A.

SENSING EQUIPMENT

Temperature Sensor
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Procedure:
An RTD takes a measurement when a small DC current is supplied to the sensor. The
current experiences the impedance of the resistor, and a voltage drop is experienced
over the resistor. Depending on the nominal resistance of the RTD, different supply
currents can be used. To reduce self-heating on the sensor the supply current should be
kept low. In general, around 1mA or less of current is used.
An RTD can be connected in a two, three, or four-wire configuration. The two-wire
configuration is the simplest and also the most error prone. In this setup, the RTD is
connected by two wires to a Wheatstone bridge circuit and the output voltage is
measured. The disadvantage of this circuit is that the two connecting lead wire
resistances add directly two the RTD’s resistance and an error is incurred.

Advantage Disadvantage
 good accuracy  self-heating
 small span possible  less physically rugged
 linearity  self-heating error

The electrical resistance of many metals changes with temperature; metals for which
resistance increases with temperature are used in RTDs. Temperature can therefore be
determined from the change in the electrical resistance of the metal wire according to:

Effect of temperature on
resistance

with RT the resistance, RT0 the resistance at base temperature of 0 °C, T the
temperature of the sensor (to be determined from R T) and a the temperature coefficient
of the metal. This linear relationship sometimes provides sufficient accuracy, but
nonlinear correlations are available for higher accuracy (Omega, 1995). RTDs are
commonly used for applications in which higher accuracy than provided by
thermocouples is required.
Conclusion:

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I therefore conclude, that temperature measurement is essential to a wide variety of
industries. This task can be handled by resistance temperature detectors, or RTDs,
which are available in a variety of configurations and ratings such as sanitary and
explosion proof to satisfy the particular application. Temperature measurement can be
very simple or very complex, depending on your application and requirements.
Understanding these RTD specifications is an important first step toward finding the
right device.
Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a device made by two different wires joined at one end,
called junction end or measuring end. The two wires are called thermoelements or legs
of the thermocouple: the two thermoelements are distnguished as positive and negative
ones. The other end of the thermocouple is called tail end or reference end (Figure1).
The junction end is immersed in the enviroment whose temperature T 2 has to be
measured, which can be for instance the temperature of a furnace at about 500°C, while
the tail end is held at a different temperature T1, e.g. at ambient temperature.

Figure1:Schematic drawing of a thermocouple

Because of the temperature difference between junction end and tail end a voltage
difference can be measured between the two thermoelements at the tail end: so, the
thermocouple is a temperature-voltage transducer.

Advantage Disadvantage
 good reproducibility  minimum span of 40 °C
 wide range  temperature vs. emf not exactly
linear
 drift over time
 low emf corrupted by noise
Conclusion:
When the junctions of two dissimilar metals are at different temperatures, an
electromotive force (emf) is developed. The cold junction, referred to as the reference,
is maintained at a known temperature, and the measuring junction is located where the
temperature is to be determined. The temperature difference can be determined from
the measured emf. The relationship between temperature difference and emf has been
determined for several commonly used combinations of metals; the mildly nonlinear
relationships are available in tabular form along with polynomial equations relating emf
to temperature.

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 Flow Sensor
Venturi Tube

Procedure:
When a venture meter is placed in apipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is to be
measured, a pressure drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the venturimeter.
This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when
calibrated this pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate.
The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the entry section of the venturi meter
with a pressure P1.
As the fluid from the entry section of venturi meter flows into the converging section, its
pressure keeps on reducing and attains a minimum value P2 when it enters the throat.
That is, in the throat, the fluid pressure P2 will be minimum.
The differential pressure sensor attached between the entry and throat section of the
venturi meter records the pressure difference(P1-P2) which becomes an indication of
the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to regain its pressure and
hence its kinetic energy. Lesser the angle of the diverging section, greater is the
recovery.

Advantage Disadvantage
 Less changes of getting clogged with  They are large in size and hence where
sediments space is limited, they cannot be used.
 Coefficient of discharge is high.  Expensive initial cost, installation and
 Its behaviour can be predicted perfectly. maintenance.
 Can be installed vertically, horizontally or  Require long laying length. That is, the
inclinded. veturimeter has ti be proceeded by a
straight pipe which is free from fittings
and misalignments to avoid turbulence
in flow, for satisfactory operation.
Therefore, straightening vanes are a
must.
 Cannot be used in pipes below 7.5cm
diameter.

A venturi can be used to measure the volumetric flow rate, Q.

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Since, then
A venturi can also be used to mix a liquid with a gas. If a pump forces the liquid through
a tube connected to a system consisting of a venturi to increase the liquid speed (the
diameter decreases), a short piece of tube with a small hole in it, and last a venturi that
decreases speed (so the pipe gets wider again), the gas will be sucked in through the
small hole because of changes in pressure. At the end of the system, a mixture of liquid
and gas will appear. See aspirator and pressure head for discussion of this type of
siphon.
Conclusion:
I therefore conclude, that flow measurement is critical to determine the amount of
material purchased and sold, and in these applications, very accurate flow
measurement is required. In addition, flows throughout the process should the
regulated near their desired values with small variability; in these applications, good
reproducibility is usually sufficient. Flowing systems require energy, typically provided
by pumps and compressors, to produce a pressure difference as the driving force, and
flow sensors should introduce a small flow resistance, increasing the process energy
consumption as little as possible.

