DATA COMMUNICAIONS

Third Stage
NETWORKS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Lecture (6)
Dr. Mohammed Khalid
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Digital modulation is the process of encoding a digital information signal into the
amplitude, phase, or frequency of the transmitted signal. The encoding process
affects the bandwidth of the transmitted signal and its robustness to channel
impairments.

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics

of an analog signal based on the information in digital data.

Digital-to-analog conversion

Types of digital-to-analog conversion

Carrier Signal
In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-frequency signal that
acts as a base for the information signal. This base signal is called the carrier
signal or carrier frequency. The receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the
carrier signal that it expects from the sender. Digital information then changes the
carrier signal by modifying one or more of its characteristics (amplitude,
frequency, or phase). This kind of modification is called modulation (shift
keying).

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 1) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create
signal elements. Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude
changes.

Binary ASK (BASK)

Although we can have several levels (kinds) of signal elements, each with a
different amplitude, ASK is normally implemented using only two levels. This is
referred to as binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK). The peak
amplitude of one signal level is 0; the other is the same as the amplitude of the
carrier frequency. Figure bellow gives a conceptual view of binary ASK. It can
also be used to transmit digital data over fiber.

Binary amplitude shift keying

Note:(Review Lecture 3) S = c x N x 1/r bauds

where N is data rate

c is the case factor (worst, best & avg.) between 0 and 1.

r is the ratio between data element & signal element

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 Implementation of binary ASK

Mathematically, amplitude-shift keying is:

A
v(t ) = [1 + vm(t )[ cos( wct )]]
2

where

v(ASK)(t) = amplitude-shift keying wave

vm(t) = digital information (modulating) signal (volts)

A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)

ωc = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2πfc t)

In the previous equation , the modulating signal [vm(t)] is a normalized binary

waveform, where + 1 V = logic 1 and -1 V = logic 0. Therefore, for a logic 1
input, vm(t) = + 1 V, the equation can be reduces to:

A
v(t ) = [1 + 1[ cos( wc t )]]
2
v(t ) = A cos( wct )

and for a logic 0 input, vm(t) = -1 V:

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 A
v(t ) = [1 − 1[ cos( wct )]]
2

Thus, the modulated wave vASK(t), is either A cos(ωc t) or 0. Hence, the carrier
is either "on"or "off," which is why amplitude-shift keying is sometimes
referred to as on-off keying(OOK).

Bandwidth of the ASK:

The bandwidth B of ASK is proportional to the signal rate S.

B = (1+d)S

◼ “d” is due to modulation and filtering, lies between 0 and 1.

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz.
What are the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using ASK with d = 1?

The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means that our carrier
frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz. We can use the formula for bandwidth to find
the bit rate (with d = 1 and r = 1).

In data communications, we normally use full-duplex links with

communication in both directions. We need to divide the bandwidth into two
with two carrier frequencies, as shown in below figure. The figure shows the
positions of two carrier frequencies and the bandwidths. The available
bandwidth for each direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data rate
of 25 kbps in each direction.

2) Frequency Shift Keying

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In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent
data. The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of one
signal element, but changes for the next signal element if the data element
changes. Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements.

Binary FSK (BFSK)

◼ One way to think about binary FSK (or BFSK) is to consider two carrier
frequencies. The digital data stream changes the frequency of the carrier
signal, fc.

Mathematical expression of FSK:

vFSK (t ) = [Vc cos[2 [ f c + vm (t )f ]t ]

VFSK(t) = binary FSK waveform

Vc = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)

fc = analog carrier center frequency (hertz)

Δf = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency (Hertz)

vm(t) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts)

it can be seen that the peak shift in the carrier frequency (Δf) is proportional
to the amplitude of the binary input signal (vm[t]), and the direction of the
shift is determined by the polarity. The modulating signal is a normalized
binary waveform where a logic 1 = + 1 V and a logic 0 = -1 V. Thus, for a
logic l input, vm(t) = + 1, previous equation can be rewritten as

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 vFSK (t ) = [Vc cos[2 [ f c + f ]t ]
For a logic 0 input, vm(t) = -1

vFSK (t ) = [Vc cos[2 [ f c − f ]t ]

With binary FSK, the carrier center frequency (fc) is shifted (deviated) up
and down in the frequency domain by the binary input signal as shown in
below figure:

Δf = |fm – fs| / 2

fm= Maximum frequency(Mark frequency)

fs= Minmum frequency(space frequency)

◼ FSK modulation is used in the following applications:

• Radio broadcasting transmission (2–35 MHz).

• Local area networks using broadband coaxial cables.

• Low-speed modems (up to 1200 bit/s).

◼
For example, a “1” could be represented by f1=fc +f, and a “0” could be
represented by f2=fc-f.

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 ◼ If the difference between the two frequencies (f1 and f2) is 2f, then the
required bandwidth B will be:

B = (1+d)S +2f

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz.
What should be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data
by using FSK with d = 1?

The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. Δf=300-200/2=; this means

Phase Shift Keyeing (PSK)

◼ We vary the phase shift of the carrier signal to represent digital data.
◼ PSK is much more robust than ASK as it is not that vulnerable to
noise, which changes amplitude of the signal.

V (t ) = b(t )  A sin( wct )

Where V(t) is BPSK and b(t) is binary value ±1 corresponding to the
logic 0 or 1.
BPSK can be generated from the digram shown in Figure 1. The binary
data signal (0 and 1) is converted into NRZ bipolar signal by NRZ
encoder, which is then applied to multiplier which is basically a product
modulator.

Block Diagram of BPSK

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The Relation between 0, 1 and bipolar NRZ signal is given by below
table:
Digital signal Bipolar NRZ BPSK output
Binary 0 b(t)= -1 -Asin(wct)
Binary1 b(t)=+1 Asin(wct)

Therefore, the modulated signal according to the input binary

can be explained as the following plot:

Binary phase shift keying

Implementation of PSK

The bandwidth B of PSK is proportional to the signal rate S

same as ASK.
B = (1+d)S