NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

The Normal curve

 provides a graphical representation of statistical

values that are needed in describing the
characteristics of populations as well as in
making decisions.

1. Negatively(left) Skewed Distribution

 more samples/frequencies are at the right of
the mean (RV higher than the mean)

2. Normal Skewed Distribution

 samples/frequencies at the left and right of
the mean (RV) are equal
Properties

 bell-shaped graph 3. Positively (right) Skewed Distribution

 symmetrical arrangement of a data set  more samples/frequencies are at the left of
 solely dependent on two parameters of the data the mean (RV lower than the mean)
set
o mean and the standard deviation of the
sample Standard Normal Distribution
 mean, mode, and median of the distribution are
equal  use the mean and standard deviation to
describe and explain the entire distribution

Mean
Take Note!!!
 the center of the curve
 the highest point of the curve as most of the The normal distribution is simple to understand.
points are at the mean The reasons are:
 there is an equal number of points on each side
of the curve.  The mean, mode, and median of the
distribution are equal.
 We only need to use the mean and standard
Skewness deviation to explain the entire distribution.

 the bell curved varies in shape depending on the

mean and on the standard deviation Normal Distribution
 as the data becomes skewed from a normal
distribution, the mean losses its ability to provide When to use …
the best measure of central tendency
 to represent the distribution of continuous
variable like-height, weight, blood pressure etc.
  to describe the situation where very few
individuals possess the extreme values and more
individuals are found near the average value

Application to Real Life

When to use …

Businesses, researchers and educators use

TWO CATEGORIES OF SAMPLING
 to predict the probability of something
happening, or 1. Probability Sampling
 to determine if something happened because of  means every member of the population has
random chance or some external factors an equal chance of being selected into the
study

Businesses, researches and education use:

2. Non-Probability Sampling
 to control quality
 means sampling without taking into
 to improve/enhance some aspect
consideration the fairness of selecting or
 to make intervention
drawing a sample

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Basic Random Sampling Techniques
Why do we need to do sampling?

 Samples are used to make inferences

about population
 Samples are easier to collect data from because
they are practical, cost-effective, convenient and
manageable.

Sampling is done because…

 usually cannot gather data from the entire

population (even in relatively small populations)
 the data may be needed urgently
 data collection may take too long A. Simple Random Sampling
 including everyone in the population is costly  every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected.
 Your sampling frame should include the
How to compute the sample size whole population.

 Slovin’s formula Example: You want to select a simple random

 Online calculator sample of 1000 employees of a social media
 Raosoft Sample Size marketing company. You assign a number to
 every employee in the company database from 1 Example: The company has offices in 10 cities
to 1000, and use a random number generator to across the country (all with roughly the same
select 100 numbers. number of employees in similar roles). You don’t
have the capacity to travel to every office to
collect your data, so you use random sampling to
B. Stratified Random Sampling select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
 involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important
ways.
 It allows you draw more precise conclusions
NON- PROBABILITY SAMPLING
by ensuring that every subgroup is properly
represented in the sample Non-Random Sampling Techniques
Example: The company has 800 female
employees and 200 male employees. You want to
ensure that the sample reflects the gender
balance of the company, so you sort the
population into two strata based on gender. Then
you use random sampling on each group,
selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you
a representative sample of 100 people.

C. Systematic Sampling
 is similar to simple random sampling, but it is A. Convenience Sampling
usually slightly easier to conduct.  the sample is taken from a group of people
 Every member of the population is listed easy to contact or to reach (most accessible
with a number, but instead of randomly to the researcher)
generating numbers, individuals are chosen  This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather
at regular intervals. initial data, but there is no way to tell if the
sample is representative of the population,
Example: All employees of the company are listed
so it can’t produce generalizable results.
in alphabetical order. You randomly select a
starting point: number 6. From number 6 Example: You are researching opinions about
onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected student support services in your university, so
(6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a after each of your classes, you ask your fellow
sample of 100 people. students to complete a survey on the topic. This
is a convenient way to gather data, but as you
only surveyed students taking the same classes
D. Cluster Sampling as you at the same level, the sample is not
 involves dividing the population into representative of all the students at your
subgroups, but each subgroup should have university.
similar characteristics to the whole sample.
 Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire B. Purposive Sampling
subgroups.  a sampling design that is not intended to
offer a representative sample but rather to
 hone in on particular phenomena and/or drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the
processes company wants to cater to all consumers, you set
 also known as judgment, selective or a quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In
subjective sampling, is a sampling technique this way, all dietary preferences are equally
in which researcher relies on his or her own represented in your research, and you can easily
judgment compare these groups.You continue recruiting
until you reach the quota of 200 participants for
Example: You want to know more about the
each subgroup.
opinions and experiences of disabled students at
your university, so you purposefully select a
number of students with different support needs
E. Voluntary Sampling
in order to gather a varied range of data on their
 Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary
experiences with student services.
response sample is mainly based on ease of
access.
 Instead of the researcher choosing
C. Snowball Sampling
participants and directly contacting them,
 chain-referral sampling in which
people volunteer themselves (e.g. by
the samples have traits that are rare to find
responding to a public online survey).
 If the population is hard to access, existing
subjects provide referrals to Example: You send out the survey to all students
recruit samples required for a research study at your university and a lot of students decide to
complete it. This can certainly give you some
Example: You are researching experiences of
insight into the topic, but the people who
homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of
responded are more likely to be those who have
all homeless people in the city, probability
strong opinions about the student support
sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who
services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions
agrees to participate in the research, and she
are representative of all students.
puts you in contact with other homeless people
that she knows in the area.

D. Quota Sampling
 relies on the non-random selection of a
predetermined number or proportion of
units. This is called a quota.
 You first divide the population into mutually
exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then
recruit sample units until you reach your
quota. These units share specific
characteristics, determined by you prior to
forming your strata. The aim of quota
sampling is to control what or who makes up
your sample.

Example: You want to gauge consumer interest in

a new produce delivery service in Boston, focused
on dietary preferences. You divide the population
into meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans,