A GLOSSARY OF SOME TERMS USED IN THE

OBJECTIVE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR

acquisition = 1. (emp,bt)1 progressive it or set the occasion for its oc-
increments in response-strength ob- currence. [Uncommon usage.] = 2.
served over a series of occasions on (emp, physiol) the term applied to dis-
which the response is measured. =2. charges of nerve impulses in efferent
(emp) any modification of behavior in neurons that persist in time after the
which a response changes in strength stimulus that set up the discharge of
or topography, or occurs in new en- which they are a part is terminated.
vironments. [This observation forms part of the
action-specific energy, specific action empirical basis of the concept of the
energy = (th, eth) a hypothetical con- synapse.]
struct inferred from changes in stimu- aggressive, see behavior/aggressive.
lus threshold, intensity, and rate of oc- agonistic, see behavior/agonistic.
currence of an unlearned response with allochthonous, see behavior/allochtho-
time and with frequency of occurrence nous.
of the response. Its quantity becomes anxiety = (th, bt) a secondary drive.
very low when the response is made; Its establishing operation is the de-
it then recovers with time in the ab- velopment of a discriminated avoidance
sence of response (26). [This con- conditioned response. (See condition-
cept is almost identical with Skinner's ing/avoidance and discriminated.)
respondent reflex reserve (22). See The dependent symptom may be either
reflex reserve and exhaustion.] that the stimulus of this CR now serves
adaptation = (emp) habituation. [The as a negative reinforcing stimulus for
use of this synonym for habituation other responses or that the presence of
should be avoided because of the in- this stimulus in the environment of an
evitable confusion with sensory adapta- animal depresses the rate of occurrence
tion and with the many other usages of behavior usually shown in that en-
it enjoys.] vironment, thus producing behavior un-
adaptation/sensory = (emp} change, in- usual in that environment (such as, for
cremental or decremental, in response the rat, defecation, urination, huddling,
or response-strength that has been ex- vocalizing, flight, excessive general ac-
perimentally demonstrated to depend tivity, etc., or some combination of
solely upon changes in the state of a these). [This concept has been the
receptor organ produced by protracted subject of a very great amount of ex-
or repetitive stimulation of, or by re- perimental work in experimental psy-
covery from, such stimulation of that chology in late years, and it is playing
organ. an increasingly large role in the field
after-discharge = 1. (emp, bt) that part of motivation. Some theorists now tend
of a response that occurs after the to consider all drives as instances of
termination of the stimulus that elicited anxiety. Its relationship to the con-
1
cept of anxiety as it appears in clinical
For explanation of abbreviations and circles is the subject of no little theo-
procedures used, see discussion in the Pref-
ace of the rules followed in preparing the retical interest—and controversy. For
glossary. example, when the onset of a buzzer is
1
 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
paired with electrical shock a number learning to run to a goal box for food,
of times, a rat will learn very readily is shocked there. His behavior on sub-
to press a bar if the bar-press shuts off sequent occasions can then be demon-
the buzzer. This learning is said by strated as a function of the sum of a
drive-reduction theorists to depend upon gradient of approach and a gradient of
reduction of the anxiety drive.] avoidance.]
apparatus, see Lashley jumping-stand,
runway, Skinner-box, T-maze, and behavior, behaviour = 1. (emp) the
T-maze/multiple. whole complex of observable, record-
appeasement, see behavior/appease- able, or measurable activities of a liv-
ment. ing animal, such as movements of the
appetitive, see behavior/appetitive. skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles,
approach-approach, see conflict/ap- production of sound, discharge of elec-
proach-approach. tric organs, movements of cilia, con-
approach-avoidance, see conflict/ap- traction or expansion of chromato-
proach-avoidance. phores, nettling, glandular secretion,
approach/gradient of = (emp, bt) the and changes in body chemistry (includ-
goal-gradient (1.), usually as meas- ing those producing luminescence) as
ured in the runway. they are concerned in the animal's com-
attack, see behavior/attack. merce with its environment. [Loosely,
attend = (emp, bt) to give any response behavior is anything an animal does.
whatsoever to a stimulus. [This term The intuitive concepts of mental ac-
defines what is probably the broadest tivity and consciousness are not be-
possible class of behavior.] havior, although they may be defined
attention = (con) a reification, as faculty in terms of it. Behavior is analyzed
or process, of attending. into responses.] = 2. (emp) any parts
autochthonous, see behavior/autoch- of behavior (1.) that are recurrently
thonous. identifiable and classifiable by the ob-
aversive, see stimulus/aversive. server. [Cf. response. A class of be-
avoidance-avoidance, see conflict/avoid- havior need not show the types of
ance-avoidance. orderly quantitative variations that en-
avoidance conditioning, see condition- able us to analyze it still further into
ing/avoidance. responses.]
avoidance/gradient of = (emp, bt) when behavior/acquired = (emp, U) behavior
an animal has been repeatedly presented that has been experimentally demon-
with a strongly aversive stimulus (as strated, in either its topography or
an intense electric shock) in the goal stimulus control or both, to be depend-
box of a runway, and measures of the ent in part upon the operation of varia-
strength of running from or pulling bles encountered in conditioning and
away from the goal box are made by learning, such as the occurrence of re-
introducing the animal into a series of inforcing stimuli. [If species-specific
positions along the runway, it is found behavior, as a result of conditioning
that the strength of the behavior is procedures, occurs systematically as a
inversely proportional to the distance function of the presence of previously
from the goal box. This function is ineffective stimuli, it must then be con-
called the gradient of avoidance. [The sidered acquired with respect to those
runway is often used in the experi- stimuli. The terms, then, are not mu-
mental analysis of behavior in approach- tually exclusive in application. Ant.
avoidance conflicts. The animal, after unlearned or inborn behavior.]
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR

behavior/aggressive = (emp) a broad of stimuli to which that animal is par-

class of behavior that includes both ticularly responsive. Many behavior-
threat and attack behavior. [Once ists would identify almost all the be-
identified as such, responses occurring havior that is classified as appetitive
in aggressive behavior can be identified by ethologists as "operant behavior oc-
in other contexts, so that it can be curring in an environment devoid of
stated that aggressive behavior may experimental control." Further, they
occur toward inanimate objects. Ag- would lean on theory to note that, after
gressive behavior is often exhibited dur- given drive operations had occurred,
ing the extinction of conditioned re- experimentally or naturally, all the
sponses: rats bite bars during extinc- operants conditioned under that drive
tion; pigeons threaten keys.] should increase greatly in strength.
behavior/agonistic = (emp, eth) abroad This interpretation would not make
class of behaviors that includes all at- the activities any the less interesting
tack, threat, appeasement, and flight to them. In fact, they spend much of
behavior. their time studying them.]
behavior/allochthonous =1. (th, eth) behavior/attack = (emp, eth) a broad
behavior that is not activated by its response class including those behaviors
own drive. = 2. (th, eth) behavior of an animal that, when carried to com-
that is activated as a consequence of pletion, bring to bear one or more of
the frustration of behavior activated by the animal's effectors on the body sur-
some drive other than that which most face of a second animal in such a way
often controls it. [Syn. displacement that injury and possibly death of the
activity; Ant. autochthonous be- second animal will occur if the behavior
havior.] continues. [In a given species, more
behavior/appeasement = (emp, eth) precise specification is possible in terms
those behaviors of an animal (exclusive of biting, clawing, hitting with the
of flight) that, when they occur, termi- wings, and the like.]
nate attack on the animal by another behavior/autochthonous = (th,eth) be-
animal of the same species. [E.g., havior that is activated by its own
when wolves fight and one gains, as it drive. [See behavior/allochthonous,
were, the upper fang, the losing animal drive (3.), and instinct (2.).]
will throw up its head and turn the behavior chain = (emp) a sequence of
ventral surface of its neck toward the stimuli and responses that can be ob-
jaws of the winner. The winner will served repeatedly in an animal, with
then cease the attack, and the loser will only minor variations in the ordinal
retreat from the field of battle.] position of each stimulus and response.
behavior/appetitive = (th, eth) a term [In many cases of chaining, it is not
applied to characterize, in terms of an possible to identify all the stimuli of
inferred or anticipated (by the etholo- the chain, but only the responses as
gist) consummatory act, the behavior they occur in order. In others, a re-
of an animal that is not at rest or sponse may move the animal in such a
"doing nothing." [It is described as way that he is confronted with a new
plastic, etc. Appetitive behavior, by set of stimuli that release or elicit the
definition, cannot be identified as such next response, and so on. A theoreti-
until observations not involving it have cal distinction can be drawn between
been made. It is further presumed to "heterogenous" chains, some of the
be characterized by a motor pattern, an stimuli of which are environmental and
orientation (taxis) component, and sets others movement-produced (see stimuli/
 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
movement-produced), and "homoge- stimulus for the response of the second,
nous" chains, all stimulus members of then the second animal is said to imitate
which are either environmental or the first and the behavior is called imi-
movement-produced—e.g., (classical) tative. [Imitative behavior is readily
the hunting and egg-laying behavior in producible in the primate after discrimi-
the female solitary wasp, the running of nation and differentiation training has
a rat through a complex maze which been given. Cf. behavior/mimetic.]
he has run through many times before.] behavior/inborn, see behavior/un-
behavior/emotional = (emp, bt) an ar- learned and behavior/species-spe-
bitrary class of responses that is defined cific.
differently for different species and that behavior/innate, see innate, behavior/
is based on the covariation in response- unlearned, and behavior/species-spe-
strength of the behaviors as a function cific.
of certain often ill-defined independent behavior/instinctive, see instinct (1.,
variables. [Despite the rather fuzzy 2.), behavior/unlearned, and be-
origins of this class, once a particular havior/species-specific.
response has been placed in the class, behavior/mimetic = (emp, eth) an ani-
the term emotional can be consistently mal is placed in the environment of an-
applied to it; and a concept that is other animal of the same species: if
initially theoretical seems to acquire the second animal then makes some
some empirical status. Emotional be- species-specific response, and thereafter
haviors in the rat include urination, the first animal makes the same re-
defecation, freezing, vocalizing, and sponse under conditions where it can
trembling, when two or more of these be demonstrated that the response of
occur together. In the pigeon they in- the second animal is the stimulus for
clude cooing and wing-beating.] that of the first and that no opportunity
behavior/escape = 1. (emp, eth, bt) rapid for discrimination and differentiation
locomotion of an animal from any given training has been given to either ani-
location that occurs after specific stimuli mal, then the behavior is termed mi-
are presented to it in that place. [The metic. [This term is to be distin-
stimuli effective in producing escape be- guished from imitative behavior, which
havior are almost identical with those does not refer to species-specific be-
identified as negative reinforcing stimuli havior. ( Cf. behavior/imitative.)
or aversive stimuli in conditioning situ- Reified, we have "mimesis." This is a
ations.] = 2. (emp, eth) behavior/ good example of a not very useful em-
flight (2.). pirical concept. Hinde (11) has shown
behavior/flight = 1. (emp, eth) flying that, although a few examples of mi-
of birds and bats. = 2. (emp, eth, bt) metic behavior can be found, little is
rapid locomotion of an animal from gained by classifying them together.]
proximity to another animal that is ex- behavior/operant = (emp, bt) the to-
hibiting threat or attack behavior. tality of operant responses in the be-
behavior/imitative = (emp) an animal havior repertoire of the animal.
is placed in the environment of another behavior pattern = (emp) a set of re-
animal. If the first animal then makes sponses statistically organized in time,
some response that is not species-spe- that is, associated together and mani-
cific, and thereafter the second animal festing some degree of stereotypy in the
makes the same response under condi- temporal sequence in which they occur.
tions when it can be demonstrated that [The term behavior pattern is applied
the response of the first animal is the whenever one has analyzed behavior
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR

into relatively large units, that is, units opportunity to learn. [These behaviors
composed of a number of responses. are often presumed to be unmodifiable
Behavior chains, instincts (1., 2.) and by training.]
the activities that are the empirical behavior/spontaneous = (emp) be-
bases of particular drives are all labeled havior that occurs in the ostensible ab-
behavior patterns, which renders the sence of any stimuli that can be shown
term of very limited usefulness for to elicit or release, or to set the occa-
theory.] sion for its occurrence. [To call be-
behavior/purposive = (con) behavior havior spontaneous is to indicate cur-
when considered with respect to its rent ignorance of the events controlling
goals. [The usage of goal varies suf- it. It does not imply capriciousness.
ficiently that this term finds very limited This term would be synonymous with
use except in conversation or in literary operant behavior, except that operants
statement. To those who wish to in- that have come under the control of
vestigate variations in the stimulus con- discriminative stimuli are no longer
trol of verbal behavior, one thing is spontaneous.]
clear: few people respond to the same behavior/symbolic = 1. (emp, bt) verbal
behavioral events consistently with one behavior. = 2. (th, bt) a hypothesized
another by calling them purposive be- class of behavior that cannot neces-
havior. For the behavior scientist, pur- sarily be directly observed. = 3. (th,
posive behavior is a null class or, al- bt) the observed behavior from which
ternatively, a class that includes all symbolic behavior (2) is inferred.
behavior. In either case, purposive be- [Loosely, all behavior that "must" be
havior is not a very useful concept, for accounted for on some such grounds is
it is neither empirical fish nor theoreti- also termed symbolic. If some behavior
cal fowl.] is observed for which the controlling
behavior repertoire = (emp, bt) the set stimuli are not present in the environ-
of behaviors characteristic either of an ment at the time of the response (al-
entire species or of a single member of though they may have been present on
a species. previous occasions on which the be-
havior occurred), then it is presumed
behavior/respondent = (emp, bt) the
to be under the control of symbolic be-
totality of respondents in the behavior
havior that acts as surrogate for the
repertoire of an animal. absent stimuli. Stimuli present in the
behavior/ritualized, see response/ritu- environment are presumed to elicit some
alized. mediating behavioral (e.g., postural)
behavior/species-specific = 1. (emp) or sensory event—pure stimulus act
those behaviors shown by a great ma- (15) or fractional anticipatory goal re-
jority of members of a species in the sponse—which in turn serves as the
same or highly similar environments stimulus for the behavior that is ac-
and under the same or highly similar tually observed.] =4. (con) loosely
conditions. [Such species-characteris- and colloquially, thinking,
tic behaviors can sometimes be em- behavior/threat = (emp, eth) those sets
ployed in taxonomy to assist in the of behaviors of an animal that have
classification of animals.] = 2. (emp, been shown to produce flight behavior
eth) those behaviors, complex and rela- at some strength in another animal
tively stereotyped, that appear in most (usually of the same species) when
members of a species under set and they occur in its presence. [Threat
statable conditions without evident prior behavior most often elicits other agonis-
 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
tic behavior, e.g., threat, attack, flight, tional impulses" can flow from the
or appeasement, in the other animal.] higher center to the lower, activating
behavior/unlearned = 1. (emp) species- the latter and hence yielding a response.
specific behavior, the necessary and suf- There is no direct physiological evi-
ficient antecedents of which are un- dence for such a state.]
known to, and often of little interest to,
the investigator. — 2. (emp, eth) be- center = 1. (emp, physiol) a locus in the
havior that has been experimentally nervous system characterized by the
demonstrated, in both its stimulus con- presence of a number of cell bodies
trol and topography, to be independent and synapses, the excitation of which
of and unmodified by the operation of by appropriately specified electrical
variables encountered in conditioning stimulation may yield discrete motor
and learning, such as the occurrence of or autonomic behavior patterns and ex-
reinforcing stimuli. [Syn. behavior/ perimental destruction of which is fol-
instinctive, inborn, innate (obsolete); lowed by the disappearance or gross
Ant. behavior/acquired. The empiri- modification of the same, or similar,
cal referents of this definition are in discrete motor or autonomic behavior
dispute.] patterns. = 2. (th, physiol) a. func-
behavior/verbal = 1. (emp, bt) behavior tionally coordinated, but not necessarily
involving the vocalization or writing localized, group of neural structures
of words, or response to spoken or having the properties of center (1.).
written words. =2. (emp, bt) be- =3. (th, eth) a hypothetical neural
havior whose reinforcement is contin- structure, or place or set of places in the
gent upon stimulation of and response central nervous system, of unspecified
by another individual. [By this defini- anatomical properties, presumed to act
tion, verbal behavior is not limited to as a unit upon excitation by another
behavior involving words: gesture and such place or other such places by send-
other forms of communication are in- ing nerve impulses that govern the oc-
cluded.] currence of some innate response. [A
behaviorist = 1. (emp) a scientist who center is the theoretical neural correlate
investigates the behavior of animals ob- of a species-specific response. Theory
jectively and who attempts to relate endows this with all the properties of
his observations together in a theoreti- the physiologist's centers. It is not im-
cal system that does not include con- possible that these centers may become,
cepts borrowed from introspection and eventually, empirical concepts, with
mental philosophy. =-2. (emp) more specified anatomical loci and proper-
specifically, a psychologist who studies ties.]—Ger. Erbkoordinationen.
learning and related phenomena as a chaining, see behavior chain.
behaviorist (1.) [His theories are choice point = (emp, bt) that position
often built on the behavior of R. r. in a T-maze, or other maze, or on a
norvegicus albinus, the domesticated discrimination apparatus, from which it
rat. See ethologist.] is possible for the animal to give only
block = (th, eth) a hypothetical state of one of two or more alternative re-
the pathways between two centers of sponses. [E.g., to move down only one
an instinct. [This state may be termi- of two or more runways, or jump to
nated or reduced by the action of an one of two or more doors. In the T-
innate releasing mechanism that has maze, this is of course the point at
been activated by a sign stimulus. After which the base of the T touches the
such nullification of the state, "motiva- cross-arm.]
 GLOSSARY OF TEEMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR

cognition = (con, bt) a hypothetical that can be empirically and quantita-

stimulus-stimulus association or per- tively established, the list becomes
ceptual organization postulated to ac- shortened, perhaps to two, which seem
count for expectancies. [See expect. to exhibit persistent differences: "classi-
It is not possible as yet to define in cal" and "operant." Drive-reduction
other than intuitive terminology, ex- theorists argue that both kinds of con-
cept for trivial cases. Cognitive maps ditioning inevitably occur whichever
are elaborations of such cognitions.] procedure one follows and that the only
concept = (emp, bt) any response, ver- distinction that can be made is in terms
bal or motor, that is under the dis- of which one of several responses is
criminative control of a broad class of observed. Their statement rests on
environmental objects or events; the theoretical grounds. Others prefer to
members of the class may differ from admit that conditioned responses of both
one another in all respects other than types can be observed in the same ani-
a single quantifiable property. [Most mal at the same time as a function of
concepts are statements that refer to the same reinforcing stimulus, and let
the common property: "blue," "square," it go at that.] — 2. (th, eth) the hy-
"velocity," "beauty," "length." Pseudo- pothetical production of a change in
concepts may depend on a number of the nervous system presumed to occur
partially overlapping classes of events with and to underlie conditioning (!.)•
that do not share an objective com- conditioning/approximation = (emp,
mon property: "honesty," "virtue," bt) a special case of operant condition-
"rigidity."] ing. If it is desired to condition a
conditioned, see response/conditioned, highly improbable (infrequent) operant
stimulus/conditioned, stimulus/rein- response (one that will not occur and,
forcing, stimulus/unconditioned, and hence, cannot be reinforced, except
suppression/conditioned. rarely), the experimenter may shorten
conditioning = 1. (emp, bt) the generic the time before the subject emits the
name for the empirical concepts denned response by reinforcing other responses
procedurally below, [In laboratory that are successively more like the re-
usage, the response brought under ex- sponse to be conditioned. [The timing
perimental control through the opera- of these reinforcements is critical: they
tions of conditioning is termed a con- must follow the response reinforced
ditioned response. Lab slang, unfor- within a second's time, or the procedure
tunately, extends the usage, so that an will be ineffective. Thus, if it is de-
animal is called conditioned when one sired to train a dog to jump up against
of its responses has been conditioned, a wall, the experimenter may first re-
and a stimulus may be spoken of as inforce a head turn toward the wall,
"becoming conditioned" when a re- then a body turn, then one or more
sponse is conditioned to it. These steps toward the wall, and so on. This
usages are, strictly speaking, incorrect technique makes it possible to train
and may lead to misunderstandings on animals (and people) to give unusual
the part of the student. How many performances in short order. Many
kinds of conditioning? In the strictly parlor games (e.g., Twenty Questions)
empirical, operational sense, there are are based on it. Syn. shaping.]
as many kinds of conditioning as there conditioning/avoidance = (emp, bt) the
are sets of conditioning operations. experimental procedure in which the
The present glossary lists the more im- occurrence of a response prevents the
portant. In terms of the equivalences administration of a negatively rein-
8 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
forcing stimulus which would other- forced. [This procedure is employed
wise occur shortly after the onset of theoretically by contiguity theory to
the conditioned stimulus. Condition- account for extinction. Cf. interfer-
ing is said to occur if, and only if, the ence.]
response then increases in rate of oc- conditioning/escape = (emp, bt) a spe-
currence, in magnitude, or in relative cial case of operant conditioning. The
frequency, or decreases in latency with conditioning procedure in which suc-
successive presentations of the CS as cessive occurrences of a response re-
a function of this operation. [On theo- peatedly terminate a negative reinforc-
retical grounds, it is often argued that ing stimulus. Conditioning is said to
avoidance conditioning is a special case occur if, and only if, the response then
of operant conditioning under intermit- increases in rate of occurrence, in mag-
tent reinforcement.] nitude, or in relative frequency, or de-
conditioning/classical = (emp, bt) the creases in latency as a function of this
experimental procedure of repeatedly procedure. [Cf. escape behavior.]
presenting the animal with a stimulus conditioning/higher-order (second-
(unconditioned stimulus or US) of order, third-order, etc.) = (emp, bt)
some reflex contiguously or almost if a classical conditioned response is
contiguously in time with a neutral established, the stimulus of this S-R
stimulus (conditioned stimulus or CS). correlation may serve as the uncondi-
Conditioning is said to have occurred tioned stimulus for a new second-order
if, and only if, a response (conditioned conditioned response, and so on.
response or CR) similar to, but not conditioning/instrumental = 1. (emp,
necessarily identical with, that of the bt) operant conditioning. —2. (con,
reflex can later be elicited by the ini- bt) a term applied to operant condi-
tially indifferent stimulus (CS). [The tioning [based on the view that the con-
differences are primarily quantitative: ditioned response is instrumental in
the CR has a longer latency, is usually producing the reinforcing stimulus for
of greater duration, and, in some cases, the animal] when the animal is not free
of much smaller amplitude. In the case to give the response except when the
of certain responses, some components experimenter chooses [as by opening
of a topographically complex response a door so that the animal can run out].
disappear completely (assume a value conditioning/operant = (emp, bt) the
of zero). The CR produced by condi- experimental procedure of presenting
tioning a given R must therefore al- the animal with a reinforcing stimulus
ways be determined empirically. E.g., immediately following the occurrence
the Pavlovian CR, conditioned saliva- of a given response. Conditioning is
tion, is only one part of the dog's initial said to occur if, and only if, the re-
response (UR) to food. Many of the sponse then increases in rate of oc-
remaining parts of the UR do not occur currence, magnitude, or relative fre-
after the response is conditioned. Syn., quency, or decreases in latency, as a
or approximate Syn., Pavlovian condi- consequence of this operation. (The
tioning, respondent conditioning, type-S measure chosen depends on the response
conditioning, and type-1 conditioning.] with which one is dealing.) [Sensu
conditioning/counter- = (emp, bt) the stricto, only operants may be operantly
experimental procedure of conditioning conditioned. This distinction accounts
a second and conflicting response to the for the apparent failure of members of
conditioned or discriminative stimulus the list of synonyms to be strictly syn-
of a response that is not being rein- onymous. The name seems to have
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR

stuck, however, to all cases where re- ment, but with drive-inducing opera-
inforcement is contingent on response, tions and stimulus properties taken into
when the response occurs freely (the account, the term strength of condition-
operant case), or when the response ing is used. [The statement, "If an
can occur only as the experimenter animal is not hungry, he will fail to give
chooses, as in a trial on the runway a conditioned response, but the strength
(the instrumental case). This is an ex- of conditioning is not altered," implies
ample of different operations yielding that, if this same animal now is 22-
equivalent results, with the result that hours food deprived and is placed in the
one term is used. For clarity,, "free" same situation, he will then give con-
is often used with the term operant con- ditioned responses of large magnitude.
ditioning to describe the first case. Only the operations of reinforcement
Syn., or approximate Syn., Skinnerian and extinction alter the strength of con-
conditioning, Thorndikean conditioning, ditioning; changes in deprivation leave
type-R conditioning, trial-and-error it unchanged.] = 2. (emp, bt) re-
conditioning, instrumental conditioning, sistance to extinction.
and type-2 conditioning.] conflict = 1. (emp, bt) a term applied
conditioning/pre-, see conditioning/ when the stimuli for two incompatible
sensory pre-. responses are presented simultaneously
conditioning/pseudo- = (emp, bt) "The under conditions (e.g., following drive-
US [unconditioned stimulus] is pre- inducing operations) in which either,
sented alone in a series of massed trials, presented alone, would yield a response.
and then, after a short interval of time, [The most striking effects of conflict
the CS [conditioned stimulus] is pre- appear under conditions of such nature
sented in a series of massed trials" (25). that both responses would be of large
If the response to the US is then pre- magnitude.] =2. (th) the state of the
sented to the CS, pseudoconditioning is animal when two drives associated with
said to have occurred. [Possibly re- incompatible behaviors are equally or
lated to reflex sensitization and to nearly equally strong.
stimulus generalization.] conflict/approach-approach = (emp, bt)
conditioning/sensory pre- = (emp, bt) when two stimuli, towards either one of
the experimental procedure of repeat- which the animal moves when it is pre-
edly and consecutively presenting the sented alone, are presented simultane-
animal with two stimuli to both of ously but in different locations so that
which it is indifferent and then condi- approach to one takes it away from the
tioning the animal to respond to the other, the conflict is termed approach-
second of the two. The two stimuli approach conflict.
must be chosen so that stimulus gen- conflict/approach-avoidance = (emp,
eralization between them cannot be bt) when two stimuli, towards one of
demonstrated. Sensory preconditioning which the animal moves when it is pre-
is said to occur if the animal is then sented alone and from the other of
observed to respond to the first, when which it actively runs, are presented to-
the first is presented without the second, gether at the same or approximately the
with the response conditioned to the same location, the conflict is termed
second. approach-avoidance. [Also used if one
conditioning/strength of = 1. (emp, bt) stimulus has come to control, through
when it is desired to make statements separate training procedures, both ap-
about the magnitude of a response with proach and avoidance. The animal may
reference to the operations of reinforce- have been repeatedly shocked in the
10 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
same goal box to which it has run with tiation, and its outcome a differentiated
reinforcement by food.] response. [Differentiated responses
conflict/avoidance-avoidance = (emp, may become, of course, highly stereo-
bt) if two stimuli, from either of which typed and "mechanical." Response dif-
the animal moves if it is presented ferentiation is almost synonymous with
alone, are presented simultaneously but approximation conditioning.]
in different locations so that escape discharge = 1. (th, eth) with reference
from one places the animal in the pres- to a drive, the utilization, consumption,
ence of the other, the conflict is classi- annulment, or destruction of a drive
fied as avoidance-avoidance conflict. (or of an accumulation of action-spe-
consummately act = (emp) a response cific energy or of "impulses") that oc-
that most often terminates a given fre- curs when its consummatory act is
quently occurring sequence of behaviors. given. [The responses that have been
[E.g., eating, copulation. It is not al- activated by the discharged drive will
ways possible to draw a rigid distinc- not then recur until the drive is built
tion between a consummatory act and up in magnitude again by the summated
the responses that usually precede it. action of internal (e.g., hormonal)
Many consummatory acts have been changes and environmental stimula-
empirically identified with responses to tion.] = 2. (emp, eth) with reference
reinforcing stimuli; no clear-cut ex- to a behavior pattern, emission.
ception to this is known. The converse discriminated = (emp, bt) when applied
often, but not invariably, holds. In to a response, it refers to one brought
Hullian theory, this effect is associated under the control of a stimulus by dif-
with the concept of drive-reduction; ferential reinforcement. When applied
whereas in early ethological theory, to a stimulus, it refers to one differ-
consummatory acts are associated with entially responded to by an animal.
the consumption of action-specific en- discrimination = 1. (emp, bt) differen-
ergy. These seem to be analogous no- tial response to two or more stimuli.
tions. Many consummatory acts are [When two stimuli are simultaneously
highly stereotyped.] or successively presented to an organ-
consummatory stimulus, see stimulus/ ism, and the quantitative topographic
consummatory. properties of a specified response to the
contiguity = (emp, bt) the occurrence two differ, a discrimination has been
together in time, or within no more demonstrated. By this definition, dis-
than two seconds of one another, of two crimination is shown in any two S-R
stimuli, two responses, or a stimulus correlations.] =2. (th, bt) differen-
and a response. [One of the condi- tial response-strength to two or more
tions necessary for learning or condi- stimuli. [This is the more common, but
tioning to occur? See theory/con- more specialized, definition. By this
tinguity.] usage, one cannot speak of discrimina-
tion without being able to relate it to re-
differentiation = (emp, bt) if a rein- sponse-strength, so those cases of dif-
forcing stimulus is withheld except ferential response on the first occasion
when a restrictively specified response a second stimulus is introduced cannot
is given, the frequency of occurrence be referred to as discrimination. Typi-
of the response will increase, and that cally, discriminations are the outcome
of alternative responses, even those that of discrimination training, although
differ only slightly, will decrease. This some can be exhibited without such
procedure is called response-differen- training. Discriminations between
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 11
similar stimuli are used to explore the displacement activity =1. (emp, eth)
sensory and perceptual characteristics a response that has been identified as a
of an organism. N.B.: by this defini- member of one instinct (1.) often oc-
tion an animal that jumps 100% to a curs in others. On these occasions it
cross and never to a triangle is dis- is termed a displacement activity. [A
criminating between them. The same very common and incorrect usage ap-
animal, presented with the same two plies the term to any behavior unex-
stimulus objects, may walk to them pected by the observer.] = 2. (th, eth)
equally often and is not discriminating "A displacement activity is an activity
between them. Thus, an animal can belonging to the executive motor pat-
discriminate between a pair of stimuli tern of an instinct other than the in-
when one response is under investiga- stinct (s) activated" (29). [It ". . .
tion and cannot discriminate between seems to appear when an activated
the same pair with another response.] drive is denied discharge through its
= 3. (th, eth) a hypothetical sensory own consummatory activity" (29).]
or neurophysiological event which = 3. (emp) a term applied to a re-
makes it possible for an animal to form sponse that has been conditioned under
discriminations as defined above. A one set of deprivations and reinforce-
capacity. [The discriminations of be- ment conditions and that then appears
havior theory are formed, those of under others. [Some observations are
ethology are revealed, by discrimination needed here. See also appetitive be-
training.] havior. Psychologists are, by and
discrimination training = (emp, bt) the large, not familiar with the empirical
experimental procedure of reinforcing a content of this term and do not seem to
response in the presence of a discrimi- employ an analogous concept. In view
native stimulus and not reinforcing the of their hours of watching rats, they
response in the presence of other should be interested to learn that most
stimuli. When quantitative measures ethologists would term the face-wash-
of the response taken in the presence ings and bar-bitings that appear dur-
of the stimulus differ from those in ing extinction, displacement activities.
its absence, a discrimination has been See also redirection activity.]
formed, and the animal is said to dis- drive = 1. (th) a hypothetical state of
criminate. the animal which is identified by: (a)
discriminative, see stimulus/discrimina- gross changes in the relative frequency
tive. of broad classes of behavior that are
not attributable to disease, learning, or
disinhibition = (emp, bt) the term ap- growth; (6) changes in running-wheel
plied to the observation, in the course activity; or (c) changes in cage-mo-
of extinction of a classical conditioned tility. Drives may be manipulated by:
response, that, when an extraneous operations of deprivation (as of food
stimulus (one not previously present and water), alterations of the hormone
in the situation and which does not or other biochemical balance of the blood
evoke the same response) is presented (e.g., of ACTH, testosterone, sodium
together with the conditioned stimulus, chloride), by temperature changes, or
the magnitude of CR may be larger intense stimulation. Some can be spe-
than predicted from its magnitude on cified only by stating the time of the
previous trials. [A like observation year. Particular states so defined sensi-
can be made, although less predictably, tize particular S-R correlations: those
in the extinction of operant CRs.] acquired after the particular drive oper-
12 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
ations have been performed and those may be experimentally determined.]
species-specific responses that have been = 5. (th, bt) Hull's D (16). [A con-
empirically established as covarying. struct having the properties of a gen-
[Thus, food elicits eating behavior in eral state but associated with, or pro-
hungry animals only, and lordosis can ducing, specific stimuli. Its controlling
be elicited in the guinea pig only when variables are only suggested.] = 6.
particular combinations of hormones (con) one of many hypothesized state
are present in specific concentrations.] variables derived from the effectiveness
= 2. (th, eth) motivation. =3. (th, of particular environmental events as
eth) a concept equivalent to Hull's ,Er reinforcing stimuli. [E.g., the manipu-
(16). [That is to say, a construct ex- latory drive (9). This is invoked as
pressing the combined action of all a consequence of observations that mon-
causal variables controlling a piece keys and apes solve mechanical puzzles
of behavior. Ordinarily, a particular without reinforcement administered by
drive is associated with the activation the experimenter and that they acquire
of a corresponding instinct (2.). The conditioned responses when the rein-
third usage is not universal among forcing stimulus is the opening of a
ethologists but seems embodied in window through which the animal can
Thorpe's definition (27, 28). It is very look into a space not available to it
difficult to determine just how the word just before. The absence of any de-
"drive" is being used by ethologists. fining operations or manipulations other
Sometimes, it seems to be defined as in than the identification of specific events
drive (2.). Sometimes, it seems to as reinforcers renders this usage un-
refer to a hypothetical construct em- fortunate and misleading. If such be-
bodying the combined effect of all the haviors as exploration and manipula-
excitational causal variables controlling tion occur in animals whose behavior
a response. Sometimes, it seems to in- can also be conditioned with presenta-
clude the concept of a hypothetical mag- tions of novel events as reinforcing
nitude of "neural excitation" or "nerve stimuli, then the term instinct (2.),
impulses." I hope that someone will which lacks any implication with re-
straighten out this concept. Nor is spect to the classes of variables con-
this the only definition of which one can trolling the behavior and which sug-
complain. The theoretical definition of gests no particular underlying theory,
drive (1.) also leaves something to be would seem to be the preferable term
demanded. One suspects that the term to attach to the behavior.]
drive may be a bit too broad and that drive/alien, see drive/irrelevant.
we should deal rather with specific com- drive-inducing operation = (emp, bt) a
plexes of operations and behavior, such generic term for one class of procedures
as those defining "hunger," "maternal followed before beginning experimental
behavior," etc., and not try at all to investigations. These procedures are
class them together prior to rigorous described in sufficient detail in publica-
experimental analysis.] =4. (th, bt) tions of research results so that others
a. state of the animal established by can duplicate them. [They are the pro-
deprivation of food or water, or by the cedures that set up "drives." They in-
presentation of electrical shock, char- clude: for hunger and thirst—depriva-
acterized by a change in the relative tion according to specified rules of food
rates of occurrence of a specified set and water, respectively; for sex—in-
of operant responses (22). [Further jection of hormones, observation during
operations, for producing such states the reproductive season, manipulation
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 13
of the light-dark cycle, presentation of emotion =1. (th, bt) a generic name
an oestrous female rat to a male; for for states of the animal in which a wide
escape or fear—intense electrical stimu- variety of responses exhibit lowered re-
lation, and so on.] sponse-strengths not attributable to sati-
drive/irrelevant = (th, bt) when the in- ation or extinction. [The depressed
ducing operations of two drives (1.) rate of response observed during the
are carried out, and reinforcement of course of extinction following regular
some response is effected by reducing reinforcement and during conditioned
one of them, then the other drive is suppression, for example, are classified
termed irrelevant. [E.g., if an animal as defining emotion.] = 2. (th, bt) an
is deprived of food and is then shocked intervening variable having some of
electrically until it jumps over a small the properties of D (drive) in some
barrier, shock-avoidance is the drive, versions of Hullian theory (2). = 3.
and hunger is the irrelevant drive. (con) a broad, ill-defined or indefinable
Syn. alien drive. ] class of behavior based upon the col-
drive/primary = (th, bt) any of the loquial use of the word, emotion. [The
drives enumerated under drive (1.). class seems as meaningless for human
[When a drive is termed primary, beings as for subhuman animals. A
stress is being laid on the postulate pretheoretical notion, it has played
that (a) drive-inducing operations pro- some role in the identification of emo-
duce states of physiological disequili- tional behavior. The concepts of emo-
brium (needs) and (b) both drive re- tion bear disappointingly little refer-
duction (the opposite operation) and ence to the empirical concept of emo-
the behavioral changes that occur when tional behavior. Many who use the
a drive is established tend to restore the latter dispense with the former. Cf.
animal to a state of homeostasis.] emotional behavior.]
drive/secondary (or acquired) = (th, engram = (th) a hypothetical neural
bt) a drive (1.) hypothesized so that locus, structure, or persistent activity,
the drive variable may be introduced presumably anatomically or physiologi-
theoretically in order to predict the oc- cally identifiable, that plays the same
currence of learned behavior in the role for the explanation of learned be-
absence of one or another of the drive havior that center does for species-spe-
manipulations listed under drive (1.). cific behavior. [What Lashley couldn't
[Defining operations of one such drive find (26), and perhaps Penfield did
are given in terms of the establishment (21).]
of a discriminated avoidance condi- Erbkobrdination, see fixed action pat-
tioned response. See anxiety.] tern.
drive stimulus, see stimulus/drive. error = (emp, bt) any response, or set
of responses collectively taken, whose
emit = (emp, bt) to give an operant re- occurrence delays the appearance of
sponse. [A vacuum activity may be the response chosen to be reinforced.
spoken of as emitted. Many psycholo-
[Errors may not be practicably subject
gists are most unhappy with this word,
but still accept the distinction between to measurement, as in the case of trial-
a response that is elicited by a stimulus and-error learning; or they may, in
presented by the experimenter and one some situations, be more fully specified
that "just occurs" as a useful one for and hence become enumerable, as in the
communication. See also spontaneous case of some superstitions and of entry
• behavior.] into blind alleys in maze learning.]
14 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
error/anticipatory = (emp, bt) a. class count for the data of adaptation or
of errors in the acquisition of behavior habituation of a species-specific re-
chains, in which the error is the occur- sponse. [The occurrence of a response
rence of a response earlier in the chain is presumed to drain off or consume a
than the position in which it would certain quantity of this "energy," thus
lead to reinforcement. raising the threshold and hence reduc-
error/perseverative = (emp, bt) a class ing the frequency and magnitude of the
of errors in the acquisition of behavior response thereafter.]
chains, in which the error is the occur- expect = (?, bt) [If one does not "in-
rence of a response in a serial position tuitively know" what expect means,
following that in which it would lead one is lost.] The writer has been un-
to reinforcement. able to find a definition of any type
escape, see behavior/escape and condi- that has enabled him to use the term
tioning/escape. in a systematic fashion, except the fol-
ethologist = 1. (emp) a behaviorist lowing: "If x is deprived of food and
(1.) who, typically, has been trained in x has been trained on path P and path
zoology, usually studies the behavior of P is now blocked and there are other
insects, fishes, and birds more often paths which lead away from path P,
than that of mammals and other groups, one of which points directly to location
and makes use of much of the system L, then x runs down the path that
of terms labeled eth in this glossary. points directly to location L = x ex-
= 2. (emp) a student of comparative pects food at location L" (33). [Ex-
behavior. =3. (emp, eth) a behavior- pectancy is the noun; presumably it is
ist (1.) who likes his animals. what one has when one expects.] = 2.
excitation = (th) a hypothetical state of (con) to behave as if making a prob-
the animal used in various ways to ac- ability judgment. [The difficulty of ar-
count for the occurrence of a response riving at an empirical or theoretical
and presumed to be great when re- definition of "expect" and of "expect-
sponse magnitude is large. [Some- ancy" that is other than trivial may ex-
times dressed up by the addition of sug- plain why many experimental behavior
gestions about nerve impulses, etc.] theorists find the concept of limited
excitatory potential = (th, bt) Hull's value, even though some consider it
sEr (16). A hypothetical state vari- equivalent in "explanatory power" to
able, denned mathematically, that in- habit-strength sHr>]
corporates the combined effects on re- extinction/experimental = (emp, bt)
sponse magnitude of such excitatory the progressive decrements in the mag-
variables as stimulation and drive. nitude or relative frequency of a previ-
excitatory_potential/effective =(th, bt) ously conditioned response resulting
Hull's 8Er (16). A hypothetical state from the procedure of omitting rein-
variable quantitatively embodying the forcement following or accompanying
joint effects of excitatory potential and the occurrence of the response, when
the reactive inhibitions on response other variables are held constant.
magnitude. [Drive (3.) is almost syn- extinction/resistance to = (emp, bt) the
onymous. Momentary effective excita- number of instances of a conditioned
tory potential ( 8 E r ) incorporates a vari- response that occurs during experimen-
ability concept.] tal extinction before the conditioned re-
exhaustion (of action-specific energy, or sponse reaches some predetermined cri-
of specific action potential) = (th, eth) terion of low response-strength. [Such
a hypothetical process postulated to ac- criteria are usually chosen on the basis
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 15
of previous experimental results so that and nerve-muscle preparations and of
little further extinction would be ex- doing some experimental investigations
pected if the procedure were continued, of work-decrement. Hull's concept of
i.e., so that extinction has approached reactive inhibition (16), incidentally, is
an asymptotic value. Criteria that have developed so that it covers most of the
been employed in free operant condi- experimental observations that tempt
tioning include: return of the rate to one to talk about fatigue.]
the operant level, failure to respond fear = 1. (emp, bt) the behavior pro-
within five minutes of the preceding duced either by sudden and intense
response, and failure to respond within stimulation or by specific classes of
five minutes of onset of the discrimina- stimuli that must be identified em-
tive stimulus. In classical condition- pirically for each species studied. Re-
ing, failure to respond to the condi- sponses include alterations of sphincter
tional stimulus in a specified time is a control, flight behavior, respiratory
typical criterion. Resistance to extinc- changes, and the suppression of be-
tion is an important measure of strength havior occurring at the onset of stimu-
of conditioning and forms the basis of lation. [These responses may be readily
Skinner's concept of the reflex re- conditioned by the Pavlovian pro-
serve.] cedure, and they are then the symp-
extinguish = 1. (emp, bt) to omit rein- toms of anxiety.] = 2. (th, bt) a drive
forcement of a response sufficiently or emotion postulated as underlying
often that a decrement in response- fear (1.). =3. (th, bt) anxiety.
strength is observed. [Usage often re- [This usage is incorrect.]
stricts this word to cases where the fixed action pattern = (emp, eth) a
response returns to the magnitude or highly stereotyped and precise response
relative frequency observed before con- observable in most members of a spe-
ditioning began.] — 2. {emp, bt) with cies when there has been no experi-
reference to a response, to decrease in mental manipulation calculated to pro-
magnitude as a function of the omission duce learning (especially response-dif-
of reinforcement. [Extinguish is both ferentiation). [See stereotyping and
a transitive and an intransitive verb. response/species-specific.]—Ger. Erb-
By definition 1., the experimenter ex- koordination.
tinguishes a response; by definition 2., flight, see behavior/flight.
the response extinguishes.] frustration = (emp) the operation of
preventing an animal from making
fatigue = (lab slang) a pejorative syn- some response. This may be done in
onym for habituation, used preferen- any of three ways: (a) by withholding
tially when a lot of work (physical) is the stimulus for the response, when the
involved in the response considered. stimulus ordinarily appears as the con-
[Fatigue is a homely word, full of con- sequence of a previous response [as
notations and implications from ordi- when one fails to reinforce a response
nary conversation as well as from already conditioned, or when a restrain-
physiological referents. It would be ing test tube prevents a female from
very nice if it turned out that fatigue following a male stickleback that is
reduced to the fatigue observable in courting her, hence frustrating the
a muscle or nerve-muscle preparation. male]; or (b) by mechanically pre-
If the evidence points to anything, it venting the response from occurring
points to the desirability of limiting [as when one places a glass barrier be-
fatigue to the effect observed in muscle tween an animal and the object toward
16 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
which it is moving, or when one rigidly which has followed instances of it in
fixes the bar of a Skinner-box, or when the past. [In most cases, the response
one ties down the wings of a bird; in is stronger closer to the reinforcing
the example of (a), it is the female stimulus.] =2. (th, bt) a theoretically
stickleback which is frustrated in this postulated relationship between the re-
sense]; or (c) by placing the animal inforcing effect on a particular response
in a conflict situation. [These three of a particular reinforcing stimulus, and
operations do not always have the same the distance in time between the occur-
consequences, and a new term seems rence of the response and the occur-
to be urgently needed for at least two rence of the stimulus.
of them.] goal response, see response/goal.
gradient of approach, see approach/
generalization, see stimulus generaliza- gradient of.
tion and response equivalence. gradient of avoidance, see avoidance/
Gestalt = (emp, eth) when it is shown gradient of.
that a particular response or set of re-
sponses is under the control of a com- habit-strength = (th, bt) Hull's 8Hr. A
plex set of stimuli that has not yet been hypothetical or inferred "historical"
experimentally defined, then the com- variable considered to determine the ex-
plex set of stimuli is often termed a tent to which a conditioned stimulus or
Gestalt or configuration (26). [The set of stimuli tends to evoke a given
term is contrasted with sign stimulus response. [A function of the number of
where it is relatively easy to specify a reinforcements, of the quantity of the
narrow stimulus class controlling the be- reinforcing stimulus, and of time vari-
havior. Unfortunately, others use the ables. For a full development, see Hull
term in a precisely opposite sense and (16).]
refer to a sign stimulus as a Gestalt habituation = 1. (emp) the decrement
(29). Both usages are misleading. in response-strength which occurs with
Both might equally properly—and im- the repeated elicitation of that response
properly—be termed Gestalten, for such in massed practice. [In reflex habitua-
is the vagueness of referent of this tion, recovery after a time interval may
word. Neither usage corresponds to be complete, although on subsequent
that followed by the Gestalt psycholo- occasions habituation may occur more
gists, which is a theoretical concept rapidly. Operationally, there is no dis-
that, as it has been defined and used, tinction between habituation and ex-
cannot be introduced into the language tinction, except in terms of the history
of objective studies of behavior.] of the response prior to the procedure
goal = (con) a lay term often applied of repeated elicitation. Responses that
to reinforcing stimuli, to the responses are extinguished have previously under-
given to reinforcing stimuli, to con- gone a systematic experimental pro-
summatory acts, or to the stimuli for cedure of reinforcement before repeated
or releasers of consummatory acts. elicitation or emission without rein-
[When one uses the word goal, one is forcement begins. The antecedent his-
speaking loosely, as the fact that it has tory of responses that are habituated
at least four referents suggests.] out shows no such experimental rein-
goal-gradient = 1. (emp, bt) the func- forcement. As data accumulate, it may
tional relationship between the strength become advisable to distinguish between
of a response and its distance in space several kinds of response decrements
or time from the reinforcing stimulus that are all functions of repeated elicita-
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 17
tion, but differ with respect to stimu- that it purports to describe the rules or
lus-control and rate of recovery. See, principles followed by the experimenter
for example, definition 2.] = 2. (emp, in reinforcing the subject. [If it in-
eth) response decrement that is a func- deed does describe these rules, it will
tion of the number of elicitations, that be regularly reinforced on each occa-
is specific to the response (and inde- sion that the behavior it controls oc-
pendent of the stimuli eliciting it), and curs, without regard to the particular
from which recovery is slow or absent. discriminative stimuli present on that
[Hinde (12, 13, 14).] occasion. If, however, the experimenter
hierarchy = (th, eth, bt) a series di- is interested in human hypothesizing,
vided or classified in ranks or orders. he may independently reinforce the hy-
[This term is used by psychologists and potheses and the behaviors they direct.
ethologists to describe certain conspicu- A discriminated hypothesis is often
ous properties of behavior. "Habit- termed "conditional."] =4. (th, bt)
family hierarchy" and "hierarchical or- an hypothesis (3.) that is inferred to
ganization of centers" both refer to occur covertly, when subjects are be-
such organizations of hypothetical en- having in discrimination situations as
tities or constructs postulated to ac- they do when such hypotheses do in fact
count for certain temporal sequences occur. [A very dangerous inference;
and dependent probabilities evident in cf. hypothesis (1.).]
behavior. The term is also applied
empirically to behavior, where it has imitation, see behavior/imitative and
reference to certain statistical sequen- behavior/mimetic.
tial dependencies that can be found in
imprinting = 1. (emp, eth) the opera-
the order in which a number of re-
sponses occur, and theoretically to sets tion of visually presenting to an in-
of causal variables inferred from the dividual large (and usually noisy) mov-
statistical organization of behavior.] ing objects (exclusive of members of
hypothesis = 1. (emp, bt) a term applied its own species) during the first hours
to repeated occurrences of the same re- of its life. Imprinting is said to have
sponse or response-pattern during the occurred if, and only if, the individual
acquisition of a discrimination in the subsequently exhibits toward the large
two-choice discrimination experiment moving object (and objects like it) the
(see Lashley jumping-stand) when a behavior ordinarily exhibited only to-
large proportion of the responses are ward members of its own species. [By
errors. [Alternation and position hab- extension, theoretically, the term is then
its are hypotheses.] =2. (?, bt) a applied to such behavior shown with
class of expectancies postulated by cog- respect to its own species. The experi-
nitive theories to account for hypothe- mental data at hand do not yield a
sis (1.) [According to continuity more adequate empirical definition.]
theory, hypotheses are the effect of the = 2. (th, eth) a process hypothesized
summed differential reinforcements of to account for imprinting (1.) in terms
response to various aspects of the dis- of perceptual theory. = 3. (con) any
criminative stimuli.] = 3. (emp, bt) learning that strikes someone as 'like'
one class of statements emitted by hu- imprinting (1.).
mans when they are undergoing dis- inborn, see behavior/innate.
crimination or concept formation train- inertia = (emp, eth) continuation of a
ing. An hypothesis may be distin- response after the stimuli for it are
guished from other such statements in withdrawn. [Cf. after-discharge.]
18 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
inhibition = 1. (th, bt) a hypothetical the same time that further Ir is pro-
state of the animal sometimes used to duced by the repeated elicitation of the
account for decrements in response response. Ir and slr summate to render
magnitude, or habit-strength, or both. ineffective 8Hr or 8Ur for the elicitation
[It is a negative variable presumed to of the response.]
operate by canceling out an excitation innate = (emp, genetics) a term applied
of some sort.] = 2. (th, physiol) a to differences in genetic character be-
cortical process opposite to excitation tween two members of the same species
and postulated as having the property that have been raised in the same en-
of suppressing excitation and, hence, of vironment. [It is now generally ac-
suppressing the behavior dependent on knowledged that the term innate, a
that excitation (20). [Its behavioral technical one in genetics, cannot prop-
correlate in the extreme case is inac- erly be applied to behavior as syn-
tivity and eventually sleep.] =3. (th, onymous with unlearned or inborn, and
eth) a block. its use in this sense may be expected
inhibition/external = (emp, eth) the to become less frequent. Where it has
term applied to the fact that, in the appeared in the past, innate behavior
course of the acquisition of a condi- should now be read as unlearned be-
tioned response, if an extraneous stimu- havior or as species-specific behavior.
lus is presented with the conditioned The restricted use of the term innate
stimulus, a CR of smaller magnitude has recently been adopted as necessary
than that predicted from previous, trials by prominent ethologists. Its new
may be produced. place in the technical vocabulary of
inhibition/reactive = (th, bt) Hull's Ir ethology and of behavior theory, and
(16). A hypothetical state variable the use of species-specific and unlearned
which, together with conditioned re- instead, will probably have fruitful con-
active inhibition, accounts for response sequences, since the connotations of
decrement in both learned and unlearned innate for ethologists and psychologists
behavior (i.e., for both extinction and have been different indeed and have led
habituation). [It is a function of the to many confusions that may now be
work involved in a response, of the avoided. (E.g., one of two human
number of times the response is elicited, beings has blue eyes, the other has
and of time since the occurrence of the brown eyes. Blue eyes are not innate.
last response. It applies particularly Brown eyes are not innate. But the
to the case of short-term reversible difference in eye color between the two
decrements.] inhibition/conditioned persons is innate. Clearly, by this defi-
reactive = (th, bt) Hull's slr (16). nition, which is that of the geneticists,
A hypothetical state variable which, it is not permissible to speak of a re-
together with reactive inhibition, ac- sponse, or set of responses, as innate.)]
counts for response decrement. [It is innate releasing mechanism (IRM), see
a function of Ir and of some of the vari- releasing mechanism/innate.
ables that control habit-strength, and is insight = 1. (emp, lab slang) a gross dif-
used to account for long-term, rela- ference in behavior between two suc-
tively irreversible decrements. When a cessive occasions on which behavior
response is extinguished, I r increases can occur, when the behavior shown
and becomes conditioned to the stimuli on the second occasion is close to what
present. On subsequent occasions, the experimenter has previously de-
when the stimuli are again presented cided upon as a "good" or "efficient"
to the animal, the stimuli elicit slr at solution. =2. (con) an event hy-
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 19
pothesized to account for insightful tenance of the individual and the spe-
learning. [It may be further defined cies" (29).
as "reorganization of the perceptual instinctive movement, see fixed action
field" or the "apprehension of rela- pattern.
tions," for which the writer cannot find intention movement = (emp, eth) if an
any elucidating elucidations.] instance of a response that is a mem-
insightful learning, see learning/in- ber of a behavior chain occurs usually,
sightful. but not necessarily, in association with
instinct = 1. (emp) a class of sets of re- instances of other members of the same
sponses shown by most members of a chain, it is termed an intention move-
species. Many of the responses can be ment with respect to later members of
demonstrated as dependent on highly the chain. [Used most often when the
specific stimuli in the environment. chain is not necessarily carried through
Such a class is empirically demon- to completion immediately. Intention
strated by showing that certain re- movements are usually of low intensity.
sponses are statistically organized (i.e., See response/intensity of. The ex-
associated together in time) under spe- perienced observer can predict accu-
cified environmental conditions and fol- rately from the occurrence of intention
lowing a single set of drive operations, movements that the chain will be car-
when there have been experimental ried to completion after a delay or that
manipulations calculated to prevent it will begin anew. For example, mem-
learning. =2. (emp, eth) same as in- bers of a species of bird will give an
stinct (1.) but without any qualifica- ordered series of responses before be-
tion with respect to experimental ma- coming airborne. From these re-
nipulations calculated to prevent learn- sponses, termed intention movements of
ing. [Such a definition has recently flight, the observer can predict, other
been proposed by Tinbergen (30). It things being equal, that the bird will
is based on the increasing emphasis on take off in the very near future. The
the logical (and experimental) im- responses can be identified on occasions
possibility of distinguishing in a mean- when they are not followed by flight in
ingful way between "learned" and "un- young birds that have never flown or
learned" behavior, and recognizes that in birds that are presented with weakly
this distinction, even if it could be made aversive stimulation while they are
easily, would not necessarily be a use- feeding. Cf. vicarious trial and error
ful one. Theoretically, this concept of and conflict.]
instinct may readily be related to the interference = (th, bt) a process often
biological concepts of function and assumed by contiguity theorists (see
adaptation as they appear in general theory/contiguity) to underlie experi-
evolutionary theory.] = 3. (th, eth mental extinction, involving a decre-
[obsolete]) a hypothetical system of ment in response-strength as a result
hierarchically organized centers postu- of the occurrence and conditioning of
lated to account for observable instances competing responses. [This view im-
of instinct (1.). "A hierarchically plies that habituation and extinction are
organized nervous mechanism which produced by the same variables that
is susceptible to certain priming, releas- produced acquisition of the response
ing and directing impulses of internal as that is undergoing decrement. This
well as of external origin, and which re- process is a basic postulate of con-
sponds to these impulses by coordinated tiguity theory. See also conditioning/
movements that contribute to the main- counter-.]
20 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
Lashley jumping-stand = a small raised observed to change.] = 2. (con, bt)
platform from which the animal can re- a generic term for conditioning. = 3.
move itself only by falling to the floor, (th) those behavioral processes de-
or into a safety net, or by jumping to termining how the genotype is ex-
an easily movable door a few inches pressed in the phenotype. ["The char-
away. One, two, or more such doors acters of the phenotype are in part
may be available. The door or doors determined by the environmental condi-
may have affixed to them discriminative tions it meets during its life, not only by
stimuli. Jumping at the "correct" door accidents that happen to it but also in
is reinforced by food or water, to which many animals by the nature of the en-
the animal gains access only by jump- vironment in which it is living" (3).]
ing at and through the door. learning/insightful = (th, bt) a proc-
learn = (emp, bt) to exhibit a change in ess hypothesized specifically to account
behavior between two successive ex- for the results of experiments in which
posures to the same environment that relatively great and not easily reversi-
cannot be attributed to manipulation of ble changes in behavior appear between
drive operations, alterations in the en- two successive occasions on which the
vironment, sensory adaptation, disease, behavior can occur. [See insight
surgical interference, physical trauma, (1.).]
or growth—although the propriety of learning/latent = 1. (emp, bt) under
these exclusions may be questioned. some conditions, without either ostensi-
[When we say that an animal learns, ble presentation of a reinforcing stimu-
we are stating at the least that, other lus or the occurrence of the response
things being equal, some behavior now whose strength is altered, changes in
occurs in a situation in which it had the magnitude or relative frequency of
not occurred previously, or that the be- a response may be observed. If such
havior now occurring in a given situa- changes can be observed, they are
tion is different from the behavior that termed latent learning. —2. (th, bt)
occurred on the last occasion the ani- acquisition in the absence of ostensible
mal was in that situation. The be- reinforcement. =3. (th) a process
havior need not change, nor the situa- hypothesized to account for the em-
tion, but the relation between them has pirical observation above.
changed. For an extremely stimulat- learning/perceptual = (con) those cases
ing, logical treatment of the possibili- of acquisition that are interpreted in
ties, see Haldane (8). See also learn- terms of changes in the perception
ing.] (2.) or discriminations of the subject.
learning = 1. (con, bt) a. process (2.) or learning/place = (emp, bt) an animal is
family of processes inferred from the repeatedly introduced in the same man-
observation that animals learn. [The ner and at the same place into an en-
term is a very broad one indeed, so vironment in which it can move to-
broad that many ethologists as well as wards, and so present to itself, a rein-
behavior theorists question its useful- forcing stimulus that is in a fixed
ness, except as a label for a broad class geographical position with respect to
of problems. Learning is not and can- the whole environment. If on a critical
not be an explanatory concept. Learn- trial the animal is introduced into the
ing never explains anything, except in environment at a different place, and it
that, by definition, it suggests that cer- then moves towards the reinforcing
tain variables are not operative in a stimulus directly (and hence shows a
given situation in which behavior is series of responses topographically dif-
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 21
ferent from those that have been rein- not been established. [Hence when
forced on the preceding trials), place much irrelevant behavior ("errors")
learning is said to have occurred. [Note can and does occur and recur. In con-
that the fixed geographical position of ditioning by approximation, where the
the reinforcing stimulus determines a delivery of reinforcing stimuli is under
set of discriminative stimuli, movement precise experimental control, very few
towards which (however done) is re- errors have an opportunity to occur,
inforced. Hence, place learning seems and the "selection out" of the correct
to be a special case of response equiva- response is achieved by the experi-
lence. According to cognitive theory, menter. It is interesting to contrast
the animal has learned "where."] trial-and-error learning of bar-pressing
learning/response = 1. (emp, bt) if, in by the rat in the Skinner-box with
the situation described under place approximation conditioning. In both
learning, an animal is shown on the cases, food is the reinforcing stimulus.
critical trial to make responses of the In the former, there are long and vari-
same topography (i.e., the same move- able delays between the first occurrence
ments) that he had made during train- of bar-pressing and the eating of the
ing, irrespective of his location with food. During these delays, much other
reference to that of the reinforcing behavior occurs, a great deal of which
stimulus, it is said that response learn- will be reinforced and therefore will
ing has occurred. [Ant. place learn- become conditioned. These responses
ing.] = 2. (th, bt) the doctrine that have been termed superstitions. They
an animal acquires in learning, not dis- must extinguish before the probability
positions to move to or towards par- of bar-pressing becomes very high since
ticular stimulus complexes, but dis- they compete with it. Hence, the course
positions to make particular movements of learning is slow and characterized
in the presence of particular stimuli. by the appearance of many irrelevant
learning/serial = (emp, bt*) when rein- responses (errors). In approximation
forcement is made contingent upon the conditioning, the animal is first trained
occurrence in ordered series of a num- to respond to the sound of the food
ber of different responses, then, as the magazine by diving towards it and
number of reinforcements increases, eating, irrespective of his position at
a progressively stereotyped behavior the time the sound occurs. He will
chain may be observed. The acquisi- then repeat almost immediately what-
tion of such behavior chains, measured ever response is followed by the sound.
with reference to the number of errors In the first case, the process may re-
in the time required for the chain to quire several hours in the experimental
run off, is termed serial learning. [E.g., situation. In the second, it takes only
maze-running, much nonsense-syllable a few (5-10) minutes. In trial-and-
learning, and such demonstration per- error learning, much appetitive be-
formances as a rat pulling a string that havior is observed, and operants occur
delivers a marble which the rat then freely. The correct response—that is,
picks up and carries to a hole into the response upon which reinforcement
which it drops it so that water is auto- (reward) is contingent—decreases in
matically delivered.] latency and increases in relative fre-
learning/trial-and-error = (emp, bt) quency only slowly; if it increased
operant conditioning as it is observed rapidly, the older terminology would
to occur under conditions where rela- apply the word insight.]
tively precise experimental controls have Leerlaufreaktion, see vacuum activity.
22 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
mimesis, see behavior/mimetic. nervous system/conceptual = (con, bt~)
mood = (th, eth) a specific internal state a hypothetical set of logical ( ? ) struc-
of readiness to discharge a certain com- tures that is often confused with the
plex of behavior patterns. [Cf. the old nervous system. [The "anatomy" and
psychological concept of set. This con- "physiology" of the conceptual nervous
cept is related to Tinbergen's drive or system are whatever theorists may
motivation (29). It seems to be drop- choose to postulate to account for ob-
ping out of use.] served behavior. To be sharply dis-
motivation = 1. (con, bt) a rough gen- tinguished from the nervous system,
eric term for the broadest possible class whose anatomy and physiology are what
of nonstimulus variables controlling be- neuroanatomists and neurophysiologists
havior. [The most important of these observe when they study it directly.]
relate to drive (1.), but the term
motivation also refers to preferences, operant = 1. (emp, bt} an adjective spec-
values, appetites, set, Aufgabe, and so ifying a response or behavior which is
on and on. The term usually indicates identified by its consequences (as, for
that the controlling variables of a set example, by its producing a specific re-
of behaviors are unknown. Its wide inforcing stimulus under a given set of
use as an explanatory concept suggests conditions) and for which eliciting
that, for some, ignorance is a virtue— stimuli have not necessarily been de-
it is admission of ignorance that is the termined (and which is therefore un-
virtue,] = 2. (th, eth) a concept very predictable with respect to its appear-
similar to Hull's momentary effective ance in the presence of a set of stimuli
excitatory potential, stripped of its pre- until it has been brought under the con-
cise quantitative statement. [That is, trol of discriminative stimuli by rein-
motivation is a hypothetical concep- forcement in their presence). [Cf.
tualization of the joint action of all the vacuum activity. Some operant re-
determiners of behavior, including ex- sponses are defined with respect not
ternal and hypothetical internal stimuli, only to their effect on the environment
as they converge to determine the but also to their topography. See
magnitude or intensity of a response. operant conditioning. The "spon-
Sometimes this concept incorporates taneity" implicit in this definition has
statements about nerve impulses.] led many psychologists to reject the
movement/instinctive, see fixed action term. Others, also uneasy, satisfy
pattern. themselves by saying something like
multiple schedule, see reinforcement/ this: "Well, there are stimuli, but we
schedules of. just don't know what they are." Most
multiple T-maze, see T-maze/multiple. appetitive behavior is operant behavior.
Vacuum activities provide another clear
need = (con) a state of affairs of the family of probable examples of operant
animal, considered as an individual or behavior, although these responses also
as one member of its species, such that occur upon elicitation. Whether neces-
its continuance in time will lead to the sary for sound theory or not, the dis-
animal's death or to the disappearance tinction between operant and respond-
of the species (as by failure to re- ent behavior is operationally sound and
produce). A state of physiological convenient for referring to behavior
disequilibrium and of departure from observed when there usually is no ex-
homeostatic balance. plicit operation of presenting a stimu-
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 23