Pressure Sensor
Bourdon Tube

Procedure:
As the fluid pressure enters the bourdon tube, it tries to be reformed and because of a
free tip available, this action causes the tip to travel in free space and the tube unwinds.
The simultaneous actions of bending and tension due to the internal pressure make a
non-linear movement of the free tip. This travel is suitable guided and amplified for the
measurement of the internal pressure. But the main requirement of the device is that
whenever the same pressure is applied, the movement of the tip should be the same
and on withdrawal of the pressure the tip should return to the initial point.
A lot of compound stresses originate in the tube as soon as the pressure is applied. This
makes the travel of the tip to be non-linear in nature. If the tip travel is considerably
small, the stresses can be considered to produce a linear motion that is parallel to the
axis of the link. The small linear tip movement is matched with a rotational pointer
movement. This is known as multiplication, which can be adjusted by adjusting the
length of the lever. For the same amount of tip travel, a shorter lever gives larger
rotation. The approximately linear motion of the tip when converted to a circular motion
with the link-lever and pinion attachment, a one-to-one correspondence between them

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may not occur and distortion results. This is known as angularity which can be
minimized by adjusting the length of the link.

Advantage Disadvantage
 low cost with reasonable accuracy  hysteresis
 wide limits of application  affected by shock and vibration

Expansion of Bourdon Tube Due to Internal Pressure

Like all elastic elements a bourdon tube also has some hysteresis in a given pressure
cycle. By proper choice of material and its heat treatment, this may be kept to within 0.1
and 0.5 percent of the maximum pressure cycle. Sensitivity of the tip movement of a
bourdon element without restraint can be as high as 0.01 percent of full range pressure
reducing to 0.1 percent with restraint at the central pivot.

Conclusion:
I therefore conclude, that bourdon tube is a curved, hollow tube with the process
pressure applied to the fluid in the tube. The pressure in the tube causes the tube to
deform or uncoil. The pressure can be determined from the mechanical displacement of
the pointer connected to the Bourdon tube. Typical shapes for the tube are “C”
(normally for local display), spiral and helical.

Level Sensor
Differential Pressure

Procedure:
Differential pressure level measurement technique makes use of a differential pressure
detector which is installed at the bottom of the tank whose level is to be detected. The
liquid inside the tank creates pressure which is comparatively higher than the reference
atmospheric pressure. This pressure comparison is performed via the Differential
pressure detector. A standard differential pressure transmitter connected to an open
tank is shown in the figure above.
In case of open tanks i.e. tanks which are open to the atmosphere, only high pressure
ends of the DP transmitter is needed to be connected whereas the low pressure end of
the DP transmitter is expelled into the atmosphere. Hence, the differential pressure
happens to be the hydrostatic head or weight of the fluid contained in the tank.

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The highest level detected by the differential pressure transmitter usually depends upon
the maximum height of fluid above the transmitter, whereas the lowest level detected is
based upon the position where the transmitter is attached to the tank or vessel.
Now, in cases where tanks or vessels are not open to the atmosphere i.e. in pressurized
tanks, both the high and low pressure ends of the differential pressure detector are
required to be connected. These tanks are entirely covered in order to avoid release of
vapors or steam outside. Due to this, the liquid inside the tank gets pressurized.

Advantage Disadvantage
 Differential pressure based level  Errors can get introduced in the
sensors can be easily mounted or measurements if the density of the
retrofitted to the surface of the vessel. process fluid varies because of
 To carry out maintenance and testing, reasons such as temperature
these sensors can be provided with variations or change of process.
block valves for isolating them Hence, the density of the process
carefully from the process liquid. must always be maintained constant
 They can be easily applied in level in order to get accurate results.
measurement applications such as  Differential pressure transmitter works
total level in separator vessels where well with clean liquids only. Besides, it
other level measurement devices are necessitates two vessel penetrations
not feasible owing to the extensive for its operation, out of which one is
changes in material formation installed near the vessel base where
experienced in the upper state. leakage happens.
 Their use is always avoided with
liquids such as paper pulp stock since
they result in solidification upon rise in
their concentrations.

Dry Leg
The weight of the vapors found above the fluid in the tank is considered to be
insignificant whereas, the pressure in the vapor area is quite considerable; hence it can
not be disregarded and usually transmitted to the low pressure end of the differential
pressure cell. This type of pressure connection is known as a dry leg. It is primarily used
in situations where liquid vapors are non-corrosive, non-plugging, and have low
condensation rates at ordinary working temperatures. “A dry leg enables the d/p cell to
compensate for the pressure pushing down on the liquid's surface, in the same way as
the effect of barometric pressure is canceled out in open tanks.”[4] It is recommended
to maintain a dry reference leg since buildup of condensate or other fluids have
tendency to introduce errors in the level measurement results.
Wet Leg
In situations where the vapors of the process fluid tend to condense at standard
ambient temperatures or happen to be corrosive and unsteady, the reference leg can
not be kept dry. It must be then filled with an inert liquid to produce a wet reference leg.
For a wet reference leg, it is always suggested that the chosen filling liquid must have a
low thermal expansion rate. In case of wet reference legs following two factors should
be carefully noted:

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 1. The specific gravity of the filling liquid and the height of the reference column are
required to be correctly evaluated. Besides, the differential pressure cell ought to
be lowered corresponding to the hydrostatic head of the same column.
2. A sight flow indicator should be mounted above the wet leg in order to get visual
indication of the height of the reference leg.
Conclusion:
I knew that differential pressure transmitters are probably the most widely employed
devices for the purpose of level detection. Also, using DP for level is really an inferential
measurement. A DP is used to transmit the head pressure that the diaphragm senses
due to the height of the material in the vessel multiplied by a density variable.

