrite), cells,SpatRaster,numeric-method
205 (cells), 48
boundaries, 9, 42, 173 cells,SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method
boundaries,SpatRaster-method (cells), 48
(boundaries), 42 cells,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method
boxplot, 18, 41, 43, 43, 123, 171 (cells), 48
boxplot,SpatRaster-method (boxplot), 43 cellSize, 9, 18, 49, 92
buffer, 14, 44, 89, 137 cellSize,SpatRaster-method (cellSize),
buffer,SpatRaster-method (buffer), 44 49
buffer,SpatVector-method (buffer), 44 centroids, 13, 51
bxp, 43 centroids,SpatVector-method
(centroids), 51
c, 7, 18, 21, 45, 157, 271 clamp, 52, 53
c,SpatRaster-method (c), 45 clamp,numeric-method (clamp), 52
c,SpatRasterDataset-method (c), 45 clamp,SpatRaster-method (clamp), 52
c,SpatVector-method (c), 45 clamp_ts, 53
c,SpatVectorCollection-method (c), 45 clamp_ts,numeric-method (clamp_ts), 53
cartogram, 17, 46, 87 clamp_ts,SpatRaster-method (clamp_ts),
cartogram,SpatVector-method 53
(cartogram), 46 classify, 9, 19, 52, 54, 124, 157, 162, 214,
catalyze, 12, 47, 100 254, 255
catalyze,SpatRaster-method (catalyze), classify,SpatRaster-method (classify),
47 54
categories, 128 clearance, 15
categories (factors), 99 clearance (width), 287
310 INDEX

clearance,SpatVector-method (width), 287 compareGeom,SpatVector,SpatVector-method

click, 15, 18, 56, 88, 229 (compareGeom), 62
click,missing-method (click), 56 concats, 12, 63
click,SpatRaster-method (click), 56 concats,SpatRaster-method (concats), 63
click,SpatVector-method (click), 56 contour, 17, 64, 64
coerce, 36, 57 contour,SpatRaster-method (contour), 64
colFromCell (xyRowColCell), 295 convHull, 14, 65
colFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method convHull,SpatVector-method (convHull),
(xyRowColCell), 295 65
colFromX, 11 cor, 171
colFromX (xyRowColCell), 295 costDist, 9, 66, 121
colFromX,SpatRaster,numeric-method costDist,SpatRaster-method (costDist),
(xyRowColCell), 295 66
colorize, 17, 183, 184 costDistance (costDist), 66
colorize (RGB), 217 costDistance,SpatRaster-method
colorize,SpatRaster-method (RGB), 217 (costDist), 66
colorRamp, 150 countNA (summarize), 255
colors, 58 countNA,SpatRaster-method (summarize),
coltab (colors), 58 255
coltab,SpatRaster-method (colors), 58 cov.wt, 145
coltab<- (colors), 58 cover, 9, 14, 67, 124
coltab<-,SpatRaster-method (colors), 58 cover,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
combineGeoms, 16, 59 (cover), 67
combineGeoms,SpatVector,SpatVector-method cover,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
(combineGeoms), 59 (cover), 67
compare (Compare-methods), 61 cppFunction, 108
Compare,matrix,SpatRaster-method crds, 14, 18, 68, 117, 297
(Compare-methods), 61 crds,SpatRaster-method (crds), 68
Compare,numeric,SpatRaster-method crds,SpatVector-method (crds), 68
(Compare-methods), 61 crop, 8, 13, 15, 16, 69, 89, 90, 94, 95, 138,
Compare,SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method 152, 209, 214, 215, 229, 271, 288
(Compare-methods), 61 crop,SpatGraticule-method (crop), 69
Compare,SpatRaster,character-method crop,SpatRaster-method (crop), 69
(Compare-methods), 61 crop,SpatRasterCollection-method
Compare,SpatRaster,matrix-method (crop), 69
(Compare-methods), 61 crop,SpatRasterDataset-method (crop), 69
Compare,SpatRaster,numeric-method crop,SpatVector-method (crop), 69
(Compare-methods), 61 crosstab, 9, 71
Compare,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method crosstab,SpatRaster,missing-method
(Compare-methods), 61 (crosstab), 71
compare,SpatRaster-method crs, 11, 14, 38, 72, 145, 190, 191, 198, 243,
(Compare-methods), 61 278
Compare-methods, 8, 61 crs,character-method (crs), 72
compareGeom, 11, 18, 27, 62 crs,sf-method (crs), 72
compareGeom,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method crs,SpatExtent-method (crs), 72
(compareGeom), 62 crs,SpatRaster-method (crs), 72
compareGeom,SpatVector,missing-method crs,SpatRasterDataset-method (crs), 72
(compareGeom), 62 crs,SpatVector-method (crs), 72
INDEX 311