lus, as in the Skinner-box.] = 2. (emp, perception = 1. (emp, bt) a generic term

bt) an operant response. for the complex sensory control of be-
operant behavior, see behavior/oper- havior as it is inferred from that be-
ant. havior. = 2. (con) a hypothetical in-
operant conditioning, see conditioning/ ternal event of unspecified nature con-
operant. trolled largely by external stimulation
operant level = 1. (emp, bt) the rate of (but sometimes also by state variables
occurrence of an operant response be- such as habit and drive). [Such events
fore the response has been experimen- are often treated as though they were
tally reinforced. [If a rat is placed in the true controllers of behavior.]
a Skinner-box, it will press the bar perceptual learning, see learning/per-
some 10 to 12 times in an hour, al- ceptual.
though it has not been, and is not being, performance = (emp, bt) measures of
reinforced for this behavior. This rate observed behavior.
may remain stable hour after hour. practice = (emp, bt) the observed oc-
After conditioning, the rate may reach currence of a specified part of behavior
1,000 responses an hour. One inter- one or more times. The greater the
esting quantitative property of a re- number of occurrences, the greater the
sponse is its operant level. For the amount of practice. [Use of the term
rat, that of bar-pressing is quite high; practice often implies that response dif-
that, say, of pulling a string is quite ferentiation is taking place with suc-
low. But both are equally easy to con- cessive occurrences of the response.
dition.] = 2. (emp, bt) the terminal The only responses that can be called
rate of occurrence of an operant re- unpracticed are those of which it can
sponse that has first been conditioned be asserted that they have not previ-
and then been extinguished. [Some ously occurred.]
behaviorists identify these two con- practice/massed = (emp, bt) a term ap-
cepts as equivalent, that is, they accept plied to the experimental procedures
the view that operant level (1.) will followed when the time interval be-
be quantitatively equal to operant level tween successive trials is small with
(2.). The evidence is not, however, respect to the duration of the trial.
complete.] practice/spaced = (emp, bt) a term ap-
operant response, see operant. plied to the experimental procedures
operationism = the general point of view followed when the time interval between
toward the data and concepts of natu- successive trials is large with respect
ral science which holds that the con- to the duration of the trial.
cepts of a science are defined by the potential/specific-action = 1. (th, eth)
experimental operations involved in in- a synonym for action-specific energy
vestigation and measurement. [Analy- apparently chosen to eliminate the con-
sis of the experimental operations in- notations of "energy." = 2. (th, eth)
volved in the elucidation of one or more potentiality or readiness of the whole
concepts (e.g., space, time, response, animal for response to a given stimulus
conditioning) may reveal either.that (12,27). =3.(th,eth) 9Er, not quan-
the concept first held must be rejected titatively defined.
since it involves several operations preconditioning, see conditioning/sen-
which do not yield equivalent results, sory pre-.
or that of two or more concepts all but process = 1. (emp) changes in response-
one may be unnecessary since the same strength that are a function of experi-
set of operations defines them all.] mental manipulation. [Usually quali-
24 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
fied by the name of the operation, e.g., quired correlations. Syn. S-R correla-
extinction process.] = 2. (th) a term tion.] = 2. (emp, bt) an S-R correla-
applied to hypothetical and unspecified tion which is observable in all mem-
sets of events occurring with the pas- bers of a species under a given set
sage of time that are inferred from data of conditions in which there have
showing differences in the magnitude of been experimental manipulations cal-
one or more dependent variables that culated to prevent learning. [The
are functions of time or functions of term is not limited to the reflexes
some variable that is in turn a function of physiology, although, again, it in-
of time (e.g., the number of trials). cludes them. This is often confused
= 3. a progressive series of changes. with the reflex-arc, which is a physio-
pseudoconditioning, see conditioning/ logical theory accounting very elegantly
pseudo-. for certain simple reflexes.] = 3. (th,
punishment = (emp, bt) the procedure eth) same as reflex (2.), with the
of following the occurrence of a condi- further qualifications that (a) changes
tioned response with an aversive stimu- in strength are negligible with respect
lus. [Punishment is not necessarily to drive-inducing operations and (b) a
effective, but when it is, measures of specific physiological theory of their
response-magnitude decrease, as do occurrence is well-established. [It is
rates of response.] this kind of reflex that ethologists in-
purposive, see behavior/purposive. sist is not important in unlearned be-
havior.]
reaction, Syn. response. reflex reserve = (th, bt) an obsolete
reaction/delayed = (emp, bt) one of construct, found inadequate experi-
several experiments whose results have mentally in the early 40's by Skinner,
led to the concept of symbolic behavior who introduced it (22). [A reservoir
(2.). notion designed to handle the relation-
recovery/spontaneous, see spontaneous ship between input of reinforced re-
recovery. sponses and output of unreinforced re-
redirection activity = (th, eth) any re- sponses. This relationship was later
sponse elicited by a stimulus and, ordi- found to be highly dependent upon a
narily, topographically directed toward number of experimental variables and
that stimulus, which, in the presence of therefore not suitable for a relationship
a drive-conflict, is topographically di- to a postulated reserve. This concept
rected at a part of the environment that is remarkably equivalent to Lorenz'
otherwise would show no control over hydraulic model for innate behavior
it. [Cf. "displacement" in Freudian (26), although it was designed pri-
theory. E.g., under the combined ac- marily to account for acquired behavior
tion of attack, escape, and sex drives, as well as unlearned behavior.]
the male black-headed gull will threaten reflex response, see response/reflex.
his mate when she arrives in the terri- reflex sensitization = (emp, bt) if, after
tory and then attack other (previously repeated elicitation by its stimulus, a
ignored) birds in the vicinity. See Ba- reflex response is then given in response
stock et al. (1) ; also Miller (17).] to a previously neutral or much less ef-
reflex = 1. (emp, bt [obsolete]) any S-R fective stimulus with which the reflex
correlation, whatever its history or prob- stimulus has not been paired, reflex
ability of occurrence. [By no means sensitization is said to have occurred.
limited to the "reflexes" of physiology, regression = 1. (emp, bt) a term applied
although it includes them as it does ac- to the observation that, during experi-
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 25
mental extinction, the subject fre- of saying: "Although through 30 trials
quently makes responses which had I gave food to the animal each time it
been conditioned and extinguished prior turned to the right (and food is usually
to the conditioning of the response a reinforcing stimulus), no change in
being extinguished. = 2. (emp, bt) a behavior appeared. Hence, food is not
term applied to the observation that, a reinforcing stimulus under these con-
after punishment, the subject frequently ditions to this animal."] = 3. (th, bt)
makes responses which had been condi- the reduction of a specific drive which,
tioned prior to the conditioning of the in Hull's theory, is a condition neces-
response that was punished. sary for learning. [Thus, if learning
reinforcement = 1. (emp, bt) the opera- occurs, reinforcement has occurred and
tion of presenting to the animal in oper- a drive has been reduced. In much
ant conditioning, after it has made a drive-reduction theory, this holds even
response (and therefore contingent on in the absence of drive-defining opera-
its occurrence), a reinforcing stimulus tions or other symptomatic behavior
or of withdrawing a negative reinforc- changes.] =4. (th, bt) a term applied
ing stimulus. = 2. (emp, bt) in classi- to any unspecified hypothetical change
cal conditioning, the operation of pre- in the state of an animal inferred from
senting, contiguously in time, a condi- change in the animal's behavior. ["The
tioned stimulus and an unconditioned animal started nodding his head when
stimulus. [Reinforcement (1.) and the click came. Therefore, reinforce-
(2.) are parallel and might be consid- ment must have occurred." Reinforce-
ered the specification of equivalent ment should not be used in this sense,
operations. They are not parallel to although, unfortunately, it often is. By
(3.) and (4.). Reinforcement (1.) this usage, any condition that is known
can only be applied to occasions when to increase response-strength is a rein-
reinforcing stimuli are presented to the forcing stimulus.]
animal, and stimuli can only be classi- reinforcement/aperiodic, see reinforce-
fied as reinforcing after it has been ment/schedules of.
demonstrated that their use produces reinforcement/continuous, see rein-
modifications in behavior under the forcement/schedules of.
stated conditions. Food, for example, reinforcement/differential = 1. (emp, bt)
is not a reinforcing stimulus for a with reference to a stimulus, the opera-
satiated animal. When a stimulus has tion of reinforcing a response when it
been found to be reinforcing in one has occurred in the presence of one
situation to several individuals, it is stimulus or set of stimuli, and of with-
usually assumed that it will be rein- holding reinforcement when it has oc-
forcing in other situations and to other curred in the presence of another. The
animals. As a result, the term is used procedure followed in discrimination
without rigorous experimental justifica- training. = 2. (emp, bt) of a response,
tion. In the same way, the use of the the operation of making reinforcement
term reinforcement is commonly ex- contingent on the occurrence of a re-
tended to cases when food is given but sponse of predetermined topography.
a change in behavior has not been ob- [The experimental procedure that pro-
served. "After 30 reinforcements, the duces highly stereotyped responses.]
relative frequency of turning to the = 3. (emp, bt) of a rate of response,
right had not changed, nor was any the operation of making reinforcement
other change in behavior apparent," contingent on the occurrence of a re-
may be a careless (but common) way sponse at a predetermined rate.
 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK

reinforcement/fixed-interval, see rein- — 2. (th, bt) reinforcement by reduc-

forcement/schedules of. tion of a primary drive.
reinforcement/fixed-ratio, see rein- reinforcement/random, see reinforce-
forcement/schedules of. ment/schedules of.
reinf orcement/heterogenous = (emp, reinforcement/regular, see reinforce-
bt) if the reinforcing stimulus evokes ment/schedules of.
a response different from the response reinforcement/relevant = (emp, bt) if
that is being reinforced, the operation a reinforcing stimulus is directly re-
of presenting it is termed heterogenous lated to or involved in the drive-reduc-
reinforcement. [This is the case in ing operations antecedent to condition-
operant conditioning.] ing, the operation of presenting it is
reinforcement/homogenous = (emp, bt} termed relevant reinforcement. [If
if the reinforcing stimulus evokes a food is presented to a hungry animal
response identical with or similar to the after the occurrence of the response
response that is reinforced, the opera- being conditioned, the procedure is
tion of presenting it is termed homog- termed relevant reinforcement.]
enous reinforcement. [This is the case reinforcement/schedules of = (emp, bt)
in classical conditioning.] plans or procedures whereby the ex-
reinforcement/irrelevant = (emp, bt) if perimenter determines which ones of
a reinforcing stimulus is not directly a series of responses will be reinforced.
related to or involved in the drive-re- There are many possible schedules,
ducing operations antecedent to rein- which may yield quite different re-
forcement, the operation of presenting sults (24). The most common ones
it is termed irrelevant reinforcement. are: continuous (or regular) rein-
[E.g., if food is taken away from the forcement = the experimental pro-
animal and the response being condi- cedure of reinforcing a response each
tioned is followed by the presentation time it occurs. [Regular reinforcement
of water, irrelevant reinforcement is should have almost no analogue in
being employed. Irrelevant reinforce- the behavior of animals in a free en-
ment is generally not so effective as vironment.] intermittent (or partial)
relevant reinforcement.] reinforcement = any one of several
reinforcement/intermittent, see rein- procedures in accordance with which
forcement/schedules of. a response is reinforced only on some
of its occurrences, f i x e d - i n t e r v a l
reinforcement/partial, see reinforce-
(periodic) reinforcement (FI) = a
ment/schedules of.
schedule of intermittent reinforcement
reinforcement/periodic, see reinforce- in which reinforcements are delivered
ment/schedules of. according to a fixed and regular time
reinforcement/primary = 1. (emp, bt) schedule. [E.g., the first response oc-
the use in reinforcement of a stimulus curring in each 30-sec. interval may be
that is a reinforcing stimulus to any reinforced. In some forms of fixed-
animal of a given species without spe- interval reinforcement, the first re-
cial training. [The complement of the sponse occurring at the end of a pre-
empirically defined secondary rein- determined interval of invariant size
forcement. If the history of the animal after the last reinforced response may
with respect to a reinforcing stimulus be reinforced. When this kind of
is unknown, this irrelevant and theo- schedule is maintained over a long
retically "loaded" term is applied both period, animals of many species form
to the stimulus and to the operation.] temporal discriminations: they will emit
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 27
groups of responses at the appropriate schedule, presented in association with
intervals and fail to respond at other a different discriminative stimulus;
times.] variable-interval (aperiodic this second stimulus is then used for a
or random) reinforcement ( V I ) = a period of time; and so on. [In experi-
schedule of intermittent reinforcement ments where discriminative stimuli are
in which reinforcements are delivered omitted, this schedule is termed mixed.]
according to a predetermined but ir- tandem schedule = a schedule of in-
regular time schedule. [Under this termittent reinforcement in which single
schedule, on the average, reinforcement reinforcements are delivered according
occurs at predetermined temporal in- to two schedules acting in succession.
tervals: the interval between each suc- [E.g., a single reinforcement may be
cessive pair of reinforcements is ran- delivered when five responses have been
domly selected from a population of given (FR-5:1) beginning at the end
intervals of varying sizes whose mean of a 10-min. interval after the last re-
value is predetermined. This schedule inforced response (FI-10 min.).]
produces a low, but very stable, rate of reinforcement/secondary (or condi-
response and very slow extinction.] tioned) = 1. (emp, &*) when a stimu-
fixed-ratio reinforcement (FR) = a lus, initially ineffective, becomes a re-
schedule of intermittent reinforcement inforcing stimulus after being presented
in which every nth instance of the to an animal contiguously in time with
operant response is reinforced. [Pro- a reinforcing stimulus, it is termed a
duces very high rates of response pro- secondary or conditioned reinforcing
vided the ratio is not too large. In the stimulus, and the operation of present-
case of respondents, and of operants ing it is termed secondary reinforce-
whose discriminative stimuli are ex- ment. —2. (th, bt) according to some
perimentally controlled (i.e., instru- versions of Hullian behavior theory, the
mental conditioned responses), these reduction of anxiety that reinforces be-
schedules are equivalent to fixed-inter- havior.
val schedules.] variable-ratio rein- reinforcement/variable-interval, see re-
forcement (VR) = a schedule of in- inforcement/schedules of.
termittent reinforcement in which, on reinforcement/variable-ratio, see rein-
the average, every wth instance of an forcement/schedules of.
operant response is reinforced. [This reinforcer = (lab slang, bt) a reinforc-
schedule yields a very high and stable ing stimulus.
rate of response if the ratio is not too reinforcing stimulus, see stimulus/re-
large. For respondents and discrimi- inforcing.
nated operants, it is equivalent to the releaser = 1. (emp, eth) a synonym for
variable-interval schedule.] multiple sign stimulus. [According to many,
schedule = a schedule of intermittent this usage is incorrect, and only (2.)
reinforcement in which reinforcements should be used.] —2. (emp, eth) a
by the same reinforcing stimulus are sign stimulus produced by the physical
programmed according to two or more structure or behavior of an animal that
schedules in alternation. In multiple releases some particular species-spe-
schedules, one of the component sched- cific response or responses of another
ules is followed through an interval animal. [Releaser might be used by a
during which a discriminative stimu- behavior theorist for a stimulus pre-
lus is presented to the animal. At the sented by one animal that controls a re-
end of this interval, the first schedule sponse or responses of another. Often
is followed directly by a different used with the qualifying adjective "so-
28 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
cial." This concept is important for Similarly, some responses are specifi-
evolutionary theories of behavior.] able in terms of specific movements
releasing mechanism/innate (IRM) = (often termed respondent), and others
(th, eth) a hypothetical physiological in terms of their effect on the environ-
"neurosensory" mechanism invoked to ment (operant). There is no logical
explain the action of sign stimuli. restriction on the duration or com-
["The strict dependence of an innate plexity of the parts of behavior termed
reaction on a certain set of sign stimuli responses; this is determined by the
leads to the conclusion that there must animal's behavior. Similarly, alterna-
[italics added] be a special neurosen- tive analyses may be made, and one re-
sory mechanism that releases the reac- sponse may be part of another, or two
tion and is responsible for its selective response-instances may be members of
susceptibility" (29). Activation of an the same response-class in some con-
IRM removes a block preventing pas- texts but not in others. E.g., writing
sage of impulses from a center at one a particular word may be equivalent to
level of an instinctive hierarchy to a speaking it in some experimental pro-
center at the next lower level.] cedures. It is the animal's whole be-
respondent = 1. (emp, bt) an adjective havior that enables the experimenter
specifying parts of behavior for which to identify responses. It is this con-
eliciting stimuli are identified. [A cept of response, shared by ethologists
respondent response may be elicited and behavior theorists (but seldom
readily by presenting the appropriate stated), that makes this glossary pos-
stimuli. The responses of the physi- sible. Basic to both, the concept es-
ologist's "reflexes" are all respondents, tablishes the subject matters of the
as are the responses often classified as two fields of investigation as one and
"autonomic" and the responses occur- sharply distinguishes both from other
ring in consummatory acts.] = 2. approaches to the investigation of be-
(emp, bt) a respondent response. havior at both the observational and
respondent behavior, see behavior/re- theoretical levels.] = 2. (emp) loosely,
spondent. but very commonly, a response-instance.
respondent response, see response/re- = 3. (emp, th) the muscular contrac-
spondent. tion, glandular secretion, or any other
response = 1. (emp) a class of parts or activity of an organism that results
changes in parts of behavior such that from stimulation (34). ["Any other
its members can be observed to vary activity" makes it difficult to determine
together systematically as a function of how to use the word and whether it is
time or of other environmental vari- an empirical or theoretical term. Some
ables. [Before a particular movement such definition as this leads to the dif-
or other part of behavior can be placed ficulties that some theories of learning
in a particular class (that is, identified encounter in using the concept (5).]
as an instance of a given response), pro- response/amplitude o f = l . (emp, bt)
cedures for the objective identification a. quantitative measure of one dimen-
of instances of the response must be sion of a response. [This measure may
established. In some cases, objective be made of a single response-instance
identification is ensured by recording or averaged over a number of them.
devices (hi), and in others by demon- The dimension selected is, of course,
strating that appropriately trained ob- determined by the topography of the
servers can recognize them without response and is usually the dimension
disagreement when they occur (eth). most closely related to the name of the
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 29

response. For salivary response, the response equivalence, response gen-

number of drops of saliva defines the eralization = 1. (emp, bt) a term ap-
amplitude; and, for the eye-blink, it is plied to the observation that two or
millimeters excursion of the eyelid. more instances of the same response
Several measures of amplitude are may not be alike topographically. [Fol-
possible for any response. Which is lowing the reinforcement of a response-
employed will depend upon experimen- instance of one topography, other re-
tal convenience. Some tentatively em- sponse-instances of different topog-
ployed measures prove to be less sensi- raphy, often with equivalent effects on
tive to experimental variables than the environment, may be given. By the
others.] = 2. (emp, bt) response mag- definition of response, it follows that
nitude. [A confusing usage.] these parts of behavior are instances
response/backward conditioned, see re- of the same response and also that a
sponse/conditioned. response cannot be identified on a
response/conditioned (CR) —{emp, bt) purely a priori basis. It is the kind
a response which appears or is modi- of data one collects that determines
fied as a consequence of conditioning. whether pressing the bar with the nose
Subclasses of the Pavlovian CR in- and pressing the bar with the feet are
clude : backward conditioned response both subclasses of the response bar-
= (emp, bt) the conditioned response pressing. Where two such parts of be-
that is set up by classical conditioning havior do not prove to be equivalent
when the unconditioned stimulus (US) (i.e., subclasses of the same response),
precedes the conditioned stimulus (CS). they may often be made equivalent by
[There is some controversy over the the experimenter. See definition (2.).]
experimental referent for this term.] = 2. (emp, bt) a term applied to the
delayed conditioned response = (emp, observation that when instances of two
bt) the conditioned response that is or more responses have been reinforced
set up by classical conditioning when in the same situation, and after the
the interval between the onset of a same drive operations, they will then
continuing CS and the onset of the US appear interchangeably. [This phe-
is greater than several seconds, simul- nomenon suggests that instances of
taneous conditioned response = (emp, either one may be considered as in-
bt) the conditioned response that is set stances of a broader class of responses
up by classical conditioning when the whose members are not easily identi-
interval between the onset (or termi- fiable a priori or that is formed by the
nation) of the CS and the onset of the operation of reinforcement. Thus, in a
US ranges from zero to several seconds, problem box, a cat may unlatch the
and when CS and US overlap in time. door by pushing with his rump or with
trace conditioned response = (emp, his front paw. So far as the quanti-
bt) the conditioned response that is set tative properties of door unlatching are
up by classical conditioning when an in- concerned, it does not matter much
terval of several seconds intervenes be- which he does; both will be reinforced,
and both will occur. Similarly, a rat
tween the termination of CS and the
may run or swim through a maze.
onset of US. After extensive reinforcement, response
response/consummatory, see consum- equivalence tends to disappear, and the
matory act. response becomes more stereotyped. It
response/delayed conditioned, see re- should be emphasized that the experi-
sponse/conditioned. menter will find that he is not able to
30 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
make any response equivalent to any response-instance = (emp, bt) a single
other. He is limited not only by physi- occurrence of a part of behavior that
cal law but also by the animal's be- is a member of a response. [Thus, if
havior capacity. Response equivalence a hammer strikes the patellar tendon
offers a variety of challenges both to five times, and each time the lower leg
experimenters and theorists.] kicks forward, then each kick is an in-
response/fractional anticipatory (ante- stance of the response "knee-jerk"; or,
dating) goal (rg) = (th, bt) a. hy- if a relay operated by the downward
pothetical response, inferred from the movement of a bar operates five times
laws of classical conditioning, that car- when a rat is in the vicinity of the bar,
ries the burden of explaining the find- each one of the five operations is an
ings of experiments such as those on instance of the response bar-press—
latent learning. [The rg occurs pro- even though on one occasion the ani-
gressively earlier in a response chain mal pushed the bar with the right paw,
during acquisition and provides hy- on another with the left, and on an-
pothetical stimuli that become condi- other with his nose. Any part of be-
tioned to ensuing responses in the chain. havior that is observed once and that
Their definition is such that they might can be specified may prove to be a
be directly observed. See Spence (25). response-instance, but it does not fol-
F.a.g.r. is another abbreviation that low that the observer can state what
also appears; in speech, one hears "little response or responses it is a member
rg)" as well.] of. In fact, he cannot do so by the
response generalization, Syn. response definition of either response or re-
equivalence. sponse-instance until many observa-
response/goal (Ro) = (emp, bt) the re- tions are made.]
sponse given to a reinforcing stimulus response/intensity of = (emp, eth) with
[in Pavlovian as well as in operant or a constant stimulus but under increas-
instrumental conditioning]. ing values of variables involved in
response incompatibility = (emp, bt) drive-establishing operations, or vice
when the occurrence of one response versa, a response may not only increase
makes impossible or highly improbable in magnitude but may alter in topog-
the simultaneous or nearly simultane- raphy as well. Positions along such a
ous occurrence of a second response, graded continuum are referred to as
then the two responses are termed mu- different intensities of response. [For
tually incompatible. [Responses may example, the individual may blink for a
be topographically incompatible (an short time when a moderately intense
animal cannot turn its head to the right light is flashed into his eyes; but when
and to the left at the same time) or they a very intense light is flashed, he will
may simply never occur together; thus give a more intense response: he will
a rat is not observed to exhibit emo- blink, squint, secrete tears, show ac-
tional behavior and to eat at the same commodatory spasm, and avert his
time. In general, the responses to head. With intermediate stimuli, in-
aversive and negative reinforcing stim- termediately intense responses will ap-
uli are incompatible with the responses pear. Other analyses of such graded
to such reinforcing stimuli as food and behavior (in terms of the successive
water. The phenomenon of response passing of the thresholds of several re-
incompatibility plays an important role sponses, and of the magnitude of these
in some contiguity theories of rein- responses) may be made in cases where
forcement.] the term intensity of response has been
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 31
applied, although the latter will often ternative response may be R, i.e., simply
prove more convenient. Thus, "low in- not giving the response.] = 2. (th, bt)
tensity response" may be used where a synonym for strength of condition-
one might also speak of "incomplete" ing, preferentially employed by those
response or of a response that is a sub- who use rates of response as an ex-
class of a more broadly specified re- perimental dependent variable (24).
sponse.] = 3. (th, bt) the dependent variable
response/latency of = (emp, bt) the in modern probability theories of be-
measure of time elapsing between the havior. [It is rigorously related via
onset of a stimulus and the beginning of mathematical theory and coordinating
the response to it. definitions to such experimental re-
response learning, see learning/re- sponse measures as latency, rate, and
sponse. probability of response (2.) (4).]
response/magnitude of = (emp, bt) a response/rate of = (emp, bt) the num-
term applied to any one of several ber of response-instances of a response
descriptive measures of a response-in- occurring in unit time.
stance (amplitude or duration, recipro- response/reflex = (emp, bt) the response
cal latency or velocity), or of a tem- of a reflex (3.). A respondent. [Often
porally restricted set of response-in- termed an unconditioned response when
stances (such as frequency, relative referred to in the context of condition-
frequency, percentage of occurrence), ing.]
or rate of response, which state quan- response/respondent, see respondent.
titatively the likelihood that a response- response/ritualized = 1. (emp, eth) a
instance will occur under stated condi- response that appears in most members
tions during that brief span of time. of a species, that is relatively invariant
[This term may be compared with re- in topography, and that is typically a
sponse-strength. The latter, a syn- social releaser. =2. (th, eth) a re-
onym, is used preferentially when one sponse that appears in the repertoire of
is referring to response magnitude as the members of several different but re-
a function of repeated elicitation or oc- lated species and that usually varies in
currence, with or without reinforce- stereotypy from species to species.
ment.] [Ritualized responses occur in sharply
response/measurement of = (emp, bt) restricted situations. Most ritualized
the assignment of numbers to responses responses are topographically very like
or to response-instances according to some less stereotyped response that oc-
the rules of measurement. Measures curs in rather different situations and
employed include: extinction/resistance following other drive operations. The
to, response/amplitude of, response/ herring gull pulls grass with its bill in
intensity of, response/latency of, re- the course of nest building. Ritualized
sponse/magnitude of, response/prob- grass pulling occurs as a component of
ability of, response/rate of. [See also threat behavior. Theoretically, a ritu-
response-strength and conditioning/ alized response is one that has become
strength of.] specialized in the course of the evolu-
response/operant, see operant. tion of the species as, most often, a so-
response/probability of = 1. (emp, bt) cial releaser. These responses are often
relative frequency of response, deter- associated with a special marking of
mined over a number of trials, in situa- the fur or feathers. E.g., ritualized
tions where any one of several alterna- preening occurs in the courtship of some
tive responses may be given. [The al- species of the Anatidae; when it takes
32 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
place, it reveals a light-colored spot tus) or through an enclosure, leading
not visible otherwise.] from a starting box to a goal box in
response/simultaneous conditioned, see which food or water is placed. The
response/conditioned. animal is restrained in the starting box.
response/species-specific = (emp) a re- At the beginning of a trial, the door of
sponse that is a part of species-specific the starting box is opened, and the ani-
behavior. mal is free to move down the pathway
response-strength = (emp, bt) meas- into the goal box.
ures of response when taken with ref-
erence to the measure of response at schedule/multiple, see reinforcement/
other times or under other conditions. schedules of.
response/superstitious, see superstition. schedule/tandem, see reinforcement/
response (or reaction) threshold = (th, schedules of.
bt) in theories that conceptualize as a schedules of reinforcement, see rein-
state variable all the independent vari- forcement/schedules of.
ables governing response (as Hull's
sensory, see adaptation/sensory and
conceptualization s E r ), the minimal conditioning/sensory pre-.
value of the state variable that will
shaping (of behavior) = (lab slang, bt)
evoke a response.
approximation conditioning.
response/topography of, see topog-
raphy. Skinner-box = a space enclosed by a
response/trace conditioned, see re- floor and walls of one or another ma-
sponse/conditioned. terial through which the animal stud-
response/unconditioned (UR) = (emp, ied cannot escape. It is provided with
bt) a regular and measurable response one or more objects (manipulanda),
elicited by the unconditioned stimulus the movement of which will automat-
in the classical conditioning experi- ically deliver a reinforcing stimulus.
ment. [Usually a reflex response, ex- The manipulandum may be a key (to
cept in higher order conditioning.] be pecked by a pigeon), a bar (to be
reward = (con) a colloquial term for a pressed by a rat), or a string (to be
reinforcing stimulus. pulled by a rat), or a panel (to be
reward/token = ( e m p , bt) experimen- pushed by a dog or monkey). Used in
tally, it is possible to reinforce the be- studies of operant conditioning.
havior of manipulating some object species-specific, see behavior/species-
(as, for example, dropping a poker chip specific and response/species-specific.
or coin in a slot, or rolling a marble spontaneous behavior, see behavior/
into a hole). If it can then be demon- spontaneous.
strated that conditioning occurs when spontaneous recovery = (emp, bt) the
this object is used as a reinforcing term applied to the observation that a
stimulus, the object is termed a token response which has been extinguished,
reward. and then remains neither elicited nor
ritualization = (th, eth) a concept ap- emitted over a period of absence from
pearing in evolutionary theories of the experimental situation, will show
ritualized responses. when next it appears a strength greater
ritualized response, see response/ritu- than that observed at the termination
alized. of the extinction procedure. [A con-
runway = a straight pathway, usually cept often used theoretically to account
without interruption, either along an for regression. A similar phenomenon
elevated rail (Graham-Gagne appara- appears after habituation.]
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 33