On Stream Analyzer (Analyzer Sensor)

Typical sample system for on-stream analyzer.

Analyzers rely on a wide range of physical principles; their unifying characteristic is a

greatly increased sensor complexity when compared with the standard temperature,
flow, pressure and level (T, F, P, and L) sensors. In many situations, the analyzer is
located in a centralized laboratory and processes samples collected at the plant and
transported to the laboratory. This procedure reduces the cost of the analyzer, but it
introduces long delays before a measurement is available for use in plant operations.

Analyzers can be located near the process equipment to provide real-time measurements of
variables for use in plant operations and control. Clearly, the availability of key process
variables (beyond T, F ,P , and L) provide the possibility of improved dynamic performance
leading to increased safety, consistently high product quality and higher profits. In general, these
benefits are gained at the expense of higher sensor cost and lower reliability; thus, the engineer
should perform an economic analysis considering benefits and costs before deciding to install an
on-stream analyzer.

The alternative approach involves feedback control of inferential variables (see Marlin, Chapter
17, 1995), perhaps coupled with infrequent laboratory analysis. Both on-stream analyzers and

7 | Page
inferential variables are used widely in the process industries; the proper selection of sensor and
control technology depends on the costs and benefits for each specific application.

Onstream analyzers utilize many different physical principles, and a survey of these analyzers
requires a large body of material, typically at least one full-sized book (e.g., Clevett, 1985). In
this section, some of the key factors applicable to many analyzers are reviewed; these factors are
independent of the specific physics and chemistry of the analyzer principle. The main general
issue is the need for a sample system for many on-stream analyzers.

B. PROCESS CONTROL EQUIPMENT

Globe Valve

Procedure:
The globe valve disk can be totally removed from the flow path or it can completely
close the flow path. The essential principle of globe valve operation is the perpendicular
movement of the disk away from the seat. This causes the annular space between the
disk and seat ring to gradually close as the valve is closed. This characteristic gives the
globe valve good throttling ability, which permits its use in regulating flow. Therefore, the
globe valve may be used for both stopping and starting fluid flow and for regulating flow.
Globe valves can be arranged so that the disk closes against or in the same direction of
fluid flow. When the disk closes against the direction of flow, the kinetic energy of the
fluid impedes closing but aids opening of the valve. When the disk closes in the same
direction of flow, the kinetic energy of the fluid aids closing but impedes opening. This
characteristic is preferable to other designs when quick-acting stop valves are
necessary. Globe valves also have drawbacks. The most evident shortcoming of the
simple globe valve is the high head loss from two or more right angle turns of flowing
fluid. Obstructions and discontinuities in the flowpath lead to head loss. In a large high
pressure line, the fluid dynamic effects from pulsations, impacts, and pressure drops
can damage trim, stem packing, and actuators. In addition, large valve sizes require
considerable power to operate and are especially noisy in high pressure applications.

Globe Valve Advantage Disadvantage

Unbalanced  large range  unbalanced forces
 good shutoff  high pressure loss
Balanced  high capacity  poor shutoff
 large range  high pressure loss

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  balanced forces

Conclusion:
I therefore conclude, that globe valves are used in systems where good throttling
characteristics and low seat leakage are desired and a relatively high head loss in an
open valve is acceptable. Globe valves also have drawbacks. The most evident
shortcoming of the simple globe valve is the high head loss from two or more right angle
turns of flowing fluid. Obstructions and discontinuities in the flow path lead to head loss

Ball Valve

Procedure:
A ball valve is a rotational motion valve that uses a ball-shaped disk to stop or start fluid
flow. The ball performs the same function as the disk in the globe valve. When the valve
handle is turned to open the valve, the ball rotates to a point where the hole through the
ball is in line with the valve body inlet and outlet. When the valve is shut, the ball is
rotated so that the hole is perpendicular to the flow openings of the valve body and the
flow is stopped.
Most ball valve actuators are of the quick-acting type, which require a 90° turn of the
valve handle to operate the valve. Other ball valve actuators are planetary gear-
operated. This type of gearing allows the use of a relatively small handwheel and
operating force to operate a fairly large valve.
Some ball valves have been developed with a spherical surface coated plug that is off
to one side in the open position and rotates into the flow passage until it blocks the
flowpath completely. Seating is accomplished by the eccentric movement of the plug.
The valve requires no lubrication and can be used for throttling service.

Advantage Disadvantage
 least expensive of any valve  relatively poor throttling
configuration characteristics
 low maintenance costs  in a throttling position, the

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  quick, quarter turn on-of partially exposed seat rapidly
operation erodes because of the
 compact impingement of high velocity
 require no lubrication flow.
 give tight sealing with low
torque

Conclusion:
I therefore conclude, that ball valves allow quick, quarter turn on-off operation but have
poor throttling characteristics. The stem in a ball valve is not fastened to the ball. It
normally has a rectangular portion at the ball end which fits into a slot cut into the ball.
The enlargement permits rotation of the ball as the stem is turned.