crs,SpatVectorProxy-method (crs), 72 dim,SpatRasterDataset-method

crs<- (crs), 72 (dimensions), 80
crs<-,SpatRaster,ANY-method (crs), 72 dim,SpatVector-method (dimensions), 80
crs<-,SpatRaster-method (crs), 72 dim,SpatVectorProxy-method
crs<-,SpatVector,ANY-method (crs), 72 (dimensions), 80
crs<-,SpatVector-method (crs), 72 dim<-,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80
cummax, 53 dimensions, 80
cummin, 53 direction, 9, 82
cumsum, 219 direction,SpatRaster-method
cumsum (Math-methods), 154 (direction), 82
cumsum,SpatRaster-method disagg, 8, 15, 18, 25, 69, 83, 214, 215
(Math-methods), 154 disagg,SpatRaster-method (disagg), 83
cut, 41 disagg,SpatVector-method (disagg), 83
distance, 9, 18, 45, 66, 82, 84, 121
data.frame, 35, 206, 276 distance,matrix,matrix-method
datatype (geomtype), 117 (distance), 84
datatype,SpatRaster-method (geomtype), distance,matrix,missing-method
117 (distance), 84
datatype,SpatVector-method (geomtype), distance,SpatRaster,missing-method
117 (distance), 84
Date, 266 distance,SpatRaster,sf-method
deepcopy, 74 (distance), 84
deepcopy,SpatRaster-method (deepcopy), distance,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method
74 (distance), 84
deepcopy,SpatVector-method (deepcopy), distance,SpatVector,ANY-method
74 (distance), 84
delaunay, 14 distance,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
delaunay (voronoi), 282 (distance), 84
delaunay,SpatVector-method (voronoi), dots, 17, 87
282 dots,SpatVector-method (dots), 87
deldir, 282 draw, 16, 18, 19, 26, 57, 88, 229, 301
densify, 75 draw,character-method (draw), 88
densify,SpatVector-method (densify), 75 draw,missing-method (draw), 88
density, 18, 76 droplevels (factors), 99
density,SpatRaster-method (density), 76 droplevels,SpatRaster-method (factors),
deprecated, 77 99
depth, 77, 267
depth,SpatRaster-method (depth), 77 elongate, 16, 45, 89
depth<- (depth), 77 elongate,SpatVector-method (elongate),
depth<-,SpatRaster-method (depth), 77 89
describe, 78, 116, 227 emptyGeoms (topology), 268
describe,character-method (describe), 78 emptyGeoms,SpatVector-method
diff, 79 (topology), 268
diff,SpatRaster-method (diff), 79 erase, 14, 16, 60, 89, 90, 260
dim (dimensions), 80 erase,SpatGraticule,SpatVector-method
dim,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80 (erase), 90
dim,SpatRasterCollection-method erase,SpatVector,missing-method
(dimensions), 80 (erase), 90
312 INDEX

erase,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method extract,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
(erase), 90 (extract), 95
erase,SpatVector,SpatVector-method extremes, 98
(erase), 90
expanse, 9, 14, 18, 50, 91 factor, 99
expanse,SpatRaster-method (expanse), 91 factors, 99
expanse,SpatVector-method (expanse), 91 fileBlocksize (readwrite), 205
ext, 11, 14, 16, 19, 26, 70, 81, 93, 95, 241 filled.contour, 64
ext,bbox-method (ext), 93 fillHoles, 14, 15, 101, 115
ext,Extent-method (ext), 93 fillHoles,SpatVector-method
ext,matrix-method (ext), 93 (fillHoles), 101
ext,missing-method (ext), 93 fillTime, 11, 32, 102, 157
ext,numeric-method (ext), 93 fillTime,SpatRaster-method (fillTime),
ext,Raster-method (ext), 93 102
ext,sf-method (ext), 93 flip, 8, 15, 103, 216, 237, 270
flip,SpatRaster-method (flip), 103
ext,SpatExtent-method (ext), 93
flip,SpatVector-method (flip), 103
ext,Spatial-method (ext), 93
focal, 9, 31, 32, 42, 104, 106–112, 119, 173,
ext,SpatRaster-method (ext), 93
238, 263
ext,SpatRasterCollection-method (ext),
focal,SpatRaster-method (focal), 104
93
focal3D, 9, 105, 106, 111, 112
ext,SpatRasterDataset-method (ext), 93
focal3D,SpatRaster-method (focal3D), 106
ext,SpatVector-method (ext), 93
focalCor, 18, 105
ext,SpatVectorProxy-method (ext), 93
focalCor (focalPairs), 110
ext<- (ext), 93
focalCor,SpatRaster-method
ext<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method (ext), (focalPairs), 110
93 focalCpp, 9, 105, 107
ext<-,SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method focalCpp,SpatRaster-method (focalCpp),
(ext), 93 107
extend, 8, 69, 70, 94, 214, 271, 288 focalMat, 105, 109
extend,SpatExtent-method (extend), 94 focalPairs, 9, 110
extend,SpatRaster-method (extend), 94 focalPairs,SpatRaster-method
extract, 10, 15, 19, 95, 119, 231, 299 (focalPairs), 110
extract,SpatRaster,data.frame-method focalReg, 9, 105, 111, 112
(extract), 95 focalReg,SpatRaster-method (focalReg),
extract,SpatRaster,matrix-method 112
(extract), 95 focalValues, 105, 108, 112, 113, 277
extract,SpatRaster,numeric-method focalValues,SpatRaster-method
(extract), 95 (focalValues), 113
extract,SpatRaster,sf-method (extract), free_RAM (mem), 155
95 freq, 9, 71, 113
extract,SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method freq,SpatRaster-method (freq), 113
(extract), 95
extract,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method gaps, 15, 114, 236, 238, 269
(extract), 95 gaps,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method
extract,SpatVector,data.frame-method (gaps), 114
(extract), 95 gaps,SpatVector-method (gaps), 114
extract,SpatVector,matrix-method gdal, 115, 198, 292
(extract), 95 gdalCache (gdal), 115
INDEX 313

geom, 14, 35, 36, 69, 116, 123, 277–279 init, 9, 233, 234
geom,SpatVector-method (geom), 116 init (initialize), 127
geomtype, 117 init,SpatRaster-method (initialize), 127
geomtype,Spatial-method (geomtype), 117 initialize, 127
geomtype,SpatVector-method (geomtype), inMemory, 11, 13
117 inMemory (sources), 240
geomtype,SpatVectorProxy-method inMemory,SpatRaster-method (sources),
(geomtype), 117 240
getGDALconfig (gdal), 115 inplace, 128
global, 9, 18, 92, 118, 145, 192, 258, 259, 299 inset, 17, 130, 167, 216, 223
global,SpatRaster-method (global), 118 inset,SpatRaster-method (inset), 130
graticule, 16, 119, 185, 186 inset,SpatVector-method (inset), 130
gridDist, 9, 66 interpIDW, 10, 131, 134, 203
gridDist (gridDistance), 120 interpIDW,SpatRaster,matrix-method
gridDist,SpatRaster-method (interpIDW), 131
(gridDistance), 120 interpIDW,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method
gridDistance, 120 (interpIDW), 131
gridDistance,SpatRaster-method interpNear, 10, 132, 133, 203
(gridDistance), 120 interpNear,SpatRaster,matrix-method
(interpNear), 133
halo, 17, 121, 265
interpNear,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method
has.colors (colors), 58
(interpNear), 133
has.colors,SpatRaster-method (colors),
interpolate, 10, 132, 134, 187
58
interpolate (interpolation), 134
has.RGB (RGB), 217
interpolate,SpatRaster-method
has.RGB,SpatRaster-method (RGB), 217
(interpolation), 134
hasMinMax (extremes), 98
hasMinMax,SpatRaster-method (extremes), interpolation, 134
98 intersect, 14, 16, 60, 69, 70, 90, 137, 209,
hasValues (sources), 240 229, 271
hasValues,SpatRaster-method (sources), intersect,SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method
240 (intersect), 137
head (headtail), 122 intersect,SpatExtent,SpatVector-method
head,SpatRaster-method (headtail), 122 (intersect), 137
head,SpatVector-method (headtail), 122 intersect,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
headtail, 122 (intersect), 137
hist, 18, 41, 43, 123, 123, 171 intersect,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method
hist,SpatRaster-method (hist), 123 (intersect), 137
intersect,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
ifel, 33, 62, 124 (intersect), 137
ifel,SpatRaster-method (ifel), 124 is.bool, 139
ifelse, 124 is.bool,SpatRaster-method (is.bool), 139
image, 17, 125, 125, 181, 186 is.factor, 12, 100
image,SpatRaster-method (image), 125 is.factor (is.bool), 139
impose, 13, 126 is.factor,SpatRaster-method (is.bool),
impose,SpatRasterCollection-method 139
(impose), 126 is.finite,SpatRaster-method
inext (inset), 130 (Compare-methods), 61
inext,SpatVector-method (inset), 130 is.infinite,SpatRaster-method
314 INDEX

(Compare-methods), 61 lapp, 8, 19, 30, 141, 196, 222

is.int (is.bool), 139 lapp,SpatRaster-method (lapp), 141
is.int,SpatRaster-method (is.bool), 139 lapp,SpatRasterDataset-method (lapp),
is.lines (geomtype), 117 141
is.lines,SpatVector-method (geomtype), lapply, 222
117 layerCor, 9, 19, 111, 144
is.lonlat, 11, 14, 18, 19, 140 layerCor,SpatRaster-method (layerCor),
is.lonlat,character-method (is.lonlat), 144
140 legend, 22, 179
is.lonlat,SpatRaster-method length, 13, 16
(is.lonlat), 140 length (dimensions), 80
is.lonlat,SpatVector-method length,SpatRasterCollection-method
(is.lonlat), 140 (dimensions), 80
is.na,SpatRaster-method length,SpatRasterDataset-method
(Compare-methods), 61 (dimensions), 80
is.nan,SpatRaster-method length,SpatVector-method (dimensions),
(Compare-methods), 61 80
is.points (geomtype), 117 length,SpatVectorCollection-method
is.points,SpatVector-method (geomtype), (dimensions), 80
117 levels, 12, 20, 139, 140
is.polygons (geomtype), 117 levels (factors), 99
is.polygons,SpatVector-method levels,SpatRaster-method (factors), 99
(geomtype), 117 levels<- (factors), 99
is.related, 138 levels<-,SpatRaster-method (factors), 99
is.related (relate), 208 linearUnits, 14, 145
is.related,SpatExtent,SpatRaster-method linearUnits,SpatRaster-method
(relate), 208 (linearUnits), 145
is.related,SpatExtent,SpatVector-method linearUnits,SpatVector-method
(relate), 208 (linearUnits), 145
is.related,SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method lines, 17, 146, 178, 180, 181, 184–186
(relate), 208 lines,leaflet-method (plet), 176
is.related,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method lines,sf-method (lines), 146
(relate), 208 lines,SpatExtent-method (lines), 146
is.related,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method lines,SpatGraticule,missing-method
(relate), 208 (plot_graticule), 185
is.related,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method lines,SpatGraticule-method (lines), 146
(relate), 208 lines,SpatRaster-method (lines), 146
is.related,SpatVector,SpatRaster-method lines,SpatVector-method (lines), 146
(relate), 208 log (Math-methods), 154
is.related,SpatVector,SpatVector-method log,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods),
(relate), 208 154
is.valid, 15, 238 logic (Compare-methods), 61
is.valid (valid), 275 Logic,logical,SpatRaster-method
is.valid,SpatExtent-method (valid), 275 (Compare-methods), 61
is.valid,SpatVector-method (valid), 275 Logic,numeric,SpatRaster-method
isFALSE,SpatRaster-method (is.bool), 139 (Compare-methods), 61
isTRUE, 286 Logic,SpatRaster,logical-method
isTRUE,SpatRaster-method (is.bool), 139 (Compare-methods), 61
INDEX 315

Logic,SpatRaster,numeric-method math,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods),

