1

CHAPTER 10: OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

LL

Paper weightage: MCQ’s(1*1=1) + Short Q’s(3*2=6) + Long Q’s(1*5=5) or

Numerical Q’s(1*3=3) = 12 or 10 marks

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
2

LLLLLL LECTURE 01

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Introduction:
Lens: “Lens is a piece of transparent refracting medium bounded by
3 one or two spherical surfaces.”
There are two types of lenses
i) Convex Lens ii) Concave Lens
i) Convex Lens:
“A lens which converges the parallel rays of light to a point is called
convex or converging lens.” Convex lens is thicker at the center and
thinner at the edges.
There are three types of convex lens
i) Double Convex Lens ii) Plano Convex Lens
iii) Concavo Convex Lens
Concave Lens:
“A lens which diverges the parallel rays of light is called concave or
diverging lens.” Concave lens is thinner at the center and thicker at
the edges.
i) Double Concave Lens ii) Plano Concave Lens
iii) Convexo Concave Lens
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Center of Curvature:
The center of the spherical surface of the lens is called center of
4 curvature.
Radius of Curvature:
The radius of the spherical surface of the lens is called radius of
curvature.
Optical Center:
A point which lies inside the lens or on the surface of the lens
through which a light ray passes un-deviated is called optical center of
the lens.
Principle Focus:
The point at which the parallel rays converges in case of convex
lens or from which they appear to diverge in case of concave lens is
called the focus of the lens.
A convex lens has real focus whereas a concave lens has virtual focus.
Principle Axis:
The line joining the optical center of the lens and the focus is called
principle axis.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Focal length:
The distance between the optical center and the focus of the lens is called focal
5 length. The focal length of convex lens is taken as positive and that of a
concave lens is negative.
Note: When a lens is dipped in liquid its focal length increases.
Pole:
The point where the principle axis touches the surfaces of the lens is called
pole. A lens has two poles. The distance between the two poles of the lens is
called width of the lens.
Aperture:
The diameter of the circular boundary of the lens is called aperture.
Power of a lens:
The reciprocal of the focal length of a lens is called its power.
1
i.e. 𝑃=
𝑓
Unit:
The unit of power of the lens is Diopter.
Diopter:
The power of a lens is said to be one diopter, if the focal length of the lens is
1
one meter. i.e. One diopter = ⇒ 1 𝐷 = 1 𝑚−1
𝑓=1 𝑚
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Combination of lenses:
If two lenses are combined to form a single lens, then its power is given by
6 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
1 1 1 𝑓1 𝑓2
= + ⇒ 𝑓=
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 +𝑓2
Lens Aberrations or Defect in Lens:
There are two types of defect in a lens.
i) Chromatic Aberration ii) Spherical Aberration
i) Chromatic Aberration:
When white light passes through a lens, it disperses the light into seven
colours. The lens cannot focus all the colours at one point. As a result the
coloured image is formed. This defect is called chromatic aberration.
Remedy:
This defect can be removed by using a combination of convex and
concave lenses. Their focal lengths are so adjusted that the combination
does not produce any dispersion. This combination is called achromatic
combination. Lenses which are free from dispersion are called
achromatic lenses.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 ii) Spherical Aberration:
When parallel rays of light pass through a lens of large aperture, then it
7 was observed that the rays which pass through the edges of the lens
converge more than the rays which pass through the central part of the
lens. This defect is called spherical aberration. As a result this defect, a
blurred image is formed.
Remedy:
This defect can be removed by using only the central portion of a lens.
i) Making the two surfaces of the lens of different curvature.
ii) By using a convex and a concave lens of different shapes.
Question#10.4: One can buy cheap microscope for use of children. The images seen
in such microscope have colored edges, why is this so? (**)
Answer: The images in microscope have colored edges because of
defects in lenses. Such a defect is known as
chromatic aberration. In such a problem, a lens
can’t bring all rays of white light to a single point
on image. So image is not sharp and has colored
edges.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Find the power of convex lens of 10 cm focal length? (*)
Given:
8 𝑓 = 10 𝑐𝑚 = 0.1 𝑚
To find:
𝑃 =?
Solution:
1
𝑃=
𝑓
1
𝑃= = 10 𝑚−1
0.1
𝑃 = 10 𝐷
Define near point or least distance of distinct vision. (**)
Answer: “The minimum distance from the eye at which an object
appears to be distinct is called least distance of distinct vision or near
point.”
For a normal eye, it is equal to 25 cm. However, it increases with age. If
the object is held closer to the eye than this distance, the image
formed will be blurred and fuzzy.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Define magnification or linear magnification. (*)
Answer: “The ratio of size of image to
9 the size of object is called magnification.
It is given by
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐼
𝑀= =
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂
In case of image formed by a lens, it can
be written as
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑞
𝑀= =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑝
𝐼 𝑞
i.e. 𝑀= =
𝑂 𝑝
Since, magnification is a ratio of two sizes, so it has
no units and no dimensions.
Define Visual Angle.
The angle subtended by an object at the eye is
called visual angle. The apparent size of an object
depends upon the visual angle subjected by it at
the eye. Thus closer is the object to the eye, greater
is the visual angle and larger is the apparent size of object as shown fig.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Define angular magnification or magnifying power. (*)
Answer: “The ratio of the angles subtended by the image as seen through
10 the optical device to that subtended by the object at the naked eye is
called angular magnification or magnifying power.
It is given by
𝜃 𝛽
𝑀= 𝑖=
𝜃𝑜 𝛼
Where 𝜃𝑜 = the angle subtended by the object at the naked eye
And 𝜃𝑖 = the angle subtended by the image as seen through the optical
device.
Define Resolving power. (**)
Answer: The ability of an optical instrument to reveal the minor details of
the object under examination is called resolving power.
1
𝑅=
𝛼𝑚𝑖𝑛
Where 𝛼𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the minimum angle in which two point
sources (image) subtend at the instrument so that
their images are seen as two distinct spots of light
rather than one.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 i) Resolving power of a Convex lens: Raleigh showed that the resolving
power of a convex lens is
11 1 𝐷
𝑅= =
𝛼𝑚𝑖𝑛 1.22𝜆
1.22𝜆
Where 𝛼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = , 𝜆 = Wavelength of light and D = Diameter of lens.
D
ii) Resolving power of a Diffraction Grating:
The resolving power of a diffraction grating is given by
𝜆 𝜆
𝑅= =
𝜆2 − 𝜆1 Δ𝜆
Where Δ𝜆 = 𝜆2 − 𝜆1 and 𝜆 ≈ 𝜆1 ≈ 𝜆2
The resolving power of the grating in 𝑚𝑡ℎ order diffraction is given by
𝑅 =𝑁×𝑚
Where 𝑁 is the number of lines on the grating.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Write two differences between angular magnification and resolving
power. (*)
12
Magnification Resolving Power
1. Magnification means how 1. The resolving power is defined
many times the size of the as the minimum angular
original image is increased by separation between two
an object or a method. objects to see them as
2. The magnification of objects separate objects.
seen through telescopes and 2. The resolving power depends
compound microscopes on the aperture of the
depends on the focal length instrument and the
of the objective element and wavelength of the observed
the eyepiece lens. light.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Problem#10.7: Sodium light of wave length 589 nm is used to view an object under a
microscope. If the aperture of the objective is 0.90 cm, (i) find the limiting angle of resolution
(ii) using visible light of any wavelength, what is the maximum limit of resolution for this
13 microscope.
Given:
𝜆 = 589 𝑛𝑚 = 589 × 10−9 𝑚
D = 0.90 𝑐𝑚 = 0.90 × 10−2 𝑚
To find:
i) 𝛼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ? and ii) 𝛼𝑚𝑖𝑛
′
=?
Solution:
1.22𝜆 1.22(589×10−9 )
i) 𝛼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 8 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑
D 0.90×10−2

ii) For maximum limit resolution (take 𝜆 = 400 × 10−9 m)

′ 1.22𝜆 1.22(400×10−9 )
𝛼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 5.42 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑
D 0.90×10−2

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Position of the Position of the Nature of the Size of the image Application
object image image

14 Between 𝐹2 and Objective lens of

Beyond 2𝐹1 Inverted and real Diminished
2𝐹2 telescope
Photocopying
At 2𝐹1 At 2𝐹2 Inverted and real Same size
camera

Photographic
Between 𝐹1 and Beyond 2𝐹2 camera
Inverted and real Magnified
2𝐹1 terrestrial
telescope

At 𝐹1 At infinity Inverted and real Magnified Search lights

Magnifying lens
(Simple
Between O and On the same side
Erect and virtual Magnified microscope) eye
𝐹1 of the lens
piece of many
instrument

Photographic
At infinity At 𝐹2 Inverted and real Diminished
camera

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 What is microscope? (*)
Answer: It is an optical instrument used to see the magnified image of
15 small objects.
There are two types of microscopes.
i) Simple Microscope ii) Compound Microscope
What is simple microscope or magnifying glass? Derive the relation for its
magnifying power. (***)
Simple Microscope:
An ordinary convex lens that is held close to the eye to see the
magnified image of an object is called simple microscope or magnifying
glass.
Principle:
If a small object is placed within the focal length of a convex lens,
then lens forms virtual, erect and magnified image of the object at least
distance of distinct vision from the lens or eye.
Magnifying Power:
Consider an object O is placed at a least
distance d from the eye and it subtends an
angle 𝛼 at eye as shown in fig. (a)
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 In order to see the magnified image of the object,
it is placed within the focal length of the lens.
16 The image forms virtual, erect and magnified
image at least distance d as shown in fig.
The magnification produced by lens can be
𝛽
calculated by 𝑀= -------(1)
𝛼
When angles 𝛼 and 𝛽 are small, then
𝛼 = tan 𝛼 and 𝛽 = tan 𝛽
In this case the equation (1) an be written as
tan 𝛽
𝑀=
tan 𝛼
From fig (a) and (b), we have
𝑂 𝐼
tan 𝛼 = and tan 𝛽 =
𝑑 𝑑
tan 𝛽 𝐼 𝐼 𝑞
Hence, 𝑀= =𝑂 = 𝑑
=
tan 𝛼 𝑑 𝑂 𝑝
As image is formed at least distance, therefore 𝑞 = 𝑑
𝑑
Therefore, M= ----------------(2)
𝑝

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Using lens formula
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑝 𝑞
17
As image is virtual, so q will be negative.
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑝 𝑞
Putting 𝑞 = 𝑑
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑝 𝑑
Multiplying both sides by d, we get
𝑑 𝑑
= −1
𝑓 𝑝
𝑑 𝑑
Or =1+ ------------(3)
𝑝 𝑓
Comparing equations (2) and (3), we have
𝑑
𝑀 =1+
𝑓
This is the relation for magnifying power of simple microscope. This relation
shows that smaller is the focal length of the lens, greater will be its
magnification and vice versa.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Image at infinity:
When the image formed by a convex lens is located at infinity then
18 the magnification of the simple microscope is
𝑑
𝑀=
𝑓
Uses:
Normally this microscope is used in ordinary daily life as magnifying
purposes.
i) A watch maker uses the convex lens to mend the watches.
ii) Doctors normally use this lens to find the pieces of glass or any other
small objects that are accidently fallen into eye.
iii) The geologists also use this lens to examine the ancient traces.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Find the angular magnification of simple microscope if focal length is 5
cm? (*)
19 Given:
𝑓 = 5 𝑐𝑚
To find:
M=?
Solution:
𝑑
𝑀 =1+
𝑓
25 𝑐𝑚
𝑀=1 =6 +
5 𝑐𝑚
Describe with help of diagram, have a convex lens can be used as
magnifying glass? (*)
Convex lens is called simple microscope as it is
often used as a magnifier when an object is
brought within the focal length of convex lens.
The magnified, erect and virtual image is formed
at least distance of distinct vision d.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Question#10.1: What do you understand by linear magnification and angular
magnification? Explain how a convex lens is used as a magnifier? (**)
20
Linear Magnification: The ratio of the size of image to the size of object is
𝐼
called linear magnification. 𝑀=
𝑂
Angular magnification: The ratio of the angle subtended by the image as
seen through the optical device to that subtended by the object at the un-
𝛽
aided eye. 𝑀=
𝛼
Convex lens used as a magnifier:
Convex lens used as a magnifier when an object is brought within the focal
length of convex lens.
Question#10.2: Explain the difference between the angular magnification and resolving power
of optical instrument. What limits the magnification of an optical instrument? (**)
Angular magnification: The ratio of the angle subtended by the image as
seen through the optical device to that subtended by the object at the un-
aided eye
Resolving Power: It is the ability to disclose the minor details of the object
under examination.
The magnification of an optical instrument is limited due to chromatic or
spherical aberrations/defects in lenses.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Question#10.7: A magnify glass gives five times enlarged image at the distance of 25
cm from the lens. Find, by the ray diagram, the focal length of the lens. (*)
21 Given:
𝑀=5
𝑑 = 𝑞 = 25 𝑐𝑚
To find:
5 cm
𝑓 =?
Solution:
𝑑
𝑀 =1+
𝑓
25 𝑐𝑚
5=1+
𝑓
25 𝑐𝑚
5 −1=4=
𝑓
25
𝑓= = 6.25 𝑐𝑚
4

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Problem#10.1: A converging lens of focal length 5.0 cm is used as a magnifying glass. If the
near point of the observer is 25 cm and the lens is held closer to the eye, calculate (i) the
distance of the object from the lens (ii) the angular magnification. What is the angular
22 magnification when the final image is formed at infinity?
Given:
f = 5 𝑐𝑚
𝑑 = 25 𝑐𝑚
To find:
Distance of object = p = ?
Angular magnification = 𝑀 = ?
Angular magnification when image is at infinity = 𝑀′ = ?
Solution:
i) As image is virtual, so q will be negative.
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − ⇒ = −
𝑓 𝑝 𝑞 5 𝑝 25
1 1 1 5+1 6
= + = =
𝑝 5 25 25 25
25
𝑝 = = 4.2 𝑐𝑚
6

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 ii) Angular Magnification:
𝑑
𝑀=1 +
𝑓
23 25 𝑐𝑚
𝑀=1 =6 +
5 𝑐𝑚
iii) When image is at infinity, the object must be placed at focus
p = f = 5 𝑐𝑚 and q = 𝑑 = 25 𝑐𝑚
𝑞 25
𝑀= = =5
𝑝 5

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 What is compound microscope? Derive mathematical expression for
its magnification. (***)
24 Compound Microscope:
Compound microscope is used to see the highly magnified image of a
very small object such as virus and bacteria.
Construction:
The simple compound microscope consists of two convex lenses
called as objective and eye-piece.
i) The objective lens has small focal length and small aperture.
ii) The eye-piece lens has large focal length and large aperture.
Working:
The ray diagram of compound microscope is shown in fig. The object
AB of height h is placed just beyond the focus of the objective. The
objective forms its real, inverted and magnified image 𝐴1 𝐵1 of height ℎ1
on other side. The position of eye piece is so adjusted that the image 𝐴1 𝐵1
lies within its focal length. Thus, the eye piece forms its virtual, erect and
magnified image 𝐴2 𝐵2 of height ℎ2 at least distance d from the eye.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
25

Magnifying power:
The magnifying power of the compound microscope is given by
tan 𝜃𝑒
𝑀= ------------------(1)
tan 𝜃
Where 𝜃 = Angle subtended by the object AB, when placed at least
distance d from eye. 𝜃𝑒 = Angle subtended by the final image 𝐴2 𝐵2
at the eye.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 From the figures (a) and (b)
ℎ ℎ2
tan 𝜃 = and tan 𝜃𝑒 =
𝑑 𝑑
26 Putting values in eq. (1) we have
ℎ2
tan 𝜃𝑒 𝑑 ℎ2
𝑀= = ℎ =
tan 𝜃 𝑑 ℎ
Multiplying and dividing by ℎ1 on right hand side
ℎ ℎ
𝑀= 1× 2 ------------(2)
ℎ ℎ1
𝑀 = 𝑀1 × 𝑀2 ------------(3)
ℎ1
Where 𝑀1 = = Magnification produced by objective and is given by
ℎ
ℎ1 𝑞1
𝑀1 = =
ℎ 𝑝1
ℎ2
And 𝑀2 = = Magnification produced by eye piece
ℎ1
As eye piece is used as a magnifying glass, so its magnification is given by
ℎ 𝑑
𝑀2 = 2 = 1 +
ℎ1 𝑓𝑒
Putting values of 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 in equation (3), we get
𝑞1 𝑑
𝑀 = (1 + )
𝑝1 𝑓𝑒
This is the relation for the magnifying power of the compound microscope.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Question#10.3: Why would it be advantages to use blue light with compound
microscope? (***)
Answer: The limit, to which a microscope can be used to resolve details, depends
27
upon the width of the objective and light of short wavelength. A wider objective and
use of blue light (short wavelength) produces less diffraction and allows more details
to be viewed.
Question#10.5: Describe with the help of diagrams how (b) a single biconvex lens
can be used as a magnifying glass (a) biconvex lens can be arranged to form a
microscope? (*)

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Example#10.1: A microscope has an objective lens of 10 mm focal length, and an eye piece
of 25 mm focal length. What is the distance between the lenses and its magnification, if the
object is in sharp focus when it is 10.5 mm from the objective?
28 Given:
Focal length of objective 𝑓𝑜 = 10 𝑚𝑚
Focal length of eye piece 𝑓𝑒 = 25 𝑚𝑚
Distance of object from objective 𝑃1 = 10.5 𝑚𝑚
To find:
Distance between lenses = 𝐿 = ?
Magnification = 𝑀 = ?
Solution:
i) For objective lens, we have.
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ = +
𝑓𝑜 𝑃1 𝑞1 10 10.5 𝑞1
1 1 1 1 10 105−100 5
= − = − = =
𝑞1 10 10.5 10 105 10×105 1050
1050
𝑞1 = = 210 𝑚𝑚
5

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 For eye piece lens, eye piece forms virtual image at least distance,
therefore 𝑞2 = 25 𝑐𝑚 = 250 𝑚𝑚, we have.
29 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − ⇒ = −
𝑓𝑒 𝑃2 𝑞2 25 𝑃2 250
1 1 1 10+1 11
= + = =
𝑃2 25 250 250 250
250
𝑃2 = = 22.7 𝑚𝑚
11
Thus the distance between the lenses
𝐿 = 𝑞1 + 𝑃2 = 210 + 22.7 = 232.7 𝑚𝑚 ≈ 233 𝑚𝑚
ii) Magnification will be
𝑀 = 𝑀1 × 𝑀2
𝑞1 −𝑞2 210 −250
= × = × = 20 × −11 = −220
𝑝1 𝑝2 10.5 22.7
The negative sign shows that the image is virtual.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Problem#10.6: A compound microscope has lenses of focal length 1 cm and 3 cm. An object
is placed 1.2 cm from the object lens. If a virtual image is formed, 25 cm from the eye,
calculate the separation of the lenses and magnification of the instrument. (*)
30 Given:
Focal length of objective 𝑓𝑜 = 1 𝑐𝑚
Focal length of eye piece 𝑓𝑒 = 3 𝑐𝑚
Distance of object from objective 𝑃1 = 1.2 𝑐𝑚
Distance of final image from eyepiece 𝑞2 = 25 𝑐𝑚
To find:
Distance between lenses = 𝐿 = ?
Magnification = 𝑀 = ?
Solution:
i) For objective lens, we have.
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ = +
𝑓𝑜 𝑃1 𝑞1 11.2 𝑞1
1 1 10 12−10 2
=1− =1 − = =
𝑞1 1.2 12 12 12
12
𝑞1 = = 6 𝑐𝑚
2

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 For eye piece lens, eye piece forms virtual image at least distance,
therefore 𝑞2 = 25 𝑐𝑚, we have.
31 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − ⇒ = −
𝑓𝑒 𝑃2 𝑞2 3
𝑃2 25
1 1 1 25+3 28
= + = =
𝑃2 3 25 75 75
75
𝑃2 = = 2.7 𝑐𝑚
28
Thus the distance between the lenses
𝐿 = 𝑞1 + 𝑃2 = 6 + 2.7 = 8.7 𝑐𝑚
ii) Magnification will be
𝑀 = 𝑀1 × 𝑀2
𝑞1 𝑑 6 25
= (1 + ) = 1+ = 47
𝑝1 𝑓𝑒 1.2 3

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Problem#10.5: A point object is placed on the axis of 3.6 cm from a thin convex lens of focal
length 3 cm. A second thin convex lens of focal length 16 cm is placed coaxial with the first
and 26 cm from it on the side away from the object. Find the position of the final image
32 produced by the two lenses.
Given:
Focal length of 1st lens 𝑓1 = 3 𝑐𝑚
Focal length of 2nd lens 𝑓2 = 16 𝑐𝑚
Distance of object from 1st lens 𝑃1 = 3.6 𝑐𝑚
Distance between lenses = 𝐿 = 26 𝑐𝑚

To find:
Distance of final image = 𝑞2 = ?
Solution:
For 1st lens, we have
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ = +
𝑓1 𝑃1 𝑞1 33.6 𝑞1
1 1 1 1 10 12−10 2
= − = − = =
𝑞1 3 3.6 3 36 36 36
36
𝑞1 = = 18 𝑐𝑚
2
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 The distance between the lenses is
𝐿 = 𝑞1 + 𝑃2
33 So, 𝑃2 = 𝐿 − 𝑞1 = 26 − 18 = 8 𝑐𝑚
Thus, distance of first image from second lens 𝑃2 = 8 𝑐𝑚.
Hence for second lens, we have.
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ = +
𝑓2 𝑃2 𝑞2 16 8 𝑞2
1 1 1 1−2 1
= − = = −
𝑞2 16 8 16 16
𝑞2 = −16 𝑐𝑚
Hence, the negative sign shows that the second lens forms the virtual
image.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 What do you know about telescope? (*)
Answer: Telescope is an optical instrument to see clear and distinct image of an
object that is very far from the observer such as planets, stars and far off objects from
34
Earth.
Telescope used for planets are called astronomical telescope.
Telescope used for objects on land is called terrestrial telescope.
What is astronomical telescope? Give its construction and working. Also, find its
magnifying power. (***)
An astronomical telescope is used to view the heavenly bodies like
planets and stars. The image of distant object viewed through a
telescope appears larger because it subtends larger visual angle than
when viewed from naked eye.
Construction: A simple astronomical telescope consists of two convex lens:
• Objective of long focal length 𝑓𝑜 and large aperture.
• Eye-Piece of short focal length 𝑓𝑒 and small aperture.
Working: The ray diagram of astronomical telescope is shown in fig. The
rays of light coming from a distant object are considered parallel. The
objective converge these rays at its focus. Thus, the objective forms real,
inverted and diminished (lessen) image 𝐴′ 𝐵′ at its focus. The position of
eye piece is so adjusted that the image 𝐴′ 𝐵′ lies at its focus.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
35

Thus, the rays after refraction through the eye piece will become
parallel and the final image 𝐴′′ 𝐵′′ appears to form at infinity. Thus, the
final image is virtual, inverted and magnified and it can be seen
through eye piece without any strain on the eye. In this condition, the
telescope is said to be in normal adjustment, or focused at infinity.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Magnifying power:
The magnifying power of the astronomical telescope is given by
36 𝛽
𝑀= -------(1) Do you know?
𝛼
When angles 𝛼 and 𝛽 are small, then A good telescope has an
objective of long focal length
𝛼 = tan 𝛼 and 𝛽 = tan 𝛽 and large aperture to form
In this case the equation (1) an be written as larger and brighter image of a
tan 𝛽 star.
𝑀=
tan 𝛼
From fig (a) and (b), we have
𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′
tan 𝛼 = = and tan 𝛽 = =
𝑂𝐵 ′ 𝑓𝑜 𝑂′ 𝐵′ 𝑓𝑒
𝐴′ 𝐵′
tan 𝛽 𝑓𝑜 𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Hence,
𝑓𝑒
𝑀= = 𝐴′𝐵′ = =
tan 𝛼 𝑓𝑜
𝑓𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒
This relation shows that the magnification of telescope depends upon
the focal length of objective and eye piece.
Length of telescope: In normal adjustment, the length of astronomical
telescope is equal to the distance between objective and eye piece
lenses and is given by 𝐿 = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒 .
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Question#10.6: If a person looking through telescope at the full moon,
how would the appearance of moon be changed by covering of
37 objective lens? (**)
Answer: If half of the objective lens is covered, the image of the full
moon still forms but its brightness reduces to half.
Reason:
If half of the objective lens is covered, so only half of the objective
lens is used to collect the light from the moon to form its image. Thus
the apparent size of the image of the full moon does not change but
its brightness reduces to half.
Unseen Question: An astronomical telescope of long focal length and
large aperture is considered to be a good telescope. Why? (*)
Answer: The objective of a telescope have large focal length and
large aperture because large focal length enhances the magnifying
power of the telescope and large aperture help in
collecting large amount of light coming from the object so that a
bright image is obtained.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Problem#10.2: A telescope objective has focal length 96 cm and diameter 12 cm. Calculate
the focal length and minimum diameter of a simple eye piece lens for use with the telescope,
if the linear magnification required is 24 times and all the light transmitted by the objective
38 from a distant point on the telescope axis is to fall on the eye piece.
Given:
Focal length of objective 𝑓𝑜 = 96 𝑐𝑚
Diameter of objective 𝐷𝑜 = 12 𝑐𝑚
Linear magnification = 𝑀 = 24
To find:
Focal length of eye piece 𝑓𝑒 =?
Diameter of eyepiece 𝐷𝑒 =?
Solution:
Focal length of eye piece 𝒇𝒆 Diameter of eyepiece 𝑫𝒆
𝑓𝑜 𝐷𝑒 𝑓𝑒
𝑀= =
𝑓𝑒 𝐷𝑜 𝑓𝑜
𝑓𝑜 96 𝑓𝑒 4
𝑓𝑒 = = 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐷𝑜 × = 12 ×
𝑀 24 𝑓𝑜 96
𝑓𝑒 = 4 𝑐𝑚 𝐷𝑒 = 0.5 𝑐𝑚
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Problem#10.3: A telescope is made of an objective of focal length 20 cm and an eye piece of
5 cm, both convex lenses. Find the angular magnification. (***)
Given:
39
Focal length of objective 𝑓𝑜 = 20 𝑐𝑚
Focal length of eye piece 𝑓𝑒 = 5 𝑐𝑚
To find:
Angular magnification = 𝑀 =?
Solution:
𝑓𝑜
𝑀=
𝑓𝑒
20
M=
5
𝑀=4

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Problem#10.8: An astronomical telescope having magnifying power of 5 consist of two thin
lenses 24 cm apart. Find the focal lengths of the lenses. (***)
Given:
40
Magnification = 𝑀 = 5
Distance between lenses 𝐿 = 24 𝑐𝑚
To find:
Focal length of objective 𝑓𝑜 = ?
Focal length of eye piece 𝑓𝑒 = ?
Solution:
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑜
𝑀= ⇒ 5=
𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑒

𝑓𝑜 = 5𝑓𝑒 -------------(1)
Length of telescope 𝐿 = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒
24 = 5𝑓𝑒 + 𝑓𝑒 = 6𝑓𝑒
24
𝑓𝑒 = = 4 𝑐𝑚
6
From Eq. (1) 𝑓𝑜 = 5𝑓𝑒 = 5 4 = 20 𝑐𝑚
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Problem#10.4: A simple astronomical telescope in normal adjustment has an objective of focal
length 100 cm and an eye piece of focal length 5 cm. (i) where is the final image formed (ii)
calculate the angular magnification. (*)
41 Given:
Focal length of objective 𝑓𝑜 = 100 𝑐𝑚
Focal length of eye piece 𝑓𝑒 = 5 𝑐𝑚
To find:
Angular Magnification = 𝑀 =?
Distance of final image = q =?
Solution:
For distance of final image
As telescope is in normal adjustment, so
Distance of object from eye piece = 𝑃 = 𝑓𝑒 = 5 𝑐𝑚
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ = − = − =0 ⇒ 𝑞= =∞
𝑓𝑒 𝑃 𝑞 𝑞 𝑓𝑒 𝑃 5 5 0
Thus, eye piece forms the final image at infinity.
𝑓 100
𝑀= 𝑜= = 20
𝑓𝑒 5

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Self Assessment:
Long Questions: (5 mark each)
42 1. Define and explain simple microscope? (***)
2. What is compound microscope? Derive mathematical expression for its magnification. (***)
3. What is astronomical telescope? Give its construction and working. Also, find its magnifying power. (**)
Short Questions: (2 mark each)
1. Define near point and resolving power. (**)
2. Find the power of convex lens of 10 cm focal length? (*)
3. What is simple microscope? Write down the equation for its magnifying power? (*)
4. What is angular magnification? Find the angular magnification of simple microscope if focal length is 5
cm? (*)
5. Describe with help of diagram, have a convex lens can be used as magnifying glass? (*)
6. Sketch the ray diagram of a compound microscope. (*)
7. An astronomical telescope of long focal length and large aperture is considered to be a good
telescope. Why? (*)
Few Selected MCQ’s: (1 mark each)
1. The final image formed by simple microscope is:
a) Virtual and inverted b) Virtual and erect c) Real and erect d) Real and inverted
2. The minimum distance from the eye at which an object appears to be distinct is:
a) 25 cm b) 30 cm c) 15 cm d) 10 cm
3. If a convex lens is placed close to the eye, then it is being used as:
a) Telescope b) Microscope c) Magnifying glass d) None of these
4. If the magnifying power of glass is 3 cm, then focal length will be:
a) 25 cm b) 12.5 cm c) 5 cm d) 3 cm
5. The distance of near point from the eye is about:
a) 25 cm b) 30 cm c) 15 cm d) 10 cm
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 6. The resolving power of a compound microscope depends on:
a) Length of the microscope b) Diameter of objective lens
c) diameter of eyepiece d) The position of an observer’s eye with regard to the eye lens.
43 7. The resolving power of an astronomical telescope depends on:
a) Focal length of objective lens b) least distance of distinct vision of observer
c) Focal length of eye piece lens d) Diameter of objective lens
8. Which combination can ensure less diffraction and more details to be seen by compound
microscope?:
a) A wider objective and red light b) A wider objective and blue light
c) A wider eye piece and red light d) A wider eye piece and blue light
9. The magnifying power of telescope is:
a) 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜 b) 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆 c) 𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒 d) 1 𝑓𝑜𝑓𝑒