Butterfly Valve

A butterfly valve, illustrated in Figure, is a rotary motion valve that is used to stop,
regulate, and start fluid flow. Butterfly valves are easily and quickly operated because a
90o rotation of the handle moves the disk from a fully closed to fully opened position.
Larger butterfly valves are actuated by handwheels connected to the stem through
gears that provide mechanical advantage at the expense of speed. Butterfly valves
possess many advantages over gate, globe, plug, and ball valves, especially for large
valve applications. Savings in weight, space, and cost are the most obvious
advantages. The maintenance costs are usually low because there are a minimal
number of moving parts and there are no pockets to trap fluids.
Butterfly valves are especially well-suited for the handling of large flows of liquids or
gases at relatively low pressures and for the handling of slurries or liquids with large
amounts of suspended solids.
Butterfly valves are built on the principle of a pipe damper. The flow control element is a
disk of approximately the same diameter as the inside diameter of the adjoining pipe,
which rotates on either a vertical or horizontal axis. When the disk lies parallel to the
piping run, the valve is fully opened. When the disk approaches the perpendicular
position, the valve is shut. Intermediate positions, for throttling purposes, can be
secured in place by handle-locking devices.

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 Advantage Disadvantage
 high capacity  high torque
 low pressure loss  large deadband
 slurry applications  affects flow through limited range
(i.e. 0-60%)
 tight shutoff requires special seat
material

Conclusion:
I therefore conclude, that butterfly valves provide significant advantages over other
valve designs in weight, space, and cost for large valve applications. The butterfly valve
provides a damper that is rotated to adjust the resistance to flow. This valve provides a
small pressure drop for gas flows.

Diaphragm Valve

Procedure:
A diaphragm valve is a linear motion valve that is used to start, regulate, and stop fluid
flow. The name is derived from its flexible disk, which mates with a seat located in the
open area at the top of the valve body to form a seal. A diaphragm valve is illustrated in
Figure.
The operating mechanism of a diaphragm valve is not exposed to the media within the
pipeline. Sticky or viscous fluids cannot get into the bonnet to interfere with the
operating mechanism. Many fluids that would clog, corrode, or gum up the working
parts of most other types of valves will pass through a diaphragm valve without causing
problems. Conversely, lubricants used for the operating mechanism cannot be allowed
to contaminate the fluid being handled. There are no packing glands to maintain and no
possibility of stem leakage. There is a wide choice of available diaphragm materials.
Diaphragm life depends upon the nature of the material handled, temperature, pressure,
and frequency of operation.
Some elastomeric diaphragm materials may be unique in their excellent resistance to
certain chemicals at high temperatures. However, the mechanical properties of any
elastomeric material tpressure. Consequently, the manufacturer should be consulted
when they are used in elevated temperature applications.

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 Advantage Disadvantage
 slurry applications  short diaphragm life
 corrosion resistant materials  limited pressure and temperature
 small range

Conclusion:
I therefore conclude, that the diaphragm valve has one surface which is deformed by
the force from the valve stem to vary the resistance to flow. Diaphragm valves are used
in systems where it is desirable forthe entire operating mechanism to be completely
isolated from the fluid.

Gate Valve

Procedure:
A gate valve is a linear motion valve used to start or stop fluid flow; however, it does not
regulate or throttle flow. The name gate is derived from the appearance of the disk in
the flow stream. Figure illustrates a gate valve.
The disk of a gate valve is completely removed from the flow stream when the valve is
fully open. This characteristic offers virtually no resistance to flow when the valve is
open. Hence, there is little pressure drop across an open gate valve.
When the valve is fully closed, a disk-to-seal ring contact surface exists for 360°, and
good sealing is provided. With the proper mating of a disk to the seal ring, very little or
no leakage occurs across the disk when the gate valve is closed.
On opening the gate valve, the flow path is enlarged in a highly nonlinear manner with
respect to percent of opening. This means that flow rate does not change evenly with
stem travel. Also, a partially open gate disk tends to vibrate from the fluid flow. Most of
the flow change occurs near shutoff with a relatively high fluid velocity causing disk and
seat wear and eventual leakage if used to regulate flow. For these reasons, gate valves
are not used to regulate or throttle flow.

Advantage Disadvantage
 tight shutoff  used only with clean fluids

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Conclusion:
I therefore conclude, that these valves have a flat barrier that is adjusted to influence
the area for flow. These bodies are used primary for hand-operated valves and valves
automated for emergency shutoff. Gate valves are generally used in systems where low
flow resistance for a fullyopen valve is desired and there is no need to throttle the flow.

C. FLUID POWER EQUIPMENT

Hydraulic Pump

A hydraulic pump is a mechanical device that converts mechanical power into hydraulic
energy. It generates flow with enough power to overcome pressure induced by the load.
Procedure:

When a hydraulic pump operates, it performs two functions. First, its mechanical action
creates a vacuum at the pump inlet which allows atmospheric pressure to force liquid
from the reservoir into the inlet line to the pump. Second, its mechanical action delivers
this liquid to the pump outlet and forces it into the hydraulic system.

A pump produces liquid movement or flow: it does not generate pressure. It produces
the flow necessary for the development of pressure which is a function of resistance to
fluid flow in the system. For example, the pressure of the fluid at the pump outlet
is zero for a pump not connected to a system (load). Further, for a pump delivering into
a system, the pressure will rise only to the level necessary to overcome the resistance
of the load.

Classification of pumps
All pumps may be classified as either positive-displacement or non-positive-
displacement. Most pumps used in hydraulic systems are positive-displacement.
A non-positive-displacement pump produces a continuous flow. However, because it
does not provide a positive internal seal against slippage, its output varies considerably
as pressure varies. Centrifugal and propeller pumps are examples of non-positive-
displacement pumps.

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If the output port of a non-positive-displacement pump were blocked off, the pressure
would rise, and output would decrease to zero. Although the pumping element would
continue moving, flow would stop because of slippage inside the pump.
In a positive-displacement pump, slippage is negligible compared to the pump's
volumetric output flow. If the output port were plugged, pressure would increase
instantaneously to the point that the pump's pumping element or its case would fail
(probably explode, if the drive shaft did not break first), or the pump's prime mover
would stall.

Advantage Disadvantage
 It gives more power than  Slower motion than pneumatic.
pneumatic systems.  Complex construction.
 Its reliable to operate  Leakage of oil problem
 More maintenance than
pneumatics

Conclusion:
I therefore conclude, that Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the
system. Pressure in the system develops in reaction to the load. Pumps have a power
density about ten times greater than an electric motor (by volume). They are powered
by an electric motor or an engine, connected through gears, belts, or a flexible
elastomeric coupling to reduce vibration.

Control valves

control valves on a scissor lift

Directional control valves route the fluid to the desired actuator. They usually consist of
a spool inside a cast iron or steel housing. The spool slides to different positions in the
housing, and intersecting grooves and channels route the fluid based on the spool's
position.
The spool has a central (neutral) position maintained with springs; in this position the
supply fluid is blocked, or returned to tank. Sliding the spool to one side routes the
hydraulic fluid to an actuator and provides a return path from the actuator to tank. When
the spool is moved to the opposite direction the supply and return paths are switched.
When the spool is allowed to return to neutral (center) position the actuator fluid paths
are blocked, locking it in position.
Directional control valves are usually designed to be stackable, with one valve for each
hydraulic cylinder, and one fluid input supplying all the valves in the stack.

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Tolerances are very tight in order to handle the high pressure and avoid leaking, spools
typically have a clearance with the housing of less than a thousandth of an inch (25
µm). The valve block will be mounted to the machine's frame with a three point pattern
to avoid distorting the valve block and jamming the valve's sensitive components.
The spool position may be actuated by mechanical levers, hydraulic pilot pressure, or
solenoids which push the spool left or right. A seal allows part of the spool to protrude
outside the housing, where it is accessible to the actuator.
The main valve block is usually a stack of off the shelf directional control valves chosen
by flow capacity and performance. Some valves are designed to be proportional (flow
rate proportional to valve position), while others may be simply on-off. The control valve
is one of the most expensive and sensitive parts of a hydraulic circuit.

Reservoir

The hydraulic fluid reservoir holds excess hydraulic fluid to accommodate volume
changes from: cylinder extension and contraction, temperature driven expansion and
contraction, and leaks. The reservoir is also designed to aid in separation of air from the
fluid and also work as a heat accumulator to cover losses in the system when peak
power is used. Design engineers are always pressured to reduce the size of hydraulic
reservoirs, while equipment operators always appreciate larger reservoirs. Reservoirs
can also help separate dirt and other particulate from the oil, as the particulate will
generally settle to the bottom of the tank. Some designs include dynamic flow channels
on the fluid's return path that allow for a smaller reservoir.

Accumulators

Accumulators are a common part of hydraulic machinery. Their function is to store

energy by using pressurized gas. One type is a tube with a floating piston. On one side

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of the piston is a charge of pressurized gas, and on the other side is the fluid. Bladders
are used in other designs. Reservoirs store a system's fluid.
Examples of accumulator uses are backup power for steering or brakes, or to act as a
shock absorber for the hydraulic circuit.

Hydraulic Fluid
Also known as tractor fluid, hydraulic fluid is the life of the hydraulic circuit. It is usually
petroleum oil with various additives. Some hydraulic machines require fire resistant
fluids, depending on their applications. In some factories where food is prepared, either
an edible oil or water is used as a working fluid for health and safety reasons.
In addition to transferring energy, hydraulic fluid needs to lubricate components,
suspend contaminants and metal filings for transport to the filter, and to function well to
several hundred degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.

Filters
Filters are an important part of hydraulic systems. Metal particles are continually
produced by mechanical components and need to be removed along with other
contaminants.
Filters may be positioned in many locations. The filter may be located between the
reservoir and the pump intake. Blockage of the filter will cause cavitation and possibly
failure of the pump. Sometimes the filter is located between the pump and the control
valves. This arrangement is more expensive, since the filter housing is pressurized, but
eliminates cavitation problems and protects the control valve from pump failures. The
third common filter location is just before the return line enters the reservoir. This
location is relatively insensitive to blockage and does not require a pressurized housing,
but contaminants that enter the reservoir from external sources are not filtered until
passing through the system at least once. Filters are used from 7 microns to 15 microns
depends upon the viscosity grade of hydraulic oil.

Tubes, pipes and hoses

Hydraulic tubes are seamless steel precision pipes, specially manufactured for
hydraulics. The tubes have standard sizes for different pressure ranges, with standard
diameters up to 100 mm. The tubes are supplied by manufacturers in lengths of 6 m,
cleaned, oiled and plugged. The tubes are interconnected by different types of flanges

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(especially for the larger sizes and pressures), welding cones/nipples (with o-ring seal),
several types of flare connection and by cut-rings. In larger sizes, hydraulic pipes are
used. Direct joining of tubes by welding is not acceptable since the interior cannot be
inspected.
Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available. Generally,
these are used for low pressure. They can be connected by threaded connections, but
usually by welds. Because of the larger diameters the pipe can usually be inspected
internally after welding. Black pipe is non-galvanized and suitable for welding.
Hydraulic hose is graded by pressure, temperature, and fluid compatibility. Hoses are
used when pipes or tubes cannot be used, usually to provide flexibility for machine
operation or maintenance. The hose is built up with rubber and steel layers. A rubber
interior is surrounded by multiple layers of woven wire and rubber. The exterior is
designed for abrasion resistance. The bend radius of hydraulic hose is carefully
designed into the machine, since hose failures can be deadly, and violating the hose's
minimum bend radius will cause failure. Hydraulic hoses generally have steel fittings
swaged on the ends. The weakest part of the high-pressure hose is the connection of
the hose to the fitting. Another disadvantage of hoses is the shorter life of rubber which
requires periodic replacement, usually at five to seven year intervals.
Tubes and pipes for hydraulic applications are internally oiled before the system is
commissioned. Usually steel piping is painted outside. Where flare and other couplings
are used, the paint is removed under the nut, and is a location where corrosion can
begin. For this reason, in marine applications most piping is stainless steel.

Seals, fittings and connections

Components of a hydraulic system [sources (e.g. pumps), controls (e.g. valves) and
actuators (e.g. cylinders)] need connections that will contain and direct the hydraulic
fluid without leaking or losing the pressure that makes them work. In some cases, the
components can be made to bolt together with fluid paths built-in. In more cases,
though, rigid tubing or flexible hoses are used to direct the flow from one component to
the next. Each component has entry and exit points for the fluid involved (called ports)
sized according to how much fluid is expected to pass through it.
There are a number of standardized methods in use to attach the hose or tube to the
component. Some are intended for ease of use and service, others are better for higher
system pressures or control of leakage. The most common method, in general, is to
provide in each component a female-threaded port, on each hose or tube a female-
threaded captive nut, and use a separate adapter fitting with matching male threads to
connect the two. This is functional, economical to manufacture, and easy to service.
Fittings serve several purposes;
1. To join components with ports of different sizes.
2. To bridge different standards; O-ring boss to JIC, or pipe threads to face
seal, for example.
3. To allow proper orientation of components, a 90°, 45°, straight, or swivel
fitting is chosen as needed. They are designed to be positioned in the
correct orientation and then tightened.
4. To incorporate bulkhead hardware to pass the fluid through an obstructing
wall.

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 5. A quick disconnect fitting may be added to a machine without modification
of hoses or valves
A typical piece of machinery or heavy equipment may have thousands of sealed
connection points and several different types:
• Pipe fittings, the fitting is screwed in until tight, difficult to orient an angled
fitting correctly without over or under tightening.
• O-ring boss, the fitting is screwed into a boss and orientated as needed, an
additional nut tightens the fitting, washer and o-ring in place.
• Flare fittings, are metal to metal compression seals deformed with a cone nut
and pressed into a flare mating.
• Face seal, metal flanges with a groove and o-ring seal are fastened together.
• Beam seals are costly metal to metal seals used primarily in aircraft.
• Swaged seals, tubes are connected with fittings that are swaged
permanently in place. Primarily used in aircraft.

Pneumatic Actuators
Pneumatic actuators are the devices used for converting pressure energy of
compressed air into the mechanical energy to perform useful work. In other words,
Actuators are used to perform the task of exerting the required force at the end of the
stroke or used to create displacement by the movement of the piston. The pressurized
air from the compressor is supplied to reservoir. The pressurized air from storage is
supplied to pneumatic actuator to do work.
The air cylinder is a simple and efficient device for providing linear thrust or straight line
motions with a rapid speed of response. Friction losses are low, seldom exceeds 5 %
with a cylinder in good condition, and cylinders are particularly suitable for single
purpose applications and /or where rapid movement is required. They are also suitable
for use under conditions which preclude the employment of hydraulic cylinders that is at
high ambient temperature of up to 200°C to 250°C. Their chief limitation is that the
elastic nature of the compressed air makes them unsuitable for powering movement
where absolutely steady forces or motions are required applied against a fluctuating
load, or where extreme accuracy of feed is necessary. The air cylinder is also inherently
limited in thrust output by the relatively low supply pressure so that production of high
output forces can only be achieved by a large size of the cylinders.

Pneumatic Cylinder

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Pneumatic cylinder(s) (sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical devices
which use the power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear
motion.
Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The
piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the
object to be moved. Engineers sometimes prefer to use pneumatics because they are
quieter, cleaner, and do not require large amounts of space for fluid storage.
Because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out
and contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where
cleanliness is a requirement.
Procedure:
Once actuated, compressed air enters into the tube at one end of the piston and, hence,
imparts force on the piston. Consequently, the piston becomes displaced.
One major issue engineers come across working with pneumatic cylinders has to do
with the compressibility of a gas. Many studies have been completed on how the
precision of a pneumatic cylinder can be affected as the load acting on the cylinder tries
to further compress the gas used. Under a vertical load, a case where the cylinder takes
on the full load, the precision of the cylinder is affected the most.
Pneumatic systems are often found in settings where even rare and brief system failure
is unacceptable. In such situations locks can sometimes serve as a safety mechanism
in case of loss of air supply (or its pressure falling) and, thus remedy or abate any
damage arising in such a situation. Leakage of air from the input or output reduces the
pressure and so the desired output.

Air Motor

A pneumatic motor (Air motor) or compressed air engine is

a type of motor which does mechanical work by expanding
compressed air. Pneumatic motors generally convert the
compressed air energy to mechanical work through either
linear or rotary motion. Linear motion can come from either
a diaphragm or piston actuator, while rotary motion is
supplied by either a vane type air motor, piston air motor,
air turbine or gear type motor.