(Compare-methods), 61 154
Logic,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method Math-methods, 8, 16, 154
(Compare-methods), 61 Math2,SpatExtent-method (Math-methods),
logic,SpatRaster-method 154
(Compare-methods), 61 Math2,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods),
Logic-methods, 8 154
Logic-methods (Compare-methods), 61 Math2,SpatVector-method (Math-methods),
longnames (names), 163 154
longnames,SpatRaster-method (names), 163 Math2-methods (Math-methods), 154
longnames,SpatRasterDataset-method max (summarize), 255
(names), 163 max,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255
longnames<- (names), 163 mean (summarize), 255
longnames<-,SpatRaster-method (names), mean,SpatExtent-method (summarize), 255
163 mean,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255
longnames<-,SpatRasterDataset-method mean,SpatVector-method (summarize), 255
(names), 163 median (summarize), 255
median,SpatRaster-method (summarize),
make.unique, 164 255
makeNodes, 15 median,SpatVector-method (summarize),
makeNodes (topology), 268 255
makeNodes,SpatVector-method (topology), mem, 155
268 mem_info, 13, 169, 292
makeTiles, 148, 283 mem_info (mem), 155
makeTiles,SpatRaster-method merge, 8, 13, 15, 95, 100, 156, 156, 160, 247,
(makeTiles), 148 271
makeValid, 16, 238 merge,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
makeValid (valid), 275 (merge), 156
makeValid,SpatVector-method (valid), 275 merge,SpatRasterCollection,missing-method
makeVRT, 149, 283 (merge), 156
map.pal, 150 merge,SpatVector,data.frame-method
mask, 9, 69, 90, 124, 151, 200 (merge), 156
mask,SpatRaster,sf-method (mask), 151 merge,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
mask,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method (merge), 156
(mask), 151 mergeLines, 15
mask,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method mergeLines (topology), 268
(mask), 151 mergeLines,SpatVector-method
mask,SpatVector,sf-method (mask), 151 (topology), 268
mask,SpatVector,SpatVector-method mergeTime, 11, 157
(mask), 151 mergeTime,SpatRasterDataset-method
match, 153, 153 (mergeTime), 157
match,SpatRaster-method (match), 153 meta, 158
math, 142 meta,SpatRaster-method (meta), 158
math (Math-methods), 154 min (summarize), 255
Math,SpatExtent-method (Math-methods), min,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255
154 minmax, 10
Math,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods), minmax (extremes), 98
154 minmax,SpatRaster-method (extremes), 98
316 INDEX

minRect, 287 ncol,SpatRasterCollection-method

minRect (convHull), 65 (dimensions), 80
minRect,SpatVector-method (convHull), 65 ncol,SpatRasterDataset-method
modal, 159, 255, 257 (dimensions), 80
modal,SpatRaster-method (modal), 159 ncol,SpatVector-method (dimensions), 80
mosaic, 8, 13, 157, 160, 247, 271 ncol<- (dimensions), 80
mosaic,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method ncol<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(mosaic), 160 (dimensions), 80
mosaic,SpatRasterCollection,missing-method ncvar_def, 290
(mosaic), 160 nearby, 14, 23, 209
nearby (nearest), 165
na.omit, 13, 161 nearby,SpatVector-method (nearest), 165
na.omit,SpatVector-method (na.omit), 161 nearest, 14, 165
NAflag, 11, 19, 162 nearest,SpatVector-method (nearest), 165
NAflag,SpatRaster-method (NAflag), 162 nlyr, 11, 19
NAflag<- (NAflag), 162 nlyr (dimensions), 80
NAflag<-,SpatRaster-method (NAflag), 162 nlyr,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80
nlyr,SpatRasterCollection-method
name (names), 163
(dimensions), 80
name<- (names), 163
nlyr,SpatRasterDataset-method
names, 11, 13, 14, 123, 163, 186, 274
(dimensions), 80
names,SpatRaster-method (names), 163
nlyr<- (dimensions), 80
names,SpatRasterCollection-method
nlyr<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(names), 163
(dimensions), 80
names,SpatRasterDataset-method (names),
noNA, 61
163
noNA (summarize), 255
names,SpatVector-method (names), 163
noNA,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255
names,SpatVectorCollection-method
normalize.longitude, 16, 166, 220
(names), 163
normalize.longitude,SpatVector-method
names,SpatVectorProxy-method (names),
(normalize.longitude), 166
163
north, 17, 166, 181, 186, 223
names<- (names), 163 not.na, 8, 61, 168
names<-,SpatRaster-method (names), 163 not.na,SpatRaster-method (not.na), 168
names<-,SpatRasterCollection-method nrow, 11, 14
(names), 163 nrow (dimensions), 80
names<-,SpatRasterDataset-method nrow,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80
(names), 163 nrow,SpatRasterCollection-method
names<-,SpatVector-method (names), 163 (dimensions), 80
names<-,SpatVectorCollection-method nrow,SpatRasterDataset-method
(names), 163 (dimensions), 80
ncell, 11, 297 nrow,SpatVector-method (dimensions), 80
ncell (dimensions), 80 nrow<- (dimensions), 80
ncell,ANY-method (dimensions), 80 nrow<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
ncell,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80 (dimensions), 80
ncell,SpatRasterDataset-method nsrc (dimensions), 80
(dimensions), 80 nsrc,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80
ncol, 11, 14
ncol (dimensions), 80 options, 169
ncol,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80 origin, 11, 170
INDEX 317

origin,SpatRaster-method (origin), 170 plot,SpatVector,numeric-method (plot),

origin<- (origin), 170 178
origin<-,SpatRaster-method (origin), 170 plot,SpatVectorProxy,missing-method
(plot), 178
PackedSpatRaster-class plot<SpatGraticule>, 16, 17, 120
(SpatRaster-class), 242 plot_extent, 184
PackedSpatVector-class plot_graticule, 185
(SpatVector-class), 244 plotRGB, 17, 181, 182, 217
pairs, 18, 43, 123, 171, 171 plotRGB,SpatRaster-method (plotRGB), 182
pairs,SpatRaster-method (pairs), 171 points, 17, 87, 147, 178, 181, 186
panel, 17, 172, 181 points (lines), 146
panel,SpatRaster-method (panel), 172 points,leaflet-method (plet), 176
par, 147, 177 points,sf-method (lines), 146
patches, 10, 18, 42, 173 points,SpatExtent-method (lines), 146
patches,SpatRaster-method (patches), 173 points,SpatRaster-method (lines), 146
perim, 14, 174 points,SpatVector-method (lines), 146
perim,SpatVector-method (perim), 174 polys, 17, 178, 181, 186
polys (lines), 146
perimeter (perim), 174
polys,sf-method (lines), 146
perimeter,SpatVector-method (perim), 174
polys,SpatExtent-method (lines), 146
persp, 17, 175, 175
polys,SpatRaster-method (lines), 146
persp,SpatRaster-method (persp), 175
polys,SpatVector-method (lines), 146
plet, 176
POSIXlt, 266
plet,missing-method (plet), 176
predict, 10, 55, 134, 135, 186
plet,SpatRaster-method (plet), 176
predict,SpatRaster-method (predict), 186
plet,SpatVector-method (plet), 176
prod (summarize), 255
plet,SpatVectorCollection-method
prod,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255
(plet), 176
project, 8, 10, 13, 19, 72, 174, 189, 214, 215
plot, 17, 18, 28, 47, 65, 76, 87, 122, 125, 167, project,matrix-method (project), 189
172, 177, 178, 181, 183, 184, 186, project,SpatExtent-method (project), 189
217, 223, 265, 300, 301 project,SpatRaster-method (project), 189
plot,SpatExtent,missing-method project,SpatVector-method (project), 189
(plot_extent), 184
plot,SpatGraticule,missing-method quantile, 9, 19, 192, 258, 259
(plot_graticule), 185 quantile,SpatRaster-method (quantile),
plot,SpatRaster,character-method 192
(plot), 178 quantile,SpatVector-method (quantile),
plot,SpatRaster,missing-method (plot), 192
178 query, 193
plot,SpatRaster,numeric-method (plot), query,SpatVectorProxy-method (query),
178 193
plot,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
(scatterplot), 225 rainbow, 41
plot,SpatVector,character-method range (summarize), 255
(plot), 178 range,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255
plot,SpatVector,data.frame-method rangeFill, 9, 194
(plot), 178 rangeFill,SpatRaster-method
plot,SpatVector,missing-method (plot), (rangeFill), 194
178 rapp, 8, 195, 195, 231
318 INDEX

rapp,SpatRaster-method (rapp), 195 readRDS (serialize), 232

rast, 7, 17, 18, 196, 242 readRDS,character-method (serialize),
rast,ANY-method (rast), 196 232
rast,array-method (rast), 196 readStart, 12
rast,character-method (rast), 196 readStart (readwrite), 205
rast,data.frame-method (rast), 196 readStart,SpatRaster-method
rast,list-method (rast), 196 (readwrite), 205
rast,matrix-method (rast), 196 readStart,SpatRasterDataset-method
rast,missing-method (rast), 196 (readwrite), 205
rast,PackedSpatRaster-method (rast), 196 readStop, 12
rast,SpatExtent-method (rast), 196 readStop (readwrite), 205
rast,SpatRaster-method (rast), 196 readStop,SpatRaster-method (readwrite),
rast,SpatRasterDataset-method (rast), 205
196 readStop,SpatRasterDataset-method
rast,SpatVector-method (rast), 196 (readwrite), 205
rast,stars-method (rast), 196 readValues (readwrite), 205
rast,stars_proxy-method (rast), 196 readValues,SpatRaster-method
rasterImage, 36 (readwrite), 205
rasterize, 17, 96, 132, 134, 199, 201–203 readwrite, 205
rasterize,matrix,SpatRaster-method rectify, 207
(rasterize), 199 rectify,SpatRaster-method (rectify), 207
rasterize,sf,SpatRaster-method regress, 9, 207
(rasterize), 199 regress,SpatRaster,numeric-method
rasterize,SpatVector,SpatRaster-method (regress), 207
(rasterize), 199 regress,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
rasterizeGeom, 17, 200, 201, 203 (regress), 207
rasterizeGeom,SpatVector,SpatRaster-method relate, 14, 23, 138, 165, 208
(rasterizeGeom), 201 relate,SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method
rasterizeWin, 17, 132, 134, 200, 202 (relate), 208
rasterizeWin,data.frame,SpatRaster-method relate,SpatExtent,SpatRaster-method
(rasterizeWin), 202 (relate), 208
rasterizeWin,SpatVector,SpatRaster-method relate,SpatExtent,SpatVector-method
(rasterizeWin), 202 (relate), 208
RasterSource (SpatRaster-class), 242 relate,SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method
RasterSource-class (SpatRaster-class), (relate), 208
242 relate,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
rcl, 204 (relate), 208
rcl,SpatRaster-method (rcl), 204 relate,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method
Rcpp_RasterSource-class (relate), 208
(SpatRaster-class), 242 relate,SpatVector,missing-method
Rcpp_SpatCategories-class (relate), 208
(SpatRaster-class), 242 relate,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method
Rcpp_SpatExtent-class (relate), 208
(SpatExtent-class), 241 relate,SpatVector,SpatRaster-method
Rcpp_SpatRaster-class (relate), 208
(SpatRaster-class), 242 relate,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
Rcpp_SpatVector-class (relate), 208
(SpatVector-class), 244 removeDupNodes, 15
INDEX 319