statement = (emp, bt) a. stretch of ver- uli). [Stimulus is a difficult term in-
bal behavior bounded by a change of deed. In many psychophysical and
speaker; hence one that is the discrimi- psychophysiological laboratories, the
native stimulus for some behavior of first usage is often heard (although it
the second speaker. [Statements are is perhaps always incorrect). The
"sentences that are regularly directed second appears as an empirical term in
to eliciting attention to continuous dis- physiological studies of sensory dis-
course" (6). Verbal behavior has the crimination and as a theoretical term,
property of presenting stimuli both to as in Hullian theory. The third is that
the behaver himself and to those with explicitly stated by Skinner (22) and
respect to whom he is acting.] corresponds closely to the ethologist's
stereotyping = (emp, bt) a term applied releaser or sign stimulus. The dis-
when members of a set of successive in- tinction between this usage and the
stances of a response do not vary in preceding one is related to the distinc-
their quantitative topographic charac- tion that Skinner draws between stimuli
teristics. [A response that has been that "elicit" and stimuli that "set the
performed with reinforcement many occasion for" response, and that etholo-
times will be stereotyped. A response gists draw between reflex stimulation
that has been carefully differentially re- and the "releasing" action of a sign
inforced will also show stereotyping, stimulus or releaser. It is implicitly
but more quickly. Cf. ritualization.] employed empirically by other Ameri-
stimulus = [Five usages must be dis- can behaviorists. The stimulus for a
tinguished among the writings of vari- response, by this usage, is not neces-
ous students of behavior. Fortunately sarily descriptively simple, or easily
for the intellectual comfort of the reader quantifiable, and can only be deter-
(but for nothing else), in most cases mined by experimental manipulation
the ambiguity of this term does not re- of the environment designed to isolate
veal itself, since most students of be- those parts of it on which a particular
havior have not shown any great in- response is contingent. A response
terest in treating the problem of stimu- may or may not vary in magnitude as
lation in great experimental detail.] a function of the magnitude of the
= 1. (emp) a physical event imping- stimulus (where it can be measured or
ing on the receptors of an animal. = 2. controlled). Sometimes, the stimulus
(emp) a physical event impinging on proves to be complex but invariant, as
the receptors of an animal and capable "a (preferably red) patch at the tip of
of exciting those receptors. = 3. (emp) the lower mandible" for the food beg-
a specified part, or change in a part, ging response of the gull chick (31),
of the environment correlated in an or "a (preferably black) angle" for
orderly manner with the occurrence of certain cases of discriminated pecking
a specified response. [See sign stimu- in the pigeon. At other times, the
lus.] = 4. (th) an event within the stimulus turns out to be both com-
animal hypothesized to account for cer- plex and variable, as those stimuli con-
tain complex behavior. [See move- trolling maze-running in the rat. For
ment-produced stimulus, private an interesting discussion of the con-
stimulus, and drive stimulus.] = 5. cept of stimulus, see Skinner (22).
(lab slang) loosely used as synonymous See also stimulus/discriminative and
with stimulus object (an object which stimulus/sign. In the following series
produces stimuli) and with stimulus of terms, definition (3.) applies to all
event (an event which produces stim- the empirical ones, and definition (4.)
34 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK

to the theoretical ones. It should also (emp, eth) a member of a set of stimuli
be noted that the terms are not mu- the occurrence of which most often
tually exclusive in their application to terminates a given sequence of be-
parts of the environment; thus, a re- haviors, but which does not elicit an
inforcing stimulus may also be a dis- observable consummatory act (18).
criminative stimulus. E.g., the click stimulus/discriminative (SD) = (emp,
of the food magazine is a reinforcing bt) used with reference to operant be-
stimulus for bar-pressing, and a dis- havior. A stimulus which sets the oc-
criminative stimulus for diving to the casion on which a response will be rein-
food-tray, for eating, and, indeed, for forced. If a response is reinforced only
the next bar-press in the series. Note, when a discriminative stimulus is pres-
too, that since a given environmental ent, the animal will eventually make
event is a stimulus of a given class at the response at a higher rate or in
one time for an animal, it is not neces- greater magnitude in the presence of
sarily a stimulus of any class whatever that stimulus than ia its absence. [The
on other occasions.] usage "to set the occasion for" parallels
stimulus/aversive = (emp, bt) a. stimu- the ethologist's "to release" and is based
lus which, if it is applied following the on the same empirical differences from
occurrence of a response, decreases the the "elicitation" by a stimulus of the
strength of that response on later oc- reflex response of a physiologist's re-
currences. [Most aversive stimuli are flex. Discriminative stimuli have most
also negatively reinforcing stimuli. It of the properties of sign stimuli. In
is a live experimental problem to de- neither of these cases is the stimulus
termine whether these are identical physically quantifiable in any simple
classes and hence whether only one manner. It is, of course, possible for
terjn need be employed conceptually. an experimenter to produce an easily
Incidentally, both classes of stimuli also quantifiable discriminative stimulus by
usually elicit the behavioral "symp- differential reinforcement, but this is
toms" of fear as well as of avoidance. rarely done outside of experiments on
The decrease in response-strength that sensory mechanisms. Since quantifica-
is produced by administering aversive tion is usually not readily effected, sim-
stimuli, has been, experimentally demon- ple R = f(S) laws are often not stat-
strated to be transitory; the strength of able, and consequently nonstimulus vari-
conditioning seems not to be affected.] ables (e.g., deprivations or other drive
stimulus/conditioned (CS) = (emp, bt) operations) tend to be emphasized as
in classical conditioning, a stimulus controllers of behavior. This should
which originally does not evoke any re- not be taken to mean that discrimina-
sponse similar to the unconditioned re- tive stimuli or sign stimuli are quite
sponse, but which during conditioning unmanipulatable or that quantitative di-
acquires the property of eliciting this mensions cannot be defined at all. "A
response or a similar one. The origi- (preferably red) patch at the tip of the
nally neutral stimulus. [Properly, this lower mandible" defines the "normal"
should perhaps be "conditional" stimu- stimulus for food begging in the gull
lus, but usage dictates this form,] chick. Black or gray patches at slightly
stimulus/conditioned reinforcing, see different locations also control the re-
stimulus/reinforcing. sponse, its strength being dependent on
stimulus/consumroatory = 1. (emp) the the degree of similarity to the speci-
stimulus for a consummatory act. = 2. fication of the normal sign stimulus.
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 35

Here lies a problem for psychologi- varying topography. As with drive

cal scaling. (Negative discriminative stimuli, empirical definition may even-
stimuli are customarily termed SA.)} tually become possible.]
stimulus/drive (Sd) =; (tfr, bt) a stimu- stimulus/negative reinforcing, see stim-
lus, usually internal, which is hypothe- ulus/reinforcing.
sized to, occur in and to. be uniquely de- stimulus/positive reinforcing, see stim-
termined by a given drive state. [This ulus/reinforcing.
concept allows drives to have the em- stimulus/primary reinforcing, see atim-
pirical properties of stimuli. Theories ulus/reinforeing.
often identify them with specific events stimulus/private = (emp^ th, bt) a part,
within the organism, and so it ia possi- or a. change in a part, of the animal oc-
ble that they may in the future be em- curring within the animal's body sur-
pirically defined.] face, and hence one that is not observa-
stimulus/eliciting = (emp,bt) the stimu- ble (cannot be responded to) by others
lus of a reflex, or the conditioned stimu- except through special instrumentation.
lus of a classical conditioned response. [E.g., increased pressure within an in-
stimulus generalization = (emp, bt) the fected appendix or around an abscessed
behavioral fact that a response condi- tooth root. This concept is employed
tioned to one stimulus, (or set of stim- in the theoretical derivation, of the ver-
uli) will be elicited by or will occur in bal behavior termed "introspective."
the presence of another stimulus (or It is the lack of control over the con-
set of stimuli) which is similar to the ditions of social reinforcement that
conditioned stimulus or discriminative renders, the observer's responses, to pri-
stimulus although there has been no vate stimuli notoriously unreliable and,
specific training to it. Changes in hence, that limits the usefulness of the
strength of response to one will co- introspective method to special cases.]
vary with changes in strength of re- stimulus/proximal = (emp) a stimulus
sponse to the other. [Observed both in (2.) more completely specified in terms
conditioning and in extinction.] of physical events occurring at the re-
stimulvis/aiovernent-produced (mps) = ceptor organ. [One may specify a
(th, bt), hypothetical proprioceptive stimulus (2.) as a circular patch of
stimulus set up by a particular response light, so many millimeters, in, diameter,
of the animal, postulated in association of such and. such a wave length, eight
theory. [Most responses may be postu- inches in front of the organism's nose.
lated to produce such stimuli on the The proximal stimulus here is the reti-
basis of sensory physiology so that nal, image (physically specified;) pro-
statements: about, mps's often reduce to duced in the subject's eye by this stimu-
statements, about responses serving as lus.]
stitnuji for further behavior. Cf. stimu- stimulus/reinforcing = 1. (emp., fr*) in
lus/drive. Probable physiological cor- operaot conditioning, if it can be shown
relates, of these include nerve impulses that the occurrence or termination
in the proprioceptive fibers of the nerv- under specified conditions of an en-
ous system, so that some might; think vironmental event that is contingent
this an, empirical concept. However, upon some response of the animal alters
the operations used in experimentally some measure of that response as de-
manipulating them are restricted to in- termined on later occasions when, in-
creasing the physical work involved in stances of it appear, and if these changes
a response and introducing responses of conform with those defining the em-
36 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
pirical concepts of conditioning, then following the occurrence of a response,
that event is a reinforcing stimulus. its rate or magnitude usually dimin-
[Reinforcing stimuli can all be shown ishes. [See punishment and stimulus/
to elicit stable specific responses in aversive. Negative reinforcing stim-
those situations in which they reinforce uli usually control escape behavior.
a conditioned response. Thus, those Here are a few stimuli that have been
stimuli for consummatory responses found to be negative reinforcing stim-
that have been used in conditioning uli. The list is short, suggesting the
have proven almost without exception relatively small number of experiments
to be positive reinforcing stimuli, and that have been done on this topic: for
those that elicit escape behavior and rats—electrical shocks to the paws,
fear are usually negative reinforcing bright lights; for dogs—electrical
stimuli. Some stimuli are reinforcing shocks to the paws, sudden loud noises,
only when the animal to which they are hammer blows to the body; and for hu-
presented has been previously treated man adults—electrical shocks, "that's
according to certain drive operations: wrong."] stimulus/positive reinforc-
thus, food is not a reinforcing stimulus ing = (emp, bt) a reinforcing stimulus
for the behavior of a satiated animal. that, if applied following a response,
Such qualification of the status of a increases the strength of instances of
particular part of the environment as that response occurring later in time.
a reinforcing stimulus should always [Here are a few stimuli that have been
be inferred when the term is used. Re- found experimentally to be positive re-
inforcing stimuli are identified em- inforcing stimuli for most responses
pirically. General theories of reinforce- under appropriate conditions: for rats
ment attempt to account for their ac- —laboratory chow, water, bread and
tion in terms of properties common to milk, removal from the experimental
them all. Thus, Hull's drive-reduction situation, saccharin solutions, warmth,
theory stresses the view that such rein- dark spaces, and (to the male) females
forcing stimuli act to reduce drives in heat; for fish—meal worms, daphnia,
(either primary or secondary), and roe; for dogs—meat, meat powder, wa-
Guthrian contiguity theory asserts that ter, head-pattings by humans; for hu-
they act by altering considerably the man infants—lights, gongs; for chim-
stimulation impinging on the animal. panzees—peanuts, bananas, and (after
Some take the view that it is the re- appropriate training) poker chips; for
sponse to reinforcing stimuli that is human adults—lights, "points," "knowl-
effective. It should be noted that many edge of results," smiles, agreement, pea-
reinforcing stimuli can be observed to nuts, silver, and gold.] stimulus/pri-
be positive reinforcers for some be- mary reinforcing = 1. (emp, bt) any
haviors and negative reinforcers for stimulus that is effective as a reinforc-
others.] = 2. (emp, bt) in classical ing stimulus for all the known members
conditioning, the unconditioned stimu- of a strain or of a species at the begin-
lus. = 3. (emp, bt) loosely, but almost ning of an experiment. [Hence, any
universally, a positive reinforcing stim- reinforcing stimulus which has not been
ulus, stimulus/negative reinforcing shown experimentally to be a secondary
= (emp, bt) a reinforcing stimulus reinforcing stimulus.] = 2, (th, bt)
that, if it is terminated following a re- any reinforcing stimulus that reduces
sponse, increases the strength of in- a primary drive. [If all rats of a
stances of response occurring later in colony were raised on laboratory chow
time. If such stimuli are administered and had had nothing else to eat, an ex-
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 37