Procedure:
A type of pneumatic motor, known as a rotary vane motor, uses air to produce rotational
motion to a shaft. The rotating element is a slotted rotor which is mounted on a drive
shaft. Each slot of the rotor is fitted with a freely sliding rectangular vane. The vanes are
extended to the housing walls using springs, cam action, or air pressure, depending on
the motor design. Air is pumped through the motor input which pushes on the vanes
creating the rotational motion of the central shaft. Rotation speeds can vary between
100 and 25,000 rpm depending on several factors which include the amount of air
pressure at the motor inlet and the diameter of the housing.

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One application for vane-type air motors is to start large industrial diesel or natural gas
engines. Stored energy in the form of compressed air, nitrogen or natural gas enters the
sealed motor chamber and exerts pressure against the vanes of a rotor. This causes the
rotor to turn at high speed. Because the engine flywheel requires a great deal of torque
to start the engine, reduction gears are used. Reduction gears create high torque levels
with the lower amounts of energy input. These reduction gears allow for sufficient torque
to be generated by the engine flywheel while it is engaged by the pinion gear of the air
motor or air starter.
Advantage Disadvantage
 Infinite availability of the source  Requires installation of air-
 Easy channeled producing equipment
 Temperature is flexible  Easy to leak
 The transfer of power and the  Potential noise
speed is very easy to set up
 Can be stored
 Easy utilized

Conclusion:
I therefore conclude, that pneumatic system has simple design and control of machines
and equipment that operate via simple on-off control. Pneumatic systems generally
have long operating lives and require little maintenance. Because gas is compressible,
equipment is less subject to shock damage. Gas absorbs excessive force, whereas fluid
in hydraulics directly transfers force. Compressed gas can be stored, so machines still
run for a while if electrical power is lost. It is also safe that there is a very low chance of
fire compared to hydraulic oil. Newer machines are usually overload safe.

D. INSTRUMENTATION COMPONENTS
Check Valve

A check valve is a type of valve that allows fluids to flow in one direction but
closes automatically to prevent flow in the opposite direction (backflow). Check valves
are used in a wide variety of locations, but the focus of the discussion in this tutorial will
be the installation of check valves at the steam trap outlet side.
Procedure:
An important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure, which is the minimum
upstream pressure required for the valve to operate. Typically, the check valve is
designed for a specific cracking pressure. Check valves are useful in several different

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types of devices. They stop flooding in water-related devices such as sump pumps and
water heaters. They also protect equipment that can be harmed by the reverse flow of
material, such as control valves, strainers and flow meters. In addition, check valves
can stop material from constantly flowing backwards when a device is off, which can
save power and protect the parts of the device.
Advantage Disadvantage
 self-actuated  Since all moving parts are
 require no external means to enclosed, it is difficult to
actuate the valve either to open or determine whether the valve is
close open or closed. Furthermore, the
 fast acting condition of internal parts cannot
be assessed.
 Each type of check valve has
limitations on its installation
configurations.
 Valve disc can stick in open
position.

Pressure Regulators

A pressure regulator is a control valve that reduces the input pressure of a fluid to a
desired value at its output. Regulators are used for gases and liquids, and can be an
integral device with an output pressure setting, a restrictor and a sensor all in the one
body, or consist of a separate pressure sensor, controller and flow valve.
Procedure:
A pressure regulator limits excess inlet water pressure to a constant outlet pressure.
You need constant outlet pressure to ensure that your sprinkler (or emitter) performs
well.
Water travels through the inlet end of the regulator and around a fixed seat into the
critical flow area. The water then enters into a hollow cylinder called a throttling stem (or
T-stem) which is attached to a larger diaphragm near the outlet end. A spring around the
throttling stem tends to hold the flow area open, while water pressure acting on the total
diaphragm area tries to close it. This duel always ends in a draw with the outlet (or
regulated) pressure being determined by the spring’s compressive strength.

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 Advantage Disadvantage
 More accurate  More sensitive - Can create
 Less drop oscillations with in a system
 More sensitive - Small change in  Not good for rapidly changing
pilot = large change in main valve system
 Higher range ability  Requires minimum pressure drop
to operate (typically 15-25 psi)

Conclusion:
I therefore conclude, that pressure regulator is a control valve that reduces the input
pressure of a fluid to a desired value at its output. Regulators are used for gases and
liquids, and can be an integral device with an output pressure setting, a restrictor and a
sensor all in the one body, or consist of a separate pressure sensor, controller and flow
valve.

Relief Valves

The pressure relief valve (PRV) is a type of valve used to control or limit the pressure in
a system or vessel which can build up for a process upset, instrument or equipment
failure, or fire. The pressure is relieved by allowing the pressurised fluid to flow from an
auxiliary passage out of the system. The relief valve is designed or set to open at a
predetermined set pressure to protect pressure vessels and other equipment from being
subjected to pressures that exceed their design limits. When the set pressure is
exceeded, the relief valve becomes the "path of least resistance" as the valve is forced
open and a portion of the fluid is diverted through the auxiliary route. The diverted fluid
(liquid, gas or liquid–gas mixture) is usually routed through a piping system known as a
flare header or relief header to a central, elevated gas flare where it is usually burned
and the resulting combustion gases are released to the atmosphere.
Procedure:
The cracking pressure is the pressure at which a relief valve opens. When the valve is
fully open, it is in a state called full-flow pressure. The amount of force necessary to
achieve this reaction is dependent on the type and setting of the relief valve.
Direct-acting valves, one commonly used type of relief valve, are preset to release
pressure by the strength of the compression spring used in their construction. Between
the spring and the fluid release hole is a ball held in position to block the hole until the
fluid pressure can depress the spring and unblock the hole. On the other end of the
spring is a screw that adjusts to change the amount of compression force needed to
open the valve.

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Some systems have pressure-compensated relief circuits that can run successfully
without the need for a pressure-relief valve. However, most systems still have a relief
valve as a fail-safe mechanical feature should the electronics malfunction.

Advantage Disadvantage
 reliability and versatility  backpressure on the relieving
 These relief valves are most pressure of valve pressure
reliable when sized properly and accumulation in the protected
can be used in a wide range of equipment
services.  high built up backpressure values
generated by higher pressure loss
in the relief valve discharge line

Shutoff Valve

When this type of valve is tripped, the flow is quickly stopped and an indicator disc tells
the operator that the electrical circuit has been opened by a failure somewhere in the
system. When the system failure has been corrected so that the circuit is again closed,
the valve can be opened by the action of the hand lever. If, however, the system failure
has not been satisfactorily corrected, the circuit will remain open and moving the hand
lever will not open the valve, because the valve stem remains disengaged from the
handle.
Procedure:
1 After water leaves the RO unit's prefilter, it enters the "In" port of the shutoff
valve, lower right in the picture. It then makes a horseshoe turn and exits the
"Out" port, lower left in the picture, through which it flows to the inlet side of the
RO membrane.
2 When the "permeate" water (the product water of the RO unit) leaves the other
end of the membrane housing, it flows to one of the "tank" ports on the other
side of the shutoff valve. It doesn't matter which port it enters, since the "tank"
ports are interchangeable and water flows either way on this side of the valve.
Water then makes a horseshoe turn inside the top side of the valve and leaves
through the other tank port. From there it flows to the storage tank.
3 The two halves of the valve are separated by a piston, which keeps the
permeate water on one side and the incoming tap water on the other. As long
as the pressure on the tank side is less than 2/3 the pressure on the tap water
side, the piston remains open and the unit continues to produce water. As the

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 RO produces water and slowly fills the storage tank, however, pressure on the
tank side of the piston eventually becomes strong enough to force the piston
toward the tap water side and shut off the incoming tap water, stopping
production. The RO unit stays off until enough water is removed from the
storage tank to drop the pressure on the tank side of the piston, allowing tap
water pressure to push the piston toward the tank side and start RO
production again.

Advantage Disadvantage
 quarter-turn valves such as ball  easier for persons of all abilities to
valves is that they can be shut off move a lever than to turn a wheel
quickly  shutting off the water flow means
 best to turn the lever on a ball turning the lever perpendicular to
valve slowly the pipe, a ball valve may not work
in certain tight locations.

Solenoid Valve

A solenoid valve is an electronically operated device. It is used to control the flow of

liquids or gases in a positive, fully-closed or fully-open mode. The valve is commonly
used to replace a manual valve or where remote control is desirable. A solenoid is
operated by opening and closing an orifice in a valve body that permits or prevents flow
through the valve. The orifice is opened or closed through the use of a plunger that is
raised or lowered within a sleeve tube by energizing the coil. The bottom of the plunger
contains a compatible sealing material, which closes off the orifice in the body, stopping
flow through the valve.
The solenoid assembly consists of a coil, plunger, and sleeve assembly. In a normally
closed valve, a plunger return spring holds the plunger against the orifice, preventing
flow through the valve. When the coil is energized, a magnetic field is produced, raising
the plunger and allowing flow through the valve. In a normally open valve, when the coil
is energized, the plunger seals off the orifice, stopping flow through the valve.
Procedure:
The media controlled by the solenoid valve enters the valve through the inlet port (Part
2 in the illustration above). The media must flow through the orifice (9) before continuing
into the outlet port (3). The orifice is closed and opened by the plunger (7).
The valve pictured above is a normally-closed solenoid valve. Normally-closed valves
use a spring (8) which presses the plunger tip against the opening of the orifice. The

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sealing material at the tip of the plunger keeps the media from entering the orifice, until
the plunger is lifted up by an electromagnetic field created by the coil.
Advantage Disadvantage
 Quick operation  They only have few options: fully
open and fully closed.
 They don’t produce much force.

Conclusion:

I therefor conclude, that solenoid valve is an electromechanical device used for

controlling liquid or gas flow. The solenid valve is controlled by electrical current, which
is run through a coil. When the coil is energized, a magnetic field is created, causing a
plunger inside the coil to move.

References
http://pc-education.mcmaster.ca/Instrumentation/go_inst.htm
http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArtiicleID=5573
https://learnprotocols.wordpress.com/2012/07/21/venturi-meter-theory-operations-
working/
http://www.instrumentationtoday.com/bourdon-tube/2011/09/
http://www.controlglobal.com/articles/2009/guidetopressureleveltrans0902/
http://160.75.46.2/staff/sogut/den322/Notes/Valves.pdf
http://nuclearpowertraining.tpub.com/h1018v2/css/Types-Of-Valves-Summary-63.htm
http://hydraulicspneumatics.com/200/TechZone/HydraulicPumpsM/Article/False/6401/Te
chZone-HydraulicPumpsM
http://www.circle-seal.com/menumachine/csc_main_nav_bar/navigation.html
https://www.reference.com/home-garden/check-valve-work-
d599d1edad091e54
http://www.pipingguide.net/2013/10/check-valves-types-construction.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_regulator
http://www.senninger.com/how-does-a-pressure-regulator-work/
https://automationforum.in/t/piloted-regulators-advantages-disadvantages-and-
application/448
http://www.enggcyclopedia.com/2011/06/types-pressure-relief-valves/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief_valve
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112106175/Module%204/Lecture%2037.pdf
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