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
44

LLLLLL LECTURE 02

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 What is spectrometer? Write its uses. Discuss its main parts. (*)
Answer A spectrometer is an optical device used to study spectra from
45 different sources of light. The applications of spectrometer are as follows:
• Spectrometer is used to measure the deviation of light by a glass prism
and the refractive index of the material of prism accurately.
• Using diffraction grating, the spectrometer can be employed to measure
the wavelength of light.
What are the essential of spectrometer? Describe the working of each component separately.
Answer The essential of spectrometer are collimator, turn table and
telescope. The construction and working of each component are as follows:

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Collimator
It consist of a fixed metallic tube with a convex lens at one end and an
46 adjustable slit, that can slide in and out of the tube, at the other end.
When the slit is just at the focus of the convex lens, the rays of light
coming out of the lens become parallel. For this reason, it is called a
collimator.

Turn Table
A prism or a grating is placed on a turn table which is capable of
rotating about a fixed vertical axis.
A circular scale, graduated in half degrees, is attached to it.

Telescope
A telescope is attached with a Vernier scale and is rotatable the same
vertical axis as the turn table.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Working and adjustment:
i. The eye-piece is focused on the cross wire so that it is clearly visible.
47 ii. The telescope is focused on a distant object (focused at infinity).
iii. The collimator is adjusted so that parallel rays of light coming out of
its convex lens.
iv. The telescope is turned so that it is in straight line with the collimator
and the image of the slit is clearly seen through the eye-piece.
v. Finally, the turn table is leveled with the help of leveling screws.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Describe how Michelson measured the speed of light? (**)
Answer In Michelson’s experiment, the speed of
48 light was determined by measuring the time it takes
to cover a round trip between two mountains. The
distance between the two mountains was measured
accurately.
The experimental set up is shown in the figure:
An eight sided polished mirror M is mounted on the
shaft of a motor whose velocity can be varied.
• The mirror is stationary in the position shown in
the figure. A beam of light from the face 1 of mirror M
falls at the plane mirror m placed at a distance d
from M. The beam is reflected back from mirror m
and falls on the face 3 of mirror M. On reflection
from face 3, it enters the telescope.
• If the mirror M is rotated clockwise, initially the source will not be visible
through telescope. When mirror M gains a certain speed, the source S
becomes visible. This happens when
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑀 𝑡𝑜 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑀
= 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 1
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Calculation of speed of light:
Let 𝑓 is the frequency of rotation of mirror M, when the source S is
49 visible through the telescope. Then,
2𝜋
As, the angle subtended by any face of mirror M at the center = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
8
1
Time taken by the mirror M to rotate through an angle 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 =
𝑓
1 1
Time taken by the mirror M to rotate through an angle 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = ×
𝑓 2𝜋
2𝜋 1 1 2𝜋
Time taken by the mirror M to rotate through an angle 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = × ×
8 𝑓 2𝜋 8
1
𝑡 =
8𝑓
As, the distance covered by light in time 𝑡 = s = 2d
Thus the speed of light 𝑐 given by
𝑠 2𝑑
𝑐 = = 1 = 16𝑓𝑑
𝑡 8𝑓
By putting the values of 𝑓 and 𝑑 Michelson measured the speed of light in
vacuum to be equal to 𝑐 = 2.99792458 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 ≈ 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
The speed of light in other medium is always less than 𝑐. It depends upon the
nature of medium. However, the speed of light in air is approximately equal to
that in vacuum.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 FIBRE OPTIC PRINCIPLES
What do you know about the refractive index of a material?
50 Answer The refractive index “n” is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum
“c” to the speed of light in that material “v”. Mathematically, it is
𝑐
described as: 𝑛=
𝑣
Define the term critical angle. (*)
Answer The angle of incidence for light at the boundary of optically
transparent medium for which the angle of refraction is 90° , is called
critical angle.
State the Snell’s Law.
Answer The Snell’s describe the condition for refraction when a ray of
light passes from one medium to another. Let 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are the
refractive index of glass and air respectively, then Snell’s law is
described as:
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
Where 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 are the angle of incidence and angle of reflection
respectively.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Use the Snell’s Law to find out the critical angle of glass at the boundary
of glass-air interface.
51 Answer We know that the refractive index of glass and air are 1.5 and 1
respectively. For critical angle of glass, consider 𝜃1 = 𝜃𝑐 (Critical angle)
and 𝜃2 = 90° . The Snell’s Law takes the form:
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2 ⇒ (1.5) sin 𝜃𝑐 = (1) sin 90°
(1) sin 90° 1
sin 𝜃𝑐 = =
1.5 1.5
−1
1
𝜃𝑐 = sin = 41.8°
1.5
Hence the critical angle of glass at the boundary of glass-air interface
is 41.8° .
(Define) Optical fiber:
Optical fiber consists of the thin glass fibers through which information
are transmitted as pulses of light. It can carry information whether it is
an audio signal, a television signal or a computer data by visible or
invisible infrared light.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Problem#10.9: A glass light pipe in air will totally internally reflect a light ray if its angle of
incidence is at least 𝟑𝟗° . What is the minimum angle for total internal reflection if pipe is in
water? (Refractive index of water=1.33) (***)
52 Given:
Critical angle for glass-air interface = 𝜃 = 39°
Refractive index of Water = 𝑛2 = 1.33
To find:
Critical angle for glass-water interface= 𝜃𝑐 =?
Solution:
First, we will find the refractive index of glass using formula
1 1
𝑛1 = = ° sin 𝜃1 sin 39
𝑛1 = 1.59
Critical angle for glass-water interface
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
1.59 sin 𝜃𝑐 = 1.33 sin 90°
−1 1.33
𝜃𝑐 = sin = 57°
1.59