removeDupNodes (topology), 268 (xyRowColCell), 295

removeDupNodes,SpatVector-method rowFromCell (xyRowColCell), 295
(topology), 268 rowFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method
rep, 210, 211 (xyRowColCell), 295
rep,SpatRaster-method (rep), 210 rowFromY, 11
replace_dollar, 211 rowFromY (xyRowColCell), 295
replace_layers, 212 rowFromY,SpatRaster,numeric-method
replace_values, 213 (xyRowColCell), 295
res, 11, 198 runif, 127
res (dimensions), 80
res,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80 same.crs, 221
res,SpatRasterDataset-method sapp, 8, 142, 221
(dimensions), 80 sapp,SpatRaster-method (sapp), 221
res<- (dimensions), 80 sapp,SpatRasterDataset-method (sapp),
res<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method 221
(dimensions), 80 saveRDS, 232, 233
saveRDS (serialize), 232
res<-,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80
saveRDS,SpatRaster-method (serialize),
resample, 8, 26, 69, 83, 126, 191, 207, 214
232
resample,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
saveRDS,SpatVector-method (serialize),
(resample), 214
232
rescale, 15, 47, 93, 131, 216, 245
sbar, 17, 131, 167, 181, 186, 222
rescale,SpatRaster-method (rescale), 216
scale, 9, 224, 224
rescale,SpatVector-method (rescale), 216
scale,SpatRaster-method (scale), 224
rev (flip), 103
scatterplot, 225
rev,SpatRaster-method (flip), 103
scoff, 226, 292
RGB, 184, 217 scoff,SpatRaster-method (scoff), 226
RGB,SpatRaster-method (RGB), 217 scoff<- (scoff), 226
RGB<- (RGB), 217 scoff<-,SpatRaster-method (scoff), 226
RGB<-,SpatRaster-method (RGB), 217 sds, 13, 199, 227, 247
roll, 9, 19, 30, 155, 218 sds,array-method (sds), 227
roll,numeric-method (roll), 218 sds,character-method (sds), 227
roll,SpatRaster-method (roll), 218 sds,list-method (sds), 227
rotate, 8, 16, 104, 166, 216, 219, 237, 270 sds,missing-method (sds), 227
rotate,SpatRaster-method (rotate), 219 sds,SpatRaster-method (sds), 227
rotate,SpatVector-method (rotate), 219 sds,stars-method (sds), 227
round, 41 sds,stars_proxy-method (sds), 227
round (Math-methods), 154 segregate, 9, 19, 228
round,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods), segregate,SpatRaster-method
154 (segregate), 228
round,SpatVector-method (Math-methods), sel, 15, 18, 229
154 sel,SpatRaster-method (sel), 229
rowColCombine, 204 sel,SpatVector-method (sel), 229
rowColCombine (xyRowColCell), 295 selectHighest, 230
rowColCombine,SpatRaster,numeric,numeric-method
selectHighest,SpatRaster-method
(xyRowColCell), 295 (selectHighest), 230
rowColFromCell, 11 selectRange, 7, 19, 195, 196, 231
rowColFromCell (xyRowColCell), 295 selectRange,SpatRaster-method
rowColFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method (selectRange), 231
320 INDEX

serialize, 232, 232, 233 setValues,SpatVector,ANY-method

serialize,SpatRaster-method (setValues), 233
(serialize), 232 setValues,SpatVector-method
serialize,SpatVector-method (setValues), 233
(serialize), 232 shade, 10, 234
set.cats, 12, 100 sharedPaths, 15, 60, 115, 235, 238, 269
set.cats (inplace), 128 sharedPaths,SpatVector-method
set.cats,SpatRaster-method (inplace), (sharedPaths), 235
128 shift, 8, 15, 131, 216, 220, 236, 245
set.crs (inplace), 128 shift,SpatExtent-method (shift), 236
set.crs,SpatRaster-method (inplace), 128 shift,SpatRaster-method (shift), 236
set.crs,SpatVector-method (inplace), 128 shift,SpatVector-method (shift), 236
set.ext, 93 show, 123
set.ext (inplace), 128 show,SpatExtent-method
set.ext,SpatRaster-method (inplace), 128 (SpatExtent-class), 241
set.ext,SpatVector-method (inplace), 128 show,SpatRaster-method
set.names, 163 (SpatRaster-class), 242
set.names (inplace), 128 show,SpatVector-method
set.names,SpatRaster-method (inplace), (SpatVector-class), 244
128 sieve, 10, 237
set.names,SpatRasterCollection-method sieve,SpatRaster-method (sieve), 237
(inplace), 128 simplifyGeom, 15, 238, 269
set.names,SpatRasterDataset-method simplifyGeom,SpatVector-method
(inplace), 128 (simplifyGeom), 238
set.names,SpatVector-method (inplace), size (dimensions), 80
128 size,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80
set.names,SpatVectorCollection-method snap, 16
(inplace), 128 snap (topology), 268
set.RGB (inplace), 128 snap,SpatVector-method (topology), 268
set.RGB,SpatRaster-method (inplace), 128 sort, 15, 239
set.values, 214, 232 sort,data.frame-method (sort), 239
set.values (inplace), 128 sort,SpatRaster-method (sort), 239
set.values,SpatRaster-method (inplace), sort,SpatVector-method (sort), 239
128 sources, 11, 12, 240
setCats (deprecated), 77 sources,SpatRaster-method (sources), 240
setCats,SpatRaster-method (deprecated), sources,SpatRasterCollection-method
77 (sources), 240
setGDALconfig, 283 sources,SpatRasterDataset-method
setGDALconfig (gdal), 115 (sources), 240
setMinMax, 10 sources,SpatVector-method (sources), 240
setMinMax (extremes), 98 sources,SpatVectorProxy-method
setMinMax,SpatRaster-method (extremes), (sources), 240
98 SpatCategories (SpatRaster-class), 242
setValues, 10, 233 SpatCategories-class
setValues,SpatRaster,ANY-method (SpatRaster-class), 242
(setValues), 233 SpatExtent, 94, 178, 181, 227
setValues,SpatRaster-method SpatExtent (SpatExtent-class), 241
(setValues), 233 SpatExtent-class, 241
INDEX 321