perimenter would find that laboratory stimulus/sign = (emp, eth) & specified
chow is a primary reinforcer when they part, or change in a part, of the en-
are hungry; their behavior could not vironment correlated in an orderly man-
be reinforced by cheese, nor would they ner with the occurrence of a species-
eat it until they had been trained to eat specific response that is not a re-
it. If all rats were raised on labora- flex response. [This term corresponds
tory chow and cheese, then both would closely with stimulus (3.) and almost
prove to be primary reinforcers when exactly with the term discriminative
they were used in an experiment.] stimulus. Stimulus (3.) is the defini-
stimulus/secondary (or conditioned) tion used empirically by behaviorists.
reinforcing = (emp, bt} after a stimu- The difference lies in the class of re-
lus has been presented to an animal in sponse controlled. A sign stimulus can
spatial and temporal contiguity with a be identified only on the basis of ex-
reinforcing stimulus one or more times, perimental work. It usually turns out
if, and only if, it then acts as a rein- to be specifiable in rather complex but
forcing stimulus itself, it is termed a sometimes exact terms, and it is often
secondary reinforcing stimulus. [Pres- not conveniently describable in the lan-
entation of a secondary reinforcing guage of physics and physiology. This
stimulus is termed secondary reinforce- leads to the use of literary terms such
ment. The distinction between primary as "configuration" and then on to the
and secondary reinforcing stimuli is use of Gestalt. Sign stimuli "release"
based upon the experimental history of behavior, just as discriminative stimuli
the animal and nothing else. The con- "set the occasion for" responses. See
notations of the modifiers primary and also stimulus/super-normal sign.]
secondary are unfortunate since they stimulus/super-normal sign= (emp,
imply for many a distinction based on eth) a term applied to certain sign
one theory of reinforcement, the drive- stimuli that have proven amenable to
reduction theory. For this reason, the quantification along some scale. The
term conditioned reinforcing stimulus sign stimulus, as it occurs in the field,
is to be preferred to the more com- falls at some point on this scale. To
monly (and misleadingly) used second- stimuli below this value, strength or
ary reinforcing stimulus, since the ex- intensity of response is less. If re-
perimental operations that render a sponses are given at greater strength
previously neutral stimulus a reinforc- or intensity to stimuli above this value,
ing stimulus are the same as those the stimuli of these magnitudes are re-
which produce classical conditioned re- ferred to as "super-normal stimuli"
sponses.] (that is, they are more effective than
stimulus-response (S-R or SR) corre- "normal" stimuli). [A good example
lation = (emp, bt) an observed rela- is the oversized dummy egg to which
tionship between a stimulus and a re- the oyster-catcher responds with more
sponse, such that a particular response vigorous brooding activity than it does
can be shown to be dependent for its to its own egg. The egg is too
occurrence upon the just previous or large for sitting, but the oyster-catcher
concomitant occurrence of a specific climbs upon it nonetheless, topples off
stimulus or class of stimuli and to vary it, climbs on again, and so on, all the
with variations in the conditions of pres- while ignoring its own much smaller
entation. [Cf. reflex.] egg that lies nearby (29).]
stimulus/secondary reinforcing, see stimulus threshold = (emp) the class of
stimulus/reinforcing. those values of quantified stimuli that
38 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
will elicit some defined constant re- tions or as superstitious responses.
sponse at a fixed strength of less than [They tend to recur through the ani-
maximal value. [E.g., the absolute mal's experimental history and, hence,
terminal threshold of vision is denned render data on the response in which
in terms of the photometric brightness the experimenter is interested relatively
of a stimulus patch of specified char- disorderly.] = 2. (emp, bt, lab slang)
acteristics that will elicit "Yes, I see it" if stimuli that are usually reinforcing
from a subject on 50% of all the occa- (e.g., food) are randomly delivered to
sions on which it is presented. Note a pigeon over a long period of time ir-
that not only the stimulus characteris- respective of his behavior, at the end
tics, but the response characteristics of the period the subject can be ob-
and the magnitude as well, must be served to repeat over and over some re-
specified in defining a threshold.] sponse. Such a response is termed a
stimulus-trace = (th, bt) a hypothetical superstition (23). [It is probably One
after-effect in the conceptual nervous that occurred just before food was pre-
system that persists for a short time sented, that then increased in rate, was
after the termination of a stimulus and reinforced again, and so on. It has
that has the properties of a stimulus in been conditioned despite the fact that
controlling response. [Not to be con- reinforcement was not experimentally
founded with the physiologically ob- contingent on it. This procedure has
servable nerve impulses that may be not been tried on other species.]
recorded from afferent fibers after the superstitious, see superstition.
withdrawal of a stimulus from a recep- suppression/conditioned = {emp, bt)
tor. Stimulus-traces are theoretical, the experimental procedure of present-
and their properties are what they must ing, on a number of occasions for a
be to satisfy the needs of theory and short period of time (e.g., 1-5 min.)
not what the physiologist observes. during the performance of a given pat-
Theorists tend to overlook discrepancies tern of behavior, a neutral stimulus and
and sanguinely look to the day when the of presenting, at its termination, a
discrepancies will disappear so that strongly aversive stimulus, neither being
stimulus-trace conceptions can take on contingent on the animal'9 behavior.
an empirical status. See Hull (16).] Conditioned suppression is said to oc-
stimulus/unconditioned (US) = (emp, cur if, and only if, the response-strength
bt) in classical conditioning, a stimu- is observed to decrease during the pres-
lus which evokes or elicits a regular entation of the initially neutral stimu-
and measurable response (the uncondi- lus.
tioned response). [Usually the stimu-
lus of a reflex.] tandem schedule, see reinforcement/
superstition = 1. (emp, bt, lab slang) schedules of.
unless an experimenter is very careful, taxis = (emp, eth) a term applied to a
during approximation conditioning of broad class of behaviors specifiable in
a rat, or a pigeon, or a human subject, terms of the responses (locomotor and
he may reinforce a response in which orientative) and of the stimuli (most
he is not interested or reinforce too often visual) controlling them. [The
often one of the responses that is in the broad class of taxes is divided into sub-
approximation sequence of responses. classes (e.g., klinotaxis, menotaxis) on
These responses, occurring henceforth the basis of (a) the physiological
at a relatively high rate Or in great mechanisms that have been experimen-
strength, are referred to as supersti- tally demonstrated, or theoretically in-
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 39

ferred, as involved in the behavior, (&) theory/cognitive = a generic term for

the classes of stimuli controlling them, theories of learning that stress latent
or (c) the ontogenetic basis of the cor- learning and place learning experimen-
relation. This heterogenous system of tally, and perception and cognition
classification is of limited descriptive theoretically. In terms of the condi-
usefulness; it includes both empirical tions asserted as necessary and suf-
and theoretical concepts. Perhaps its ficient for learning to occur, it may be
greatest utility is to emphasize certain characterized briefly as sensory-sensory
theoretical problems that, when ap- contiguity, nonreinforcement theory.
proached experimentally, may lead to [Tolmanian theory, S-S theory, and ex-
the elimination of the whole set.] pectancy theory are almost synony-
theory = within the usage of this glos- mous.]
sary, a set of statements about empirical theory/contiguity = a generic term for
concepts, relationships among them, and theories of learning that consider the
hypotheses postulating further relation- occurrence of a response in the pres-
ships among them. Theories often in- ence of a stimulus as the necessary and
clude statements involving the empirical sufficient condition for learning. One-
concepts of universes of discourse other trial conditioning, stimulus populations,
than that in which the theory is de- and extinction via interference and
rived. [For an extensive discussion of habituation are key theoretical tools.
some theories of learning, see Spence Reinforcement serves only to protect
(25).] a response from "unlearning*' and is
theory/behavior = a generic term for the derived from more elementary princi-
empirical and theoretical study of ples. This theory has recently been
behavior in experimental psychology. stated rigorously in terms of mathema-
[The label, despite its wide use, is tical probability theory with good re-
doubly misleading. Most behavior sults (4). In terms of the conditions
theorists study only behavior that is asserted as necessary and sufficient for
clearly learned, and the major part of learning to occur, it may be character-
their effort is experimental not theo- ized briefly as stimulus*response con-
retical. A pejorative synonym is "rat" tiguity, nonreinforcement theory. [As-
psychology, although the rat is by no sociation theory and Guthrian theory
means the only animal studied. Two are almost synonymous.]
general classes of theory are encoun- theory/continuity == the theory of dis-
tered. According to one class (cogni- crimination learning which states that
tive theory), animals learn that stimu- the animal's response is determined by
lus A follows stimulus B or learn where the total number of responses reinforced
stimulus A is in an environment. That in the presence of, or shortly after the
is to say, the animal's changed behavior presence of, the positive discriminative
depends upon its acquiring something stimulus. Implicitly a part of most
that corresponds in some (inexplicit) stimulus-response theories.
way to the physical situation in which theory/drive-reduction as a generic term
it is behaving. According to the other for those theories of learning which as-
class (S-R theory), the animal learns sert that both the occurrence of a rein-
to give response A in the presence of forcing stimulus and contiguity in time
stimulus A. That is to say, the ani- of response with stimulus, taken to-
mal's changed behavior depends upon gether, are necessary and sufficient con-
its acquiring a new S-R correlation. ditions for learning. The reinforcing
Syn. learning theory.] stimulus must further reduce some drive
40 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
or need if learning is to occur. In occur if learning occurs, and that at-
terms of the conditions asserted as tempt to predict specific behavior. [Al-
necessary and sufficient for learning to most synonymous with reinforcement
occur, it may be characterized briefly theory.]
as stimulus-response contiguity, drive- threat, see behavior/threat.
reduction theory. [It is interesting to threshold reaction, see response thresh-
compare drive-reduction with Lorenz' old.
"consumption of specific-action energy." threshold/response, see response thresh-
Hullian theory is often used synony- old.
mously.] threshold/stimulus, see stimulus thresh-
theory/Hullian = a generic term for old.
either (a) drive-reduction theories of thwarting, see frustration.
learning or (6) the whole complex of T-maze = a T-shaped pathway basically
empirical and theoretical statements put similar to a runway. The starting box
forward by Hull and his school, which is at the base of the T, and goal boxes
incorporate many concepts other than are at each end of the cross-piece. On
drive-reduction. a trial, food or water may be placed in
theory/learning, see theory/behavior. either or both goal boxes. Discrimina-
theory/noncontinuity = a theory of dis- tive stimuli are sometimes placed in the
crimination learning according to which arms of the T.
the animal's behavior is not dependent T-maze/multiple = a series of T-shaped
upon the total number of responses re- runways, with a starting box at the
inforced in the presence of, or shortly base of the first T, and a goal box at
after the presence of, the positive dis- the end of one of the arms of the last
criminative stimulus, but upon succes- of the series. The base of each suc-
sively adopted "expectancies." Occurs cessive T opens into the top side of one
in cognitive theory. of the arms of the preceding T.
theory/probability = a generic name for topography (of a response) = (emp, bt)
theories of learning that use as their the full quantitative specification of all
model for behavior the mathematics of the relevant, physically measurable di-
probability. They are typically S-R mensions of a response. [If a response
theories. is stereotyped, the topographies of in-
theory/reinforcement = a generic name stances of it are very similar quantita-
for the work of (largely) S-R theorists tively to one another. This word, bor-
who stress, either experimentally or rowed it seems from geography, is
theoretically, the operation of rein- preferred by many to "pattern of re-
forcement. Besides the Hullians, the sponse," which is sometimes used syn-
Guthrians are also included in this onymously.]
group, as well as the anti-theoretical train = (emp) to subject an animal to
followers of Skinner. All stress rein- experimental procedures such that one
forcement as an experimental tool but or more of its responses become con-
make widely differing theoretical use of ditioned.
it. training/discrimination, see discrimina-
theory/stimulus-response (S-R) = a tion training.
generic name for theories of behavior transfer = (emp, bt) a name for ob-
that phrase all descriptions of behavior servations (over one or more trials)
in terms of stimulus and response, that made on the strength of a set of re-
assume the necessity for a response to sponses initially given to one set of
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOR 41
stimuli, when similar measurements are is to say, the words used in the term
made of the same set of responses in have rather direct theoretical implica-
the presence of other sets of stimuli. tions. See intention movement.]
[Transfer may be positive or negative;
the term insight is often applied to in- unlearned, see behavior/unlearned.
stances of positive transfer. The term
transfer overlaps in its referents with vacuum activity = (emp, eth) the oc-
stimulus generalizations; all cases of currence of a fixed action pattern in the
stimulus generalization are cases of apparent absence of its usual releaser
transfer.] or sign stimulus. [Restated, this is the
trial = (emp, bt) a single, experimen- appearance of a respondent as an oper-
tally manipulated occasion on which an ant. According to theory these events
instance of a specified response is occur when an animal is in a state of
elicited or may occur. [This general high drive.]—Ger. Leerlaufreaktion.
definition is subject to qualification in verbal, see behavior/verbal.
particular cases. Thus, each experi-
menter typically reports his precise warm-up = (emp) over the first few oc-
usage in applying the term. Some ex- casions within a short period of time
perimenters define a trial as the occa- that a specified response occurs, re-
sion when a response could occur, with- sponse-strength may increase relatively
out respect to whether it in fact did; rapidly, independently of reinforcement
others use the term trial only if a contingencies. Such increments in re-
response occurs when the occasion is sponse-strength are termed warm-up.
set; and so on. The former usage is [Occurs in both unlearned and learned
preferred.] behavior.]
trial-and-error learning, see learning/ work-decrement = (emp, bt) decrement
trial-and-error. in response magnitude that is an in-
trial and error/vicarious = (emp, bt) creasing function of the number of oc-
movement of the head of an animal currences of the response and of the
back and forth at the choice point be- parameters of physical work involved
tween one and another of the alterna- in it. [Work decrement is the empiri-
tive pathways of a maze, or between cal basis of such concepts as Hull's re-
one or the other door of a Lashley active inhibition and is similarly as-
jumping-stand. [This is one of those sociated with such intuitive notions as
empirical terms that is "loaded"; that fatigue.]
42 WILLIAM S. VERPLANCK
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