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Example#10.2: Calculate the critical angle and angle of entry for an optical fiber having core
of refractive index 1.50 and cladding of refractive index 1.48.
Given:
53
Refractive index of core 𝑛1 = 1.5
Refractive index of cladding 𝑛2 = 1.48
To find:
Critical angle for core-cladding
interface= 𝜃𝑐 =?
Distance of final image = 𝜃1 =?
Solution:
For critical angle for core-cladding interface
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
1.5 sin 𝜃𝑐 = 1.48 sin 90°
1.48
𝜃𝑐 = sin−1 = 80.6°
1.5
For angle of incidence for air-core interface
𝜃2 = 90° − 𝜃𝑐 = 90° − 80.6° = 9.4°
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
1 sin 𝜃1 = 1.5 sin 9.4° = 0.2445
𝜃 = sin −1 0.2445 = 14.2°
1
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Problem#10.10: The refractive index of the core and cladding of an optical fiber are 1.6 and 1.4
respectively. Calculate (i) the critical angle for the interface (ii) the maximum angle of
incidence in the air of a ray which enters the fiber and is incident at the critical angle on the
54 surface.
Given:
Refractive index of core 𝑛1 = 1.6
Refractive index of cladding 𝑛2 = 1.4
To find:
Critical angle for core-cladding interface= 𝜃𝑐 =?
Distance of final image = 𝜃1 =?
Solution:
For critical angle for core-cladding interface
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
1.6 sin 𝜃𝑐 = 1.4 sin 90°
1.4
𝜃𝑐 = sin−1 = 61°
1.6
For angle of incidence for air-core interface
𝜃2 = 90° − 𝜃𝑐 = 90° − 61° = 29°
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
1 sin 𝜃1 = 1.6 sin 29° = 0.776
𝜃1 = sin−1 0.776 = 51°
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Write the advantages use of light as transmission carrier wave over radio wave
carriers? (*)
55
Advantages of fiber optics over radio wave carriers:
The use of light as a transmission carrier wave in fiber optics has several
advantages over radio wave carriers.
i. It has much wider bandwidth capability and immunity from
electromagnetic interference.
ii. It can be used to transmit light around corners and inaccessible places.
iii. It is used as a tool in industry and medical science.
iv. It can carry thousands of telephone conversations, several television
program and numerous data signals between stations.
v. Fiber optical communication system has made possible such services as
two way television. These systems also allow word processing, image
transmitting and receiving equipment to operate efficiently.
vi. The fiber optic system has much thinner and light weight cables.
Note: An optical fiber with its protective case may be typically 6.0 mm in
diameter and it can replace a 7.62 cm diameter bundle of copper wire used
to carry the same amount of signals.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Describe the principles by which light can be
confined and propagated through Fibre Optic.
56 Answer Propagation of light in Fibre Optic
requires that the light should be totally
confined within the Fibre Optic. This may be
done by total internal reflection and
continuous refraction.
Continuous Refraction
Light signal can also be propagated through
Fibre Optic by continuous refraction
phenomenon. For this purpose, two types of
Fibre Optics are used:
Multi-Mode Step Index Fibre Central core has
high refractive index (High Density) and over it
is a layer of a lower refractive index (Low
Density). This layer is called cladding.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Multi-Mode Graded Index Fibre Central core has high refractive index
(High Density) and its density gradually decreases towards its periphery.
57 In step index or graded index fibre, a ray of light entering the Fibre
Optic is continuously refracted through these steps and is reflected
through the surface of outer layer. Hence light is transmitted by
continuous refraction and total internal reflection.
Question#10.10: How the light signal is transmitted through the fiber?(***)
Answer: In an optical fiber, light signal is transmitted by
i) Continuous refraction and
ii) Total internal reflection.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Define total internal reflection. (**) OR
What is condition for total internal reflection? (*)
58 Total Internal Reflection
The boundary between two optical media,
e.g., glass and air having different refractive
indices can reflect or refract light rays. The
amount and direction of reflection or refraction is
determined by following factors:
i. Amount of difference in refractive indices
ii. Angle of incidence of ray of light at the
boundary.
All the light rays striking the internal surface of
optically transparent medium (e.g., glass) at
angle of incidence greater than critical angle
(critical angle of glass is 41.8° ) will be reflected
back into the glass. The rays with angles less than
critical angle will escape from the optically
transparent medium.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Describe different types of optical fibre.
Answer There are three types of optical fibre which are classified on
59 the basis of the mode by which they propagate light. These are
(i) Single-Mode Step Index, (ii) Multi-Mode Step Index and
(iii) Multi-Mode Graded index.
Single-Mode Step Index Fibre
Single-Mode or Mono-Mode step index
fibre has a very thin core of about 5 𝜇𝑚
diameter and has relatively larger cladding
(of glass or plastic). Since it has a very thin
core, a strong monochromatic light source
i.e., a Laser source has to be used to send
light signals through it. It can carry more than
14 TV channels or 14000 phone calls.
The optical fiber is covered for protection by
a plastic jacket or only jacket.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Multi-Mode Step Index Fibre
This type of fibre has a core of relatively
60 larger diameter such as 50 𝜇𝑚. It is mostly
used for carrying white light but due to
dispersion effects, it is useful for a short
distance only. The core has a constant
refractive index 𝑛1 (e.g., 1.52). The core is
surrounded by cladding, which has relatively
smaller refractive index 𝑛2 (e.g., 1.48) as compared to core. This is called
Multi-Mode Step Index fibre, because the refractive index steps down from
1.52 to 1.48 at the boundary with the cladding.
Multi-Mode Graded Index Fibre
Multi-Mode Graded Index Fibre has core
which ranges in diameter from 50 to 1000 𝜇𝑚.
It has a core of relatively high refractive
index and the refractive index decreases
gradually from the middle to the outer
surface of the fibre. There is no noticeable
boundary between the core and cladding.
This type of Optical Fibre is useful for long distances.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Write down the three major components on which a fiber optic communication system
consists? (**)
Answer: There are three major parts:
61 1. Transmitter: it converts electrical signal into light signals
2. Optical fiber: it carries the signal from one place to another
3. Receiver: it converts light signal into electrical signal Pulse of light represented by
“1” and absence of light is represented by “0”. Any information can be represented
by the pattern of 1’s and 0’s.
Describe the construction and working of major components of Fibre Optic Communication
System.
A Fibre Optic communication system consists of three major components:
(i) Transmitter, (ii) Optic Fibre, (iii) Receiver.
The construction and working of each component of Fibre Optic Communication
System is as follows:

Transmitter: Transmitter converts electrical signal into light signals. The light source in
the transmitter can be either a semiconductor laser or a light emitting diode (LED).
To transmit information by light waves, it is necessary to modulate the light waves.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 The most common method of modulation is called digital modulation in
which the laser or LED is flashed on and off at an extremely fast rate. A pulse
62 of light represents the number 1 and absence of light represents 0. With
computer type equipment, any communication can be represented by a
particular pattern or code of these 1s and 0s.
Fibre Optic:
Fibre Optic carries the signal from one place to another. Propagation of
light in Fibre Optic requires that the light should be totally confined within the
Fibre Optic. This may be done by total internal reflection and continuous
refraction. Despite the ultra-purity (99.99% glass) of optical fibre, the light
signals eventually become dim and must be regenerated by devices called
repeaters. Repeaters are typically placed at 30 km, apart, but in the newer
systems, they may be separated by as much as 100 km.
Receiver:
It captures the light signals at the other end of the fibre and reconverts
them to electric signals. For this purpose, the photodiodes are used. Receiver
is programmed to decode the 1s and 0s, thus it receive the sound, pictures or
data as required.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Why we use infrared light in a fiber optic communication system? (*)
Answer: We use infrared light in a fiber optic communication system with
63 a typical wavelength of 1.3 𝜇𝑚. Such a light will travel much faster through
the optical fiber than will either visible or ultraviolet light.
Why is the single mode fiber preferred in telecommunication? (*)
Answer: A single mode fiber is preferred in telecommunication due to the
following reasons:
i) The dispersion effect is minimized by the use of monochromatic light.
ii) It has high band width. A single fiber can carry more than 14 TV
channels or 14000 phone calls.
What is repeater? Why it is necessary in the optical fibre communication
system? (*)
Answer: In telecommunications, a repeater is an electronic device that
receives a signal and retransmits it.
Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the light signal can
cover longer distances or be received on the other side of an optical
fibre.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 LOSSES OF POWER
What are the causes of LOSS OF POWER or LOSS OF INFORMATION in
64 Fibre Optics?
When a light signal travels along fibers by multiple reflection, some
light is absorbed due to impurities in the glass. Some of it is scattered
by group of atoms which are formed at places such as joints when
fibre are joined together.
How can we reduce the power losses (information loss) due to
scattering in Fibre Optic?
The information received at the other end of a fibre optic can be
inaccurate due to dispersion or spreading of the light signal. Also, the
light signal may not be perfectly monochromatic. Careful
manufacturing can reduce the power loss by scattering and
absorption.
For case of step-index fibre, a narrow band of wavelengths are
refracted in different directions. So the light of different wavelengths
reaches the other end of the fibre at different times. The signal
received is, therefore, faulty or distorted.
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 The disadvantage of step-index fibre can
considerably be reduced by using graded index
65 fibre. The different wavelengths still take different
paths and are totally internally refracted at
different layers, but still they are focused. In spite of
the different dispersion, all the wavelengths arrive
at the other end of the fibre at the same time. With
step-index fiber, the overall time difference may be
about 33 ns per km length of the fibre. Using a
graded index fibre, the time difference is reduced
to about 1 ns per km.
Question#10.11: How the power is lost in optical fiber
through dispersion? Explain. (**)
Answer: As light is not perfectly monochromatic, so
when light enters the optical fiber, it spread into different
wavelengths. These wavelengths travel along different
paths in the fiber. So the light of different wavelengths
reaches the other end of the fiber at different times. As a
result, the signal received is faulty or distorted.

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 Self Assessment:
Long Questions: (5 mark each)
1. Describe how Michelson measured the speed of light? (**)
66
2. What is spectrometer? Discuss its main parts. Write its uses. (*)
Short Questions: (2 mark each)
1. What is the function of collimator in a spectrometer? Or Write down the essential components of a
spectrometer? (**)
2. What are the uses of spectrometer? (**)
3. Define total internal reflection. (**) OR What is condition for total internal reflection? (*)
4. Define critical angle. (*)
5. Write the advantage use of light as transmission carrier wave over radio wave carriers? (*)
6. Why we use infrared light in a fiber optic communication system? (*)
7. Write down the three major components on which a fiber optic communication system consists? (**)
8. Differentiate between cladding and jacket in optical fiber? (*)
9. What is repeater? Why it is necessary in the optical fibre communication system? (*)
10. Discuss briefly single mode step index fiber, multimode step index fiber and multimode graded index
fiber. (*)
Few Selected MCQ’s: (1 mark each)
1. The refractive index of water is 1.33. The speed of light in water is:
a) 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 b) 1.8 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 c) 𝟐. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 d) zero
2. Which of the phenomena of light is used in propagation of light through optical fiber?:
a) Total internal reflection b) Polarization c) Interference d) Diffraction
3. In the newer system of fiber optics, signals are regenerated by placing repeaters which may be
separated by as much as :
a) 30 km b) 50 km c) 100 km d) 500 km
4. The optical fiber is covered for protected by a :
a) Aluminum jacket b) plastic jacket c) coper jacket d) glass jacket
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
 5. A layer over the central core of the jacket is called:
a) Cladding b) jacket c) rubber d) plastic
6. Information carrying capacity of optical fiber is called:
67 a) Capacity b) Immunity c) Bandwidth d) Ability
7. If the speed of light in vacuum is C, then its velocity in a medium of refractive index is 1.33 is:
a) 1.3 C b) C/1.33 c) 1.33/C d) C

Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.
68

LLLLLL Chapter 10
Complete
Prof. Umar Jamil, M.Phil. Physics (QAU), Punjab College of Science, Lahore.