SpatGraticule, 178, 181 subset,SpatVector-method (subset), 249

SpatRaster (SpatRaster-class), 242 subset_dollar, 250
SpatRaster-class, 242 subset_double, 252
SpatRasterCollection subset_single, 253
(SpatRaster-class), 242 subst, 9, 55, 213, 214, 254
SpatRasterCollection-class subst,SpatRaster-method (subst), 254
(SpatRaster-class), 242 sum (summarize), 255
SpatRasterDataset (SpatRaster-class), sum,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255
242 summarize, 255
SpatRasterDataset-class summary, 9, 258, 258, 259
(SpatRaster-class), 242 Summary,SpatExtent-method (summary), 258
spatSample, 10, 19, 242, 259 Summary,SpatRaster-method (summary), 258
spatSample,SpatExtent-method summary,SpatRaster-method (summary), 258
(spatSample), 242 Summary,SpatVector-method (summary), 258
spatSample,SpatRaster-method summary,SpatVector-method (summary), 258
(spatSample), 242 Summary-methods, 8, 19
spatSample,SpatVector-method Summary-methods (summarize), 255
(spatSample), 242 svc, 16, 259
SpatVector (SpatVector-class), 244 svc,list-method (svc), 259
SpatVector-class, 244 svc,missing-method (svc), 259
SpatVectorCollection svc,sf-method (svc), 259
(SpatVector-class), 244 svc,SpatVector-method (svc), 259
SpatVectorCollection-class symdif, 14, 260
(SpatVector-class), 244 symdif,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
SpatVectorProxy (SpatVector-class), 244 (symdif), 260
SpatVectorProxy-class
(SpatVector-class), 244 t, 8, 15, 216, 245
spin, 15, 220, 245 t (transpose), 269
spin,SpatVector-method (spin), 245 t,SpatRaster-method (transpose), 269
split, 246 t,SpatVector-method (transpose), 269
split,SpatRaster,ANY-method (split), 246 tail (headtail), 122
split,SpatVector,ANY-method (split), 246 tail,SpatRaster-method (headtail), 122
split,SpatVector,SpatVector-method tail,SpatVector-method (headtail), 122
(split), 246 tapp, 8, 19, 30, 142, 196, 222, 231, 261
sprc, 13, 247 tapp,SpatRaster-method (tapp), 261
sprc,character-method (sprc), 247 tapply, 261
sprc,list-method (sprc), 247 terra (terra-package), 7
sprc,missing-method (sprc), 247 terra-package, 7
sprc,SpatRaster-method (sprc), 247 terrain, 10, 222, 234, 235, 262, 281
sqrt (Math-methods), 154 terrain,SpatRaster-method (terrain), 262
sqrt,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods), terrain.colors, 151
154 terraOptions, 12, 268, 292
stdev (summarize), 255 terraOptions (options), 169
stdev,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 255 text, 17, 122, 229, 264, 265
stretch, 9, 248 text,SpatRaster-method (text), 264
stretch,SpatRaster-method (stretch), 248 text,SpatVector-method (text), 264
subset, 7, 19, 195, 249 tighten, 265
subset,SpatRaster-method (subset), 249 tighten,SpatRaster-method (tighten), 265
322 INDEX

tighten,SpatRasterDataset-method unwrap,PackedSpatRaster-method (wrap),

(tighten), 265 289
tiles, 283 unwrap,PackedSpatVector-method (wrap),
tiles (makeTiles), 148 289
tiles,SpatRaster-method (makeTiles), 148 update, 274
time, 11, 78, 261, 266, 274 update,SpatRaster-method (update), 274
time,SpatRaster-method (time), 266
time<- (time), 266 valid, 275
time<-,SpatRaster-method (time), 266 values, 10, 15, 19, 97, 214, 234, 276
timeInfo (time), 266 values,SpatRaster-method (values), 276
timeInfo,SpatRaster-method (time), 266 values,SpatVector-method (values), 276
tmpFiles, 12, 267 values<-, 10, 15
topology, 115, 236, 268 values<- (setValues), 233
trans, 104 values<-,SpatRaster,ANY-method
trans (transpose), 269 (setValues), 233
trans,SpatRaster-method (transpose), 269 values<-,SpatVector,ANY-method
transpose, 269 (setValues), 233
Trig, 38 values<-,SpatVector,data.frame-method
trim, 8, 270 (setValues), 233
trim,SpatRaster-method (trim), 270 values<-,SpatVector,matrix-method
(setValues), 233
union, 14, 16, 60, 138, 157, 271 values<-,SpatVector,NULL-method
union,SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method (setValues), 233
(union), 271 varnames (names), 163
union,SpatVector,missing-method varnames,SpatRaster-method (names), 163
(union), 271 varnames,SpatRasterDataset-method
union,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method (names), 163
(union), 271 varnames<- (names), 163
union,SpatVector,SpatVector-method varnames<-,SpatRaster-method (names),
(union), 271 163
unique, 9, 13, 272, 272 varnames<-,SpatRasterDataset-method
unique,SpatRaster,ANY-method (unique), (names), 163
272 vect, 13, 17, 19, 194, 199, 277
unique,SpatRaster-method (unique), 272 vect,character-method (vect), 277
unique,SpatVector,ANY-method (unique), vect,data.frame-method (vect), 277
272 vect,list-method (vect), 277
unique,SpatVector-method (unique), 272 vect,matrix-method (vect), 277
units, 273 vect,missing-method (vect), 277
units,SpatRaster-method (units), 273 vect,PackedSpatVector-method (vect), 277
units,SpatRasterDataset-method (units), vect,sf-method (vect), 277
273 vect,sfc-method (vect), 277
units<- (units), 273 vect,SpatExtent-method (vect), 277
units<-,SpatRaster-method (units), 273 vect,Spatial-method (vect), 277
units<-,SpatRasterDataset-method vect,SpatVector-method (vect), 277
(units), 273 vect,SpatVectorCollection-method
unserialize (serialize), 232 (vect), 277
unserialize,ANY-method (serialize), 232 vect,XY-method (vect), 277
unwrap (wrap), 289 vector_layers, 13, 280, 293
unwrap,ANY-method (wrap), 289 viewshed, 10, 264, 281
INDEX 323

viewshed,SpatRaster-method (viewshed), writeRaster,SpatRaster,character-method

281 (writeRaster), 291
voronoi, 13, 282 writeStart, 12
voronoi,SpatVector-method (voronoi), 282 writeStart (readwrite), 205
vrt, 148, 150, 157, 283 writeStart,SpatRaster,character-method
vrt,character-method (vrt), 283 (readwrite), 205
writeStop, 12
weighted.mean, 145, 284, 285 writeStop (readwrite), 205
weighted.mean,SpatRaster,numeric-method writeStop,SpatRaster-method
(weighted.mean), 284 (readwrite), 205
weighted.mean,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method writeValues, 12
(weighted.mean), 284 writeValues (readwrite), 205
where, 285 writeValues,SpatRaster,vector-method
which, 285, 286 (readwrite), 205
writeVector, 13, 293
which.lyr, 9, 257, 286
writeVector,SpatVector,character-method
which.lyr,SpatRaster-method
(writeVector), 293
(which.lyr), 286
which.max (summarize), 255 xFromCell, 11
which.max,SpatRaster-method xFromCell (xyRowColCell), 295
(summarize), 255 xFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method
which.min (summarize), 255 (xyRowColCell), 295
which.min,SpatRaster-method xFromCol, 11
(summarize), 255 xFromCol (xyRowColCell), 295
width, 15, 287 xFromCol,SpatRaster,missing-method
width,SpatVector-method (width), 287 (xyRowColCell), 295
window, 197, 288 xFromCol,SpatRaster,numeric-method
window,SpatRaster-method (window), 288 (xyRowColCell), 295
window<- (window), 288 xmax, 11
window<-,SpatRaster-method (window), 288 xmax (xmin), 294
wrap, 7, 198, 232, 289 xmax,SpatExtent-method (xmin), 294
wrap,SpatRaster-method (wrap), 289 xmax,SpatRaster-method (xmin), 294
wrap,SpatVector-method (wrap), 289 xmax,SpatVector-method (xmin), 294
writeCDF, 12, 290, 292 xmax<- (xmin), 294
writeCDF,SpatRaster-method (writeCDF), xmax<-,SpatExtent,numeric-method
290 (xmin), 294
writeCDF,SpatRasterDataset-method xmax<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(writeCDF), 290 (xmin), 294
writeRaster, 7, 12, 24, 29, 32, 39, 42, 44, 47, xmin, 11, 294
50, 52, 53, 55, 61, 63, 66, 67, 70, 79, xmin,SpatExtent-method (xmin), 294
82, 83, 85, 95, 102, 103, 105, 107, xmin,SpatRaster-method (xmin), 294
108, 111, 112, 121, 124, 126, 127, xmin,SpatVector-method (xmin), 294
132, 133, 135, 140, 142, 148, 152, xmin<- (xmin), 294
154, 156, 158–160, 168, 169, 173, xmin<-,SpatExtent,numeric-method
187, 191, 192, 194, 196, 198, 200, (xmin), 294
201, 203, 206–208, 215, 218–220, xmin<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
222, 228, 231, 232, 235, 237, 239, (xmin), 294
248, 249, 255, 257, 262, 263, 270, xres, 11
281, 284, 291, 291, 298 xres (dimensions), 80
324 INDEX

xres,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80 zoom,SpatRaster-method (zoom), 300

xyFromCell, 11, 69, 96, 117 zoom,SpatVector-method (zoom), 300
xyFromCell (xyRowColCell), 295
xyFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(xyRowColCell), 295
xyRowColCell, 295

yFromCell, 11
yFromCell (xyRowColCell), 295
yFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(xyRowColCell), 295
yFromRow, 11
yFromRow (xyRowColCell), 295
yFromRow,SpatRaster,missing-method
(xyRowColCell), 295
yFromRow,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(xyRowColCell), 295
ymax, 11
ymax (xmin), 294
ymax,SpatExtent-method (xmin), 294
ymax,SpatRaster-method (xmin), 294
ymax,SpatVector-method (xmin), 294
ymax<- (xmin), 294
ymax<-,SpatExtent,numeric-method
(xmin), 294
ymax<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(xmin), 294
ymin, 11
ymin (xmin), 294
ymin,SpatExtent-method (xmin), 294
ymin,SpatRaster-method (xmin), 294
ymin,SpatVector-method (xmin), 294
ymin<- (xmin), 294
ymin<-,SpatExtent,numeric-method
(xmin), 294
ymin<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(xmin), 294
yres, 11
yres (dimensions), 80
yres,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 80

zonal, 9, 71, 92, 96, 97, 119, 298

zonal,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
(zonal), 298
zonal,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method
(zonal), 298
zonal,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
(zonal), 298
zoom, 18, 